ENGINEERING REQUIREMENTS ROLE OF AN ENGINEERING

- Stem skills/knowledge Engineers are defined as individuals that use scientific,

- Ability to work as part of a team practical, economic and social knowledge and skills to
- Strong analytical mind solve a specific need or problem.
- Attention to detail
- Excellent communication skills What is engineering - The branch of science and
- Desire to learn technology concerned with the design, building and use of
- Leadership and management skills machines and structures.
- Engineering is the understanding and application
of mathematics and sciences
- Chemical engineering, civil engineering,
mechanical engineering, electrical engineering
etc.

AREAS OF ENGINEERING

CHEMICAL
- Develop new ways that raw materials can be
made into commercial products/items.
- Researching, designing, developing, and testing
products and solutions related to food, polymers,
pharmaceuticals, minerals, metals, and gas.

BIOMEDICAL
- Design new ways to improve health and medical
services.
- Enhance quality of life for people with disabilities
through research, design and developing and
testing products and solutions related to
prosthesis, diagnostics, equipment and other
medical technology.

CIVIL
- Design, construct, and maintain buildings, dams,
bridges, tunnels, highways, and other structures
while keeping in view time, expenditure,
environmental impact and public health.
- Civil Engineers are responsible for the planning,
design, construction, and/or maintenance of
structures.
 HISTORICAL USES

ANCIENT CIVILISATIONS (Pre-1000 AD)

- Stone (Limestone, Granite, Marble) – Used in pyramids, temples, aqueducts; durable but heavy.

- Wood – Used in bridges, ships, buildings; widely available but prone to decay/fire.

- Bronze – Stronger than stone; used for tools, weapons, structures; expensive.

- Iron – Stronger than bronze; used in weapons, tools, early infrastructure; rusts.

MEDIEVAL TO INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION (1000–1800s)

- Cast Iron, Wrought Iron – Used in bridges, machinery; stronger than wood but brittle.

- Brick & Concrete – Fire-resistant; used in roads, buildings, aqueducts; heavy.

- Timber – Continued use in shipbuilding, laminated beams for strength.

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION TO 20TH CENTURY (1800s–1900s)

- Steel (Bessemer Process, 1856) – Strong, flexible; revolutionized bridges, railways, skyscrapers.

- Aluminium – Lightweight, corrosion-resistant; used in aircraft, power lines.

- Rubber & Plastics – Used in insulation, seals, consumer goods; flexible but degrades.

MODERN ENGINEERING (20th–21st CENTURY)

- High-Strength Alloys & Composites – Aerospace, automotive; high performance but costly.

- Concrete Innovations (Reinforced, Pre-stressed) – Used in highways, dams, skyscrapers.

- Nanomaterials & Smart Materials – Self-healing concrete, carbon nanotubes; high-tech but expensive.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS
- Wheel - 4th millennium BC EFFECT ON INDIVIDUALS
- Bronze - 4th millennium BC
- Iron - 1st millennium BC - Woken up by an alarm, electric toothbrush ready
- Steam engine - 1689 to brush teeth, toasters for bread and bicycle to
- Cast iron - 1707 get to school - all of these created by ‘engineers’
- Steel - 1856 - Engineers make things happen and we reap the
- AC electricity - 1886 benefits.
- Human flight - 1903
- Helicopter - 1920s
- Pacemaker - 1958
 Engineering Mechanics
Scalar Possess magnitude but no direction, described fully as a number.

Vector Must have both magnitude and direction. Characteristics include; direction, sense, magnitude and
point of application.

VECTOR MATHEMATICS
Graphical representation of a vector
ADDITION OF VECTORS
Vectors may be added graphically thus determining the
geographical sum or vector sum of the separate vectors.
NOTE - The + sign refers to vector addition

The vector (A) in this example is a 250N force acting at Examples

15 degrees to the horizontal, to the right in an upward
direction.

The laws of algebra for real numbers, under suitable

modifications, can be extended to form a new
mathematical system suitable for vectors.

EQUALITY OF TWO VECTORS

(A) and (B) are said to be equal if they have the same
magnitude, direction and sense, irrespective of the
position of the initial point.

A=B
The equilibrant of (A) and (B) is that vector which
OPPOSITE OF A VECTOR nullifies the effect produced by (A) + (B) and
represented as -(A) and + (B). That is, the equilibrium
The opposite of (A) is a vector, having equal magnitude,
has the same magnitude and direction as the resultant but
same direction but opposite sense and is shown
opposite sense.
symbolically as (-A).

(A) + (B) = R(Resultant)

-(A) + (B) = E(Equilibrium)
(A) + (B) = 0(Null vector)

-A = Opposite of A

NOTE - ‘0’ in vector algebra does not mean there are no vectors acting but rather the effect produced by one vector is
nullified (cancelled) by another vector.
 NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION

1st Law: A body will remain at rest or at constant KEY TERMS

Inertia velocity unless acted upon by an
unbalanced external force. Mass The amount of matter that a body contains
with the SI unit being the kilogram.
2nd Law: A body acted upon by an external
F = ma unbalanced force will accelerate in Force Push or pull on body in Newtons (N)
proportion to the magnitude of this force in
the direction in which it acts. Gravity Earth exerts a gravitational force on all
bodies. The gravitational force accelerates
F = ma at 9.8ms^2 gravity (g) or also known as 10
F - Force (N)
ms^2 gravity (g).
M - Mass (kg)
A - Acceleration (ms^2) Weight The effect that the Earth’s gravitational
3rd Law: To every action there is an equal and force has on a body.
Equal & opposite reaction.
Opposite

SIMPLE MACHINES
A machine is a means of overcoming a resistance (load) MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE
by the application of force (effort).
Machines are used for the following purposes: Defined as the ratio of the load to effort.

- To enable an effort to life or move a load of M.A = L / E

greater magnitude
e.g. Block and Tackle
Equilibrium applied as:
ΣM = 0
- To enable an increase in the velocity of a
= - (effort x effort arm) + (load x load arm)
movement, e.g. car screen wipers (3rd order
lever)
NOTE - Most machines are designed to give an M.A. of
- To enable the effort to be applied in a more at least one.
convenient manner or at a more proper position,
e.g. windlass NOTE - Since effort and load are vertically
downwards the reaction of the fulcrum must act
vertically upwards to balance
INCLINED PLANE
- A basic ramp that allows the load to be
progressively raised in height
- E.g. wheelchair ramps, car ramps.
- A specific kind of spiral inclined plane
- Screw magnify effort (mechanical
advantage)
- Used for fine adjustments

THE LEVER

L/E

WHEEL AND AXLE

- The invention of the wheel in 3500 BC
Mesopotamia changed the world
forever.

PULLEY
- Allows forces to be applied in different
locations or directions
- Pulleys can be joined together to
produce a block and tackle
- Pulleys can also be used to transfer
torque from one shaft to another.

GEARS
- Like pulleys they can transfer torque
from one shaft to another
- They have the advantage of allowing
drive ratios to be changed.
CLASSIFICATION
- Elements are building blocks of nature, can’t be broken down

- Solutions occur when one substance dissolves in another

- Compounds are a combination of two or more elements combined chemically

- Mixtures are the result of two or more pure substances (elements or compounds) which are mechanically mixed
together.

PROPERTIES

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

- Electrical conductivity is the ability to
Strength Withstand applied load without failure
conduct electricity. Metals and carbons are
Hardness The ability of material to resist good conductors; pure water and timber are poor
stretching, abrasion or indentation. conductors. And air, most polymers and ceramic
are good insulators.
Elasticity To return to its original shape and
- Semiconductors are materials that are
dimension
manufactured to be poor conductors.
Stiffness To resist elastic deformation under load.

Plasticity To undergo some degree of permanent

deformation without rupture.

Malleability To be hammered and rolled into sheets.

Ductility To be drawn out into a thin wire.

Austenite FCC structure in steels only exists when red hot.

Ferrite BCC structure in steels/irons at room temperature

Cementite When austenite transforms, some is left as ferrite and the form cementite which is hard and brittle.

Pearlite Pearlite is a compound of ferrite and cementite, layers of this structure.

MATERIAL STRUCTURE

Neutrons - Have no charge

- Located in the nucleus

Protons - Have a single positive charge

- Located in the nucleus

Electrons - Have an equal value negative charge

- Electrons in the outer shell (valence
electrons) are used in bonding
 BONDING

Metallic Metal + Free electrons attract

metal nucleus together

Ionic Non-metal + The metal gives the

metal non-metal its free
electrons.

covalent Non-metal + The non-metals share

non-metal electrons.

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
A crystal is a homologous solid of definite chemical composition, with internal order, bounded by plane faces. Liquids
have little or no ordered structure, however as a material solidifies the atoms arrange themselves into regular crystal
structure.

Body Centred Cubic (BCC) Face Centred Cubic (FFC) Hexagonal Close Packed (HCP)

NON-CRYSTALLINE Amorphous means without form (E.g.

MATERIALS all liquids are gases, glass, which is
(AMORPHOUS) technically a liquid).

CRYSTALLINE Regular ordered patterns, BCC, FCC,

HCP. All metals, majority of ceramic,
some polymers and most minerals are
crystalline.

POLYMORPHISM Polymorphism or allotropy is the

ability of a single substance to exist in
multiple forms or crystal structures.
METALS

FERROUS NON-FERROUS

- Iron is the primary constituent (material) in - Iron is not the primary constituent metal
ferrous metals - Copper and Aluminium are the most commercial
- Mild steels contain low carbon and magnesium non-ferrous metals
- MS can easily be formed (i.e. ductility) machine
and welded.
- Issues are corrosion
- Stainless steel → The chromium reacts with
oxygen to form a chromium oxide layer that
prevents further corrosion.

BRASS ALUMINIUM
- Alloy of Copper & Zinc - Highly used metal → low density and excellent
- Can contain up to 40% zinc, but beyond that is corrosion resistance; low strength and as such
too brittle. is usually used in alloyed form.
- As zinc content increases, alloy becomes - Usually aluminium is alloyed with materials like
harder and brittle. copper, zinc, magnesium, lithium and other
- All brasses are corrosion-resistant and harder metals to gain excellent strength.
than pure copper. - Lightweight, offers strength to weight ratios
- Good wear, conduction and corrosion resistance better than most ferrous alloys.
makes them useful for switchgear and contacts. - Used in motor work due to good casting
- Outdoor taps are cast using 60/40 brass. qualities and high conduction of heat.

BRONZE COPPER
- An ally of copper and tin - The main electrical conductor used due to high
- Strength, good wearing qualities and corrosion electrical conductivity
resistance. - High ductility, malleable and good corrosion
- Leaded Bronze - Addition of 5% lead to resistance
brass improves machining properties. - Used in electrical wiring, electrical contacts,
- Phosphor Bronze - Up to 1% phosphor motor windings
remains after deoxidising the alloy →
increased strength, casting capabilities
and corrosion resistance.

BASIC FORMING PROCESSES

Casting Forming process that involves heating up a material, such as a metal alloy and then placing it in a mold
or cast. Die casting → non-ferrous alloy casting, Sand casting → ferrous alloy casting.

Rolling Rolling may be done at a higher temperature (Hot rolling) which is easier. Cold rolling is harder to do
and the final metal structure will be stressed and deformed, but have a better surface finish and be
dimensionally accurate.

Extruding Extruding is similar to squeezing toothpaste from a tube, Aluminum alloy window frames are
generally made up of extruded sections.
 CUTTING PROCESSES

Shearing Achieves cut without removing a waste strip, e.g. ships, often used to cut thin sheet metal.
- Smoother cut, quick action and efficient with little waste.
- Potential for burrs, deformation and difficulty with hard metals.

Sawing Removes a waste section of the materialism blades that are made from tungsten steel for hardest
materials/ high speed.
- Accurate cuts, easier for manual, smaller jobs.
- Generally slower.

Flame Using a gas-flame torch, temp in 2000℃, to cut ferrous metals.

Cutting - Suited for preparation of larger section objects
- Unable to work fine pieces.

Drilling Cutting round holes in metal by rotating and feeding the drill.
- Creates precise holes and is good at handling thicker materials.
- Limited hole shapes and potential heat buildup

Turning Lathe is mainly used for machining circular surfaces, that is cylindrical or conical but can be used for
producing flat surfaces, drill holes, machine slots, etc.
- Precision, versatility and efficiency
- Material waste and potential for defects when not carefully controlled.

Milling Rotating cutting wheel that spins, work is secured to a sliding table and moved to the cutting wheel.
- Very efficient when producing machined slots or flat surfaces.
- Material waste, high cost and operators need to be properly trained.

Grinding A spinning wheel of bonded ceramic is introduced to the work and the surface cuts the chips of
metallic or non-metallic substance from the workpiece.
- Smooth substance, high precision
- Higher cost and potential for heat damage.

Laser Direct output of high-power laser, most commonly through optics, follows CNC or numerical code to
Cutting cut specified shape or image.
- Precise and accurate cuts
- Expensive

Water jet Uses a very high pressure jet of water or mixture of water and abrasive to cut hard materials.
Cutting - Sensitive cuts, uses low temps, precision and versatility
- Slower cutting speeds and higher costs.

Plasma Cuts through electrically conductive materials by means of an accelerated jet of hot plasma.
Cutting - High speed, precision, and low operation costs.
- Noisy, generates excess fumes and aren’t useful for thicker materials.
 HEAT TREATMENT PROCESSSES

Annealing Softening materials or to bring about required changes in properties, e.g. machinability,
mechanical, or electrical properties, or dimensional stability.
- Consists of heating steel to or near critical temperature to make it suitable for
fabrication.

Normalising Applicable to ferrous metals only, the purpose is to remove internal stresses induced by heat
treating, welding, casting, forging, forming or machinery.
- Heated to high temperatures and then removed from the furnace/oven for air cooling

Quenching/Harden Used to increase the strength and wear properties,

ing - Must be heated to austenitic phase (725℃ - 1400℃) and then cooled quickly, negative
metal becomes brittle, which is why it is typically followed by tempering.

Tempering Used to reduce brittleness of quenched steel

- Carried out by reheating previously quenched or normalised steel or a temperature
below critical range, holding (soaking), and the cooling to obtain the desired chemical
properties.
- The higher the temp in the tempering process the lower the hardness.

METAL JOINING PROCESSES

Welding Either using pressure, fusion or an ally (added metal)

Soft Soldering A tin alloy is used to join two metals together at 183℃

Brazing / Silver Using either bronze to fill small gaps or silver at high temperatures to join dissimilar metals.
Soldering

Electric Arc Metal is melted by an electrode, which doubles as the filter metal covered by flux to prevent
Welding oxidation of molten metal. Used to join thick steel sections and small runs.

Oxy-acetylene Metal is melted by flame and filler metal added, used to join steel fan cages.
Welding

MIG Welding Metal inert gas uses a continuous feed wire (electrode) and inert gas (eg argon) preventing rapid
oxidation. Suited for automation.

Bronze Welding A flame heats the parent metal and bronze filler metal which is added to the joint. There is little
or no metal of the parent metal. Applications mainly consist of low strength uses.

TIG Welding Tungsten Inert Gas uses a tungsten electrode (that doesn’t melt) and a manually fed filler rod or
wire. Applications include; Joining aluminium and stainless steel, especially thick sections.

Mechanical Joining Bolts, nuts, screws and solid and pop rivets can be used to fasten materials together, hole
drilling and corrosion pose issues for this form.

Fabricating The process of assembling an item from various components, E.g. mild steel welded together.
POLYMERS

- Polymers are generally solid materials made

up of long molecular chains that are created
by adding or connecting smaller molecules
together.
- Polymers are often termed organic, due to
carbon being the primary constituent.
- Although most polymers are synthetic, there
are some natural polymers, such as natural
rubber and cellulose fibres.
- The term polymer is very broad; the field has
a wide group of materials, each having distinct
structures and properties.
- Synthetic polymers make up the remainder,
known as “plastics”, e.g. PET, HDPE, PVC,
LDPE, PP, PS, etc.
- Derived from crude oil.

POLYMERISATION

Addition Polymerisation Condensation Polymerisation

- Process proceeds without the production of a - The process involves the production of a simple
waste. waste product.

POLYMER STRUCTURES

Thermoplastics - They are also known as

thermosoftening polymers
because they can be
softened and reformed.
- With covalent bonds and
weak secondary bonds
between the chains.

Thermosets - Cannot be softened by

heating. Once they are
formed, heat cannot
reshape them.
CERAMICS

- Engineers use ceramic for high temperature

applications and situations where abrasion
resistance or thermal stability is required.
- Ceramics are hard and brittle, high
compressive strength, low tensile strength,
lower electrical & thermal conductivity.
- Ceramics have been used for centuries and
are now finding new uses due to their
hardness and good thermal properties.
- Any ceramic material that requires some
form of purification, mixing or firing is a
synthetic material, e.g. clay-body ceramics,
glass, refractories and cement.

TYPES OF CERAMICS

Clay Body - Made from a combination of different clay materials

- Classified as earthenware, china, stoneware, and porcelain.
- When moist → clay is plastic and can be suspended in water, as seen in muddy
flood waters
- As it dries → it becomes rigid, but repairs plasticity when wet
- To permanently fix the shape, clay must be fired (heated) at high temperatures,
making it strong and non-plastic.

Porcelain - low porosity (1%) - this is important for plates and cups that hold beverages and food.
- Good electrical and thermal insulator.
- Glaze to improve aesthetics and reduce surface porosity to zero.
- Brittle & heavier than polymers.
Porcelain and china are the two most common seen in homes

Glass - Transparent, brittle, most used glass is soda lime.

- No atomic order - represents liquids in their atomic structure
- Maximum theoretical strength of glass is 30,000 MPs
- Ceramic glass cooktops also use special glass tops which prevent the saucepan from
directly contacting the heating element.

Gorilla Glass - Modern smartphones use a capacitive touchscreen that must be strong and resistant to
cracking yet be exposed so a finger can contact it.
- By an ion exchange a compression stress is a set-up in the surface, which makes it more
difficult to introduce tensile failure in the glass
- Higher density
COMPOSITE MATERIALS

- Made of different materials combined together

to capital on the desired properties in each
- One material is the matrix: the continuous phase
that binds and supports the reinforcing material:
fibres used to enhance properties.
- Concrete & timber are examples of composites.
- Properties include specific strength (strength - to
weight- ratio)
- Concrete is sand, cement, aggregate (acts as a
binder / glue)
- E.g. Fibreglass; uses fine glass fibre with higher
tensile strength in a thermosetting resin matrix.
The glass fibre provides good tensile strength
while the resin provides toughness usually absent
in glass

NATURAL COMPOSITES
Exist in both plants and animals. Wood / timber is a composite - it is made from long cellulose fibres held together by a
much weaker substance called lignin. Examples of composites:
- Bones → hydroxyapatite + collagen
- Cotton → cellulose + pectin substance + wax + protein.

TIMBER

Advantages: Disadvantages:
- High specific strength (strength-mass - Wood is combustible
ratio) - Strength of wood varies with the species
- Wood is regenerative and if managed and direction of applied force.
professionally can be a permanent
resource
- Easily handled, worked and joined.

EARLY COMPOSITES
Humans have been making composites for many thousands of years.
Examples
- Mud → Can be dried out into a brick form, building materials, having good compressive strength but poor tensile
strength.
- Concrete → Mix of aggregate, cement and sand. Good compressive strength, adding metal rods as eternal
support increases tensile strength.

Composites can be separated into three different categories based on their strengthening mechanisms:
Dispersion Strengthen Fine distribution of secondary particles in the matrix of the material, removing/
disabling deforming mechanisms.

Particle Reinforced Large volume fraction of particles dispersed in the matrix and load is shared by the
particles and matrix.

Fibre Reinforced The fibre is the primary load-bearing component, e.g. fibreglass and carbon fibre.
 Communication
DRAWINGS

Freehand sketching in three-dimensional and third angle orthogonal projection

- Freehand sketching is a style of drawing made without the use of guiding or measuring instruments, as
distinguished from mechanical or geometrical drawing; also, a drawing thus executed.

- Orthogonal drawings use multiple two-dimensional views to represent an object.

ENGINEERING REPORT

- Title page
Title of the report, identifies the writer/s, their company or organization and publication date.
- Abstract / Executive Summary
A clear, concise summary of the report, giving the readers a brief explanation on the purpose of the report, to see
if it is relevant for their needs.
- Introduction
Introduction to the report and background information
- Main section / procedure
- Results
- Conclusion
- Acknowledgements
- References / Bibliography
- Appendix
UNIT SUMMARY
Areas of engineering practice Chemical - Raw materials → consumable products;
food, polymers, pharmaceuticals, minerals, metals
- What are some Areas of Engineering
and gases.

Biomedical - Improve quality of life; prognostics,

medical equipment, treatment, diagnostics, etc.

Civil - Design, construct and maintain structures;

dams, bridges, buildings, houses, tunnels, highways,
etc.

Historical and societal influences Throughout history, engineers have selected materials
based on availability, strength, cost and suitability for
- Outline historical uses and appropriateness of
certain tasks:
materials in the design and production of - Stone Age: stone, wood bone → readily
engineering projects available and malleable
- Bronze Age: bronze → stronger weapons
- Demonstrate an understanding of the
- Iron Age: iron and steel → common due to
historical developments of engineering their strength and versatility
- Industrial Revolution: Cast and Wrought
iron → bridges, machines, and buildings
- Modern Era: Advanced materials (steel
alloys, plastics, polymers, composites and
titanium) → high performance in aerospace,
construction and electronics.

Appropriate materials are chosen based on their

mechanical, physical, chemical properties, cost and
environmental impact.

Engineering mechanics Simple Machines → a means of overcoming a

resistance (Load) by application of a force (Effort).
· use mathematical and graphical methods to
Mechanical Advantage → M.A = L / E
solve problems in engineering The Lever → (effort x effort arm) = (load x
· Simple Machines functions and definitions load arm)

Inclined Plane → Uses a sloped surface to

move objects between different vertical
levels.
Wheel & Axle → Consists of a wheel
attached to a smaller axle, where both rotate
together.
Pulleys → Consists of a wheel with a
grooved rim that rotates around an axle.
Gears → Transfer torque from one shaft to
another.
Chain Drive → Hybrid of characteristics
from gears and drive belt systems.
Engineering materials Classification of Materials:
- Metals: Ferrous (iron being the main
- classify a variety of materials
constituent) and non-ferrous alloys)
- identify the properties of materials and - Composites: A combination of 1 or more
explain the reason for their selection materials to gain desired properties from
either.
- describe the structure and bonding of - Ceramics: Inorganic, non-metal solids
materials typically powder formed through
heat-treatment.
- distinguish between and explain reasons for - Polymers: Generally solid materials made
the use of ferrous and non-ferrous metals as from long molecular chains, with carbon
components in engineering being the primary constituent.
- describe the suitability of basic forming - Polysets → Cannot be reshaped,
processes used on materials without cross link
- Polythermal → Can be reshaped,
- distinguish between thermo softening with cross link
polymers and thermosetting polymers
Bonding:
- identify the types of engineering ceramics - Ionic: Between non-metal and metal
- Covalent: Between non-metal and non-metal
- identify forming and shaping methods - Metallic: Between metal and metal
- outline the properties and uses of composites
in engineering Crystalline Structures:
- HCP (Hexagonal Close Packed):
- High strength-to-weight ratio
- High packing density
- Good corrosion resistance
- BCC (Body Centred Cubic):
- High strength and hardness
- Low ductility especially at low temps,
leading to brittleness
- Lower thermal and electrical
conductivity
- FCC (Face Centred Cubic):
- High ductility and malleability
- Good thermal and electrical
conductivity

Joining Processes:
- Welding: Either using pressure, fusion or an
ally (added metal)
- Soft Soldering: A tin alloy is used to join two
metals together at 183℃
- Brazing / Silver Soldering: Using either
bronze to fill small gaps or silver high
temperatures to join dissimilar metals.

Shaping Processes:
- Casting: pouring a molten metal
- Rolling: Done at both, high and low temps,
metals can be cast in form of ingots or bars.
- Extruding: Squeezing material out of a tube
- Cutting: Removal of unwanted material
Communication Drawing Types
- identify third angle orthogonal projection Orthogonal → front, top and side
Isometric → 3D projection
- draw freehand, orthogonal and three
dimensional pictorial drawings of objects Engineering Report Structure
• Title page
- conduct research using computer technologies Title of the report, identifies the writer or
and other resources writers, their company or organisation
and publication date
- appreciate the value of teamwork • Abstract
- outline the use and basic structure of an A clear, concise summary of the report,
Engineering Report giving the readers a brief explanation on
the purpose of the report, too see if it is
relevant for their needs
• Introduction
Introduction to the report and background
information
• Main section/ procedure
• Results
• Conclusions
• Acknowledgements
• References
• Appendix