TEODORO A.

AGONCILLO: “History is written by every Additional Insight:

generation. Every generation writes its own history using
the same sources. The interpretations vary according to • History is not only about heroes or leaders.

time” • It includes ordinary people.

• It focuses on social movements and collective action.
Additional Insight: • It sees history as progress toward freedom and human
dignity.
• History is not permanent or fixed. • History belongs to the masses, not just elites.
• The same event can be interpreted differently
depending on the time period.
• New discoveries (documents, artifacts) can change Louis R. Gottschalk (1969) defined historical method
historical interpretations. as the process of critically examining and analyzing the
• The values of society influence how events are records and survivals of the past.
understood.
• History is dynamic. It evolves as society evolves. • Historical method- considered as the agreed
ground rules for researching and writing
GREEKS: history is “learning” ( ἱστορία) academic research or professional history.
Additional Insight: Additional Insight:
• History originally meant asking questions and
• Historians must verify authenticity.
searching for truth.
• They must check if the source is original.
• It was not simply storytelling.
• It required observation and research. • They analyze the purpose and bias of the source.
• This shows that history is connected to critical thinking. • They compare multiple sources to confirm accuracy.
• History is an intellectual activity, not memorization. • History is based on evidence, not opinion.

ARISTOTLE: defined history as a systematic account of

a set of natural phenomena, whether or not a Historian
chronological ordering was a factor in the history.
• Analyzes records of the past
Additional Insight: • Historians are like detectives who gather
information or evidence to put together the story
• History must be organized and logical.
of the past.
• It does not always need strict chronological order.
• What matters is explanation and understanding. • They gather evidence from different sources,
• It separates factual reality from imagination. such as archaeological digs, manuscripts, etc.
• History should explain causes and patterns, not just list
Historiography
events.
• Imaginative reconstruction of the past from the
ROMANS: history is “scientia” (knowledge) non-
data derived
chronological, systematic accounts of natural
phenomena Additional Insight:

• Historiography is the study of how history is written.

• History- referred to the accounts of phenomena
• It examines different interpretations of the same event.
in chronological order
• It shows how perspectives change over time.
Additional Insight: • It reveals bias and historical trends in writing.
• It studies not just the past, but how we understand the
• History teaches moral lessons.
past.
• It helps guide political decisions.
• It was used to strengthen patriotism.
• Roman historians believed history could shape
character. Core Protocols in Handling Sources
• History is practical — it teaches lessons for the future.
1. Base their accounts on source materials
2. Locate and organize the relevant sources on
GERMANS: history is “geschichte,” derived from the
which they will base their report
word, “geschehen,” meaning “to happen
3. Verify sources – to date them, to determine their
Additional Insight: place of origin, and to identify their intended
functions
• History focuses on real events that actually happened.
• It highlights lived human experiences. The methods of historical analysis comprise:
• It emphasizes reality over myth.
• History is grounded in actual events. • the selection of subject;
• the collection of sources;
• History- commonly defined as “the past of • the examination of genuineness; and
mankind” • the extraction from sources (Gottschalk, 1969).
Constantino (2010) defined history as the recorded Sources are:
struggle of people for ever-increasing freedom and
newer and higher realization of the human person. Not • Objects and evidence from the past or testimony
a plain narrative/chronology of events, nor about heroes concerning the past (Howell, 2A001)
and great men, but of people’s efforts to attain a better • Tangible remains of the past (Brundage, 2001)
life • Artifacts
HISTORICAL SOURCES Secondary

Written (primary) • Evidences that come from a later date

• Written after the event
Additional Insight:
Additional Insight:
• Written sources provide detailed information.
• Show the language, beliefs, and mindset of the time. • Interpret and analyze primary sources.
• Reveal political, economic, and social conditions. • Help explain context and significance.
• Written sources can be biased. For example, laws and • Secondary sources reflect the historian’s
royal decrees may favor the rulers, not the people. interpretation. That is why different textbooks may
explain the same event differently.
• Published materials
Examples:
• Manuscripts (handwritten or type-recorded)
• Archives, memoirs, and diaries • Quotes
• Textbooks
Non-Written
• Compilations
Additional Insight: • Scholarly journal articles
• Biographies/Auto-biographies
• Non-written sources are very important when written
records do not exist.
• Criticisms/Analysis on literary works
• They help us understand ancient civilizations. • Commentaries (election, events, people)
• Archaeology plays a big role in studying these sources.
HISTORICAL CRITICISM

• Oral history • Historians are not allowed to imagine things and

• Artifacts, ruins, fossils, artwork, make conclusions based on their imagination,
• Video recordings, audio recordings because history is a discipline based on
evidence.
KINDS OF HISTORICAL SOURCES • Authenticity and Credibility of sources are
Primary essential to a historian

TWO TYPES OF CRITICISM

• Source which come directly from the past
• Gives first-hand information 1. Problem of Authenticity
-Also known as External Criticism
Examples:
2. Problem of Credibility
• Human Fossils/ Artifacts -Also known as Internal Criticism
• Royal Decrees/ Laws
External Criticism- This focuses on the physical and
• Chronicles/journals/diaries material aspects of the source.
• Maps/memoirs
• Personal accounts/newspapers • Problem of authenticity concerns:
• Magazines/legislative journals – Is the artifact fabricated, forged, or faked?
• Court records/letters – Is it a hoax or a misrepresentation?
• Speeches and blogs
• Online database/documentaries • Why do people create fake things/
• Recorded interviews (audio, video, and misrepresentations/ etc. ?
pictures) According to Gottschalk (1969), artifacts are
Primary Sources Repositories fabricated for several reasons:

• Fame
Additional Insight:
• Fortune
• These institutions: preserve original documents. • Power
• Protect national heritage. • Control/influence
• Make research possible for historians and students.
Steps in identifying hoax/testing authenticity:
• National Archives of the Philippines
• National Historical Commission of the 1. Determine the date of the document to see
Philippines whether they are not anachronistic (e.g. pencils
• National Museum of the Philippines did not exist during the 16th century)
• UP Main Library 2. Determining the author (e.g. handwriting,
• ADMU Rizal Library signature, seal)
• DSLU Library 3. Look for anachronistic style (e.g. idiom,
orthography, and punctuation that don’t belong
• UST Library
to that certain period)
• Library of Congress
4. Look for anachronistic reference to events (e.g.
• National Archives and Records
is it too late, too early, or too remote?)
Administration
5. Identifying provenance or custody (e.g.
• Archivo General de Indias
genuineness)
• Archivo General de Nacion
6. Determining semantics (the meaning of the
• American Historical Collection text/word; does this word exist during this time?)
• Lopez Memorial Museum 7. Determining hermeneutics (ambiguities)
• Ayala Museum
Internal Criticism • Continuity and Change (has there been recent
news about this?)
• Problem of credibility concerns:
• Cause and Consequence (what are the reasons
– Is it credible? A source can be authentic but still and motivation for such artifact?)
unreliable. • Historical Perspective (Am I biased? Do I
understand socio-cultural settings?)
• Credibility – Items, artifacts, etc. must be as close to • Ethical Dimensions (Do I learn from it? Why am
the event/time/person being referred I responsible?)
Steps in determining credible SPAIN
1. Identification of the author (e.g. to determine his • First European country to rise as a great
reliability, mental process, personal attitudes) colonizing power in modern times
2. Determination of the approximate date (e.g. as • Especially during 16th century → Spain’s siglo
close to the event as possible) de oro (Golden Century)
3. Ability to tell the truth (e.g. nearness to the event,
competence of witness, degree of attention) Additional Insight:
4. Willingness to say the truth (e.g. determine if the
Spain’s power came from:
author consciously or unconsciously tells • Wealth from silver and gold in the Americas
falsehoods) • Strong Catholic identity after the Reconquista (1492)
5. Corroboration (e.g. historical facts – particulars • Centralized monarchy under Ferdinand and Isabella
which rest upon the independent testimony of Spain used both:
two or more reliable witness). • Military conquest
• Confirming information using multiple • Religious conversion (Catholicism)
independent sources.
• If two or more reliable sources report the HOW POWERFUL WAS SPAIN- Its empire stretched
same fact, it becomes stronger evidence. across multiple continents, making it one of the first
One source alone is weak. truly global empires in modern history.
Multiple independent sources increase
• Africa
credibility.
Additional Insight:
History is not linear.
Spain had territories and influence in parts of Africa.
• Bad historical thinking: History is written by the • Served as trading posts and military bases.
winners? No, history is written by everyone • Helped secure sea routes going to Asia and the
(Losers, Victims, Ordinary people, Later Americas.
generations) • Showed that Spain’s power extended beyond
• There will always be numerous perspectives of Europe.
history. • Spain had strategic control in important coastal
areas.
- “One man’s terrorist is another man’s
freedom fighter.” (Kadri Rightly) • New world (Latin America and Asia)
• However, there are dangers in having too
Additional Insight:
many perspectives:
– Misleading Revisionism After 1492, Spain conquered large parts of Central
• Changing history without strong and South America.
evidence. • Gained gold and silver (especially from mines).
• Established colonies and ruled vast territories.
• Distorting facts for political purposes.
• Spread Catholicism and Spanish culture.
– Confusion
• Wealth from Latin America made Spain one of the
• When opinions are treated as facts. richest and most powerful empires in the 16th
• When emotional arguments replace century.
research.
• This is where science and research come into Additional Insight:
the picture. They test objects, artifacts,
Asia (Philippines)
documents, etc. to verify whether these did exist Spain colonized the Philippines in 1565.
before. • Served as Spain’s base in Asia.
– There is nothing right or wrong in history, • Connected Asia and the Americas through the
but history should, at least, be accurate Galleon Trade.
and must be factual. • Allowed Spain to access Asian goods like spices,
silk, and porcelain.
AMBETH R. OCAMPO: “Who says history is stagnant? • Spain became a global empire with territories in both
For a historian, facts do not change; it is the way we the West and the East.
look at things, our interpretations, that are always
changing. This is what makes history exciting- that we But was Spain initially powerful? No, its Portugal
can always find something new in what is old.”
Before Spain, Portugal was the true pioneer of
EFFECTIVE HISTORICAL THINKING exploration.
• Historical Significance (why is this significant?)
• Primary Source Evidence (where did I get such
information?)
PORTUGAL • Fernão de Magalhães (Portuguese)

Age of Discovery and Exploration: Additional Insight:

• During the 1400s, Portugal, under the leadership • Portuguese explorer who sailed for Spain after King
of King Henry (the navigator) were among the Manuel I of Portugal refused his plan.

first of the European nations to expand its • Goal: reach the Spice Islands by sailing west.
• Approved by King Charles I of Spain (18 years old).
territory beyond the European continent – more
• Magellan’s journey showed that politics, funding, and
specifically, the African continent and even as far national rivalry influenced exploration.
as Asia (Hello India, China, and Japan!). • It also highlights personal determination—he gave up
citizenship for his goal.
Additional Insight:
• Cloves are the most expensive and valued spice
Under Henry the Navigator, Portugal:
in Europe before! Aside from being a
• Improved navigation technology
preservative, the spice is believed to be an
• Developed better ships (caravels)
• Created sea routes around Africa
aphrodisiac (stimulates sexual desires), cures
wounds and fever, and even cures eyesight!
• In fact, Portugal was so good when it comes to • Trade in spices drove exploration and global
maritime navigation that though they were never competition. Control of spices = wealth and
able to really expand “terrestrially,” they were political power in Europe.
considered unparalled when it comes to • When Magellan went to Morocco, he had gotten
navigation, shipbuilding, and maritime trading so wounded from a fight that he became limp for
and of having numerous trade posts during the the rest of his life.
15th century. • Magellan renounced his citizenship because he
got frustrated since the King of Portugal (King
Additional Insight:
Manuel) wouldn’t support him of his voyage to
Portugal focused on: the Spice Islands through going West.
• Focused on maritime routes, not land conquest. • The King of Spain who approved Magellan’s
• Portugal’s early advantage came from technological voyage was King Charles I – the son of King
innovation, like the caravel ship and better maps.
Ferdinand and Queen Isabella who were
• They aimed for wealth through trade, not empire-
building like Spain later did. responsible for Christopher Columbus’
expeditions (1492) to the New World (America).
• During the Age of Exploration, Portugal created • King Charles was still 18 years old when he
colonies and trading posts along the African approved of Magellan’s journey.
coast in Brazil & the Spice Islands in Asia. • The Strait of Magellan was named after
• But then, with the nearing of the end of the 15th Ferdinand because he was able to conquer such
century, Portugal was slowly being outdone by strait. Before, no one would dare cross here
its rival, Spain. because the waves were rough, there were a lot
• Just like Portugal, Spain wanted to expand its of boulders, and it was cold. It is also common to
rule beyond European borders, esp. under the have shipwrecks/ damaged vessels whenever
banner of Catholicism. one passes through those straits, but Magellan
• Eventually, the two empires – who were, at that overcame it!
time, the two most powerful nations in the world • Magellan was also the one who named the
– found themselves in a struggle for power and Pacific Ocean (Mar Pacifico), because for him
influence (sea exploration and control over the the ocean was peaceful, compared to their
Spice Islands). experiences in the strait. But little did Magellan
know that the Pacific Ocean was not peaceful; in
Additional Insight: fact, there are a lot of storms and cyclones in the
• Rivalry with Portugal intensified in the late 1400s. Pacific Ocean.
• Both nations wanted control over trade routes and • People believed that the world was small and flat
spices, especially in Asia. before; that if one goes to the edge of the World,
• Spain focused more on colonization and conquest, he will fall down to an unending abyss. But
while Portugal focused on maritime trade and ports.
because of Magellan, he proved that the world is
• This rivalry led to the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494).
not only big, but it is also round.
• Technically, Magellan did not circumnavigate the
TREATY OF TORDESILLAS (June 7, 1494)
world from Point A to Point A because he died in
• No, this did not divide the world into two- — only Cebu.
applied to newly discovered lands in the • Thus, the person who really did travelled the
Americas. world was Enrique, who was born near/on
• Technically, the treaty was created in order to Malacca. He was brought to Europe as a slave
divide the “New World” (North/South America) and an interpreter, and then returned back to the
between Spanish (West) and Portuguese (East) Malacca during Magellan’s voyage.
territory.
• Enrique may have technically completed a full circle of the
Additional Insight: globe. But Juan Sebastian Elcano is officially credited with
the first successful global circumnavigation. because he
• Prevented Spain and Portugal from going to war over finished the expedition and returned to Spain as the
new colonies. commander. Enrique’s role was crucial, but historical
• Allowed Spain to focus on the Americas and Portugal recognition was biased toward European leaders.
to focus on Africa and Asia. • Miguel Lopez de Legazpi- colonized the Philippines.