13-02-2025

Ecosystem & Syllabus

Biodiversity
Ecosystem: functions and services, Nutrient,
phosphorous, carbon, nitrogen, cycles; Effect of
human activities on these cycles. Threats to
biodiversity: conservation strategies, sustainable
solutions.

Dr. Manoj Acharya

Lecture-1 Ecosystem is the smallest unit of biosphere that has all characteristic
to sustain life. An ecosystem is the natural grouping of nutrients,
Ecosystem minerals, plants, animals and their waste linked together by flow of
food, nutrients and energy from one part of system to another part.
Living organisms cannot live isolated from their non-living
environment because the latter provides materials and energy for the The common to all ecosystems is not physical structure (size, variation
survival of the former i.e. there is interaction between a biotic of boarders etc.) but the existence of the processes (flow of energy
community and its environment to produce a stable system; a natural and the cycling of chemical elements).
self-sufficient unit which is known as an ecosystem.

Ecosystem are the parts of nature where living organisms interact

among themselves and with their physical environment.

The term ecosystem was first used by A. G. Tansley in 1935.

The system resulting from the integration of all living and non-living
factors of the environment. For e.g.- Earth as “Giant Ecosystem”.

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Types of Ecosystem Components of an Ecosystem

Every ecosystems have two components:

1) Abiotic Component 2) Biotic Component
Ecosystem
Abiotic Component

Natural Artificial It is the non living component of the ecosystems and includes physical
and chemical factors.
Terrestrial Aquatic
Physical factors like soil, temperature, light & water.
Forest Grassland Desert Fresh Water Marine

Lentic Lotic
Chemical factors are inorganic and organic substances. The inorganic
Ocean Estuarine
(Still) (Flowing)
substance includes C, H, N, K, P, S etc. are involved in mineral /
nutrient cycle and present in an ecosystem. The organic substances
are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and humus are present in the
biomass or in the environment.

Biotic Component It is the component in which fixation of light energy, use of simple
inorganic substances and build up of complex organic substance takes
It is include the living component of the ecosystems and is made up of place.
many different populations of species which are interdependent on Heterotrophic Component
each other in ecosystem.
The members of heterotrophic components are consumers (depends
Biotic components represent the trophic structure of ecosystem in on others for food) such as animals. It is the component in which
which living organisms are distinguished on the basis of nutritional decomposition of complex organic substance takes place.
(feeding) relationships. Heterotrophs can be further classified as
a) Macroconsumers b) Saprotrophs
The living component of an ecosystem are
1) Autotrophic Component 2) Heterotrophic Component Macroconsumers: Herbivores are primary consumer feed directly on
living plants while carnivores are secondary or tertiary consumers
Autotrophic Component which feed on consumers. They are heterotrophs and are in order as
The members of autotrophic components are producers which are they appear in food chain – Herbivores, Omnivores or Carnivores.
autotrophs (self nourishing) like algae, green plants & photosynthetic
Omnivores are consumer feed directly on producers & primary
bacteria.
consumers.

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Saprotrophs: They are microconsumers commonly known as Ecosystem Functions and Services
decomposers like bacteria, fungi, flagellates etc. They feed on organic
compounds of dead or living protoplasm of plants and animals for Ecosystem Functions
their food and energy.
Processes carried out by ecosystems provide a variety of products and
services for humanity and can be divided into two primary categories:
Saprotrophs breaks the organic compounds into simple inorganic (1) Ecosystem functions
constituents and release them in the ecosystem and making them (2) Ecosystem services
available again to producer (autotrophs).

Ecosystem functions can be defined by “the ecological processes that

control the flow of energy, nutrients and organic matter through an
environment”.

Functions within the ecosystem that help to maintain the Earth’s

natural balance such as primary production, decomposition of dead
matter and nutrient recycling.

Ecosystem Functions Ecosystem Services

(i) Productivity - It refers to the rate of biomass production. An ecosystem service is any positive benefit that wildlife or
ecosystems provide to people. In other words ecosystem services are
(ii) Decomposition - It is the process of breakdown of dead organic processes that occur within an ecosystem and provide benefits to
material. The top-soil is the major site for decomposition. humanity.

(iii) Physical (energy flow) - It is the sequential process through which Ecosystem services can be splits into provisioning services which
energy flows from one trophic level to another. The energy captured provide humans and other species with goods such as food and
from the sun flows from producers to consumers and then to water; and regulating services that help to regulate the Earth’s
decomposers and finally back to the environment. environment and atmosphere. Regulating services include water
purification, air quality regulation, climate regulation and oxygen
(iv) Biological (food chains, food web, ecological succession) production, erosion control, disease and pest control, pollination.

(v) Biogeochemical (nutrient cycling) processes - In an ecosystem

nutrients are consumed and recycled back in various forms for the
utilisation by various organisms.

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The conversion of energy is governed by law of thermodynamics i.e

Energy flow in Ecosystem Law of conservation of energy and conversion of energy from one
form to another is not 100%. (Ist & IInd Law of thermodynamics)
Sun is the ultimate source of energy. Solar radiations travels through
space in the form of waves and only 1/50 million of total solar The incident energy on an average is 3000 kcal/m2/day. 50% of the
radiation reaches the earth surface. energy is lost so only 1500 kcal/m2/day is available for usage.
Most of the solar radiation which reaches to the earth’s surface is Only 10% of energy is transferred from one tropic level to another
absorbed by land/water or is reflected back into space by snow, water and 90% of the energy is lost.
and land surface. Some radiations are captured by organisms (primary
producers) through photosynthesis. Cycles in Ecosystem or Nutrient Cycle
CO2 + 2H2O → CH2O + O2 + H2O Chemical elements and essential elements of protoplasm are
circulated in the biosphere in characteristic path from environment to
Organic matter produced by producer undergo conversion in organisms and back to the environment. These are known as
ecosystem. The plants are consumed by herbivorous and herbivorous Biogeochemical cycles.
are consumed by consumers as their food. In this way energy is
transferred from one organism to another. The important mineral cycles of nature are carbon, oxygen, nitrogen
and water (hydrological) cycles.

Carbon cycle
All organic matter originates in the process of photosynthesis. Plants
use solar energy to convert CO2 & H2O into carbohydrates and
CO2 in Air & Water releases O2 into atmosphere.

Photosynthesis Respiration
Respiration All living beings respire and release CO2 & decomposition bacteria
Decomposition
Plant Animals Burning also releases CO2 from the organic residue. During the day time the
(Oxidation) concentration of CO2 comes down from 320 ppm to 305 ppm.
Waste
Death
Product/Death
Fossil Fuel
Organic Residue The earth has vast stock of carbon in the form of carbonates and fossil
fuels (Coal, oil & gas). The burning of fossil fuel releases CO2 to the
To Sediments Mining &
Exploration atmosphere.
Fossilization

In the cycling of carbon in the biosphere, carbon is stored for some

Coal/Oil/Gas time before it is returned to the cycle via atmosphere & water.

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Lecture-2 The nitrates absorbed by plants are converted into NH3 in plant cell
which then reacts with organic acids to synthesize protein. These
Nitrogen cycle proteins are consumed by animals and get hydrolysed to Amino acid.
Nitrogen is one of the major Amino acids are used to make protoplasm while excess amino acid is
constituents of all animals & converted into NH3, urea and uric acid. This process is known as
plants. About 77% (w/w) of Ammonification.
our atmosphere is nitrogen The ammonium compounds are then excreted in the urine by
but neither plants nor animals. Dead plants and animals, urine falls into the soil and get
animals are capable of decomposed by bacteria and fungi by the process known as
absorbing this atmospheric Putrefaction.
nitrogen.
NH3 & its salts present in soil are oxidised to nitrites (NO2-) by
Nitrosifying bacteria present in the soil. These nitrites are further
Nitrogen present in oxidised to nitrates by Nitrifying bacteria present in the soil.
atmosphere is converted into
Nitrates (plant food) is known Nitrogen compounds present in the soil are decomposed by
as Nitrogen Fixation. denitrifying bacteria. Nitrites (NO2-) are undesirable in the plant while
nitrates are required by plant. Thus nitrogen taken up by plants from
the soil is returned back to the soil.

Decomposition of these Green plants & animals release phosphates

Phosphorous cycle and phosphoric acid to the soil.

Phosphorous is a essential Water Cycle

nutrient for aquatic Water plays important role in the functioning of biosphere. Its
ecosystem and water quality. essential for all forms of life, plants, animals.
The movement of Water from earth surface to the atmosphere and
It occurs in large amount as
back again is called water cycle or hydrological cycle.
mineral in phosphorous
rocks & enters the cycle by Steps involved in water cycle
erosion and mining activity. are:
Green plants absorb Water moves from earth to sky
phosphorous from the soil (Evaporation & Transpiration)
and it combine with glucose Water vapour forms tiny droplets
to yield proteins and fats. (Condensation)
Green plants are absorbed Water fall back to earth
by herbivores. (Precipitation)

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Water on the earth penetrates the ground or runs off the surface
(Infiltration & Percolation or Surface runoff).

Food Chain
In every ecosystem there exist numerous pathways where one
organism is eaten by another, which in turn is eaten by the third and
so on. Each such pathway of feeding sequence is called food chain.

Isolated food chains don’t exist because organisms have varied eating
habits and eat different material. Food chain can be of two types: 1)
Grazing Food Chain 2) Detritus (Dead) Food Chain

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Food Web Ecological Pyramid

Isolated food chains don’t exist because organisms have varied eating
habits and eat different material. As a result cross-feeding A graphical representation in the shape of a pyramid to show the
relationship a food chain is a part of large and more complex feeding feeding relationship of groups of organisms, and the flow of energy or
system in an ecosystem which is called food web. biomass through the different trophic levels in a given ecosystem.

Food web is a complex pattern of interconnected food chains. It is often represented in a way that the producers are at the bottom
level and then proceeds through the various trophic levels in which
the highest is on top.

Ecological pyramid also shows the flow of energy or biomass at each

trophic level in a particular ecosystem.

Biomass pertains to the amount of living or organic matter in an

organism. Biomass pyramids are shaped that way to show that
biomass is largest at the base, and decreasing in amount as it goes
through the apex.

The two types of biomass pyramids are the upright and the inverted. Human impact on nutrient cycle
The upright pyramid is found in most ecosystem. It results when the
combined weight of producer is larger than the combined weight of Human impact on Carbon Cycle
consumers. An inverted type results when the combined weight of
Combustion of fossil fuel: Combustion of fossil fuel add extra CO2 to
producers is smaller than the combined weight of consumers.
the atmosphere.
Deforestation: Cutting of trees result in reduction of photosynthesis
activity & hence leaving more CO2 to the atmosphere.
Q-1: What is the main suspected environmental problem associated
with burning of fossil fuel?
a) Depletion of fresh water b) Depletion of Ozone
c) Global Cooling d) Global Warming
Q-2: Why should we are more concerned about adding more CO2 to
the atmosphere?
Too much CO2 can cause changes in CLIMATE by making earth too
warm.

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What will happen if earth is getting warmer? Human impact on Nitrogen Cycle
DROUGHT
Human contribute extra nitrogen in the cycle due to fertilizers and
animal waste (hog lagoons) runoffs into the river/lakes.

Extra nitrogen can cause Eutrophication which encourages extra algae

to grow (Alga bloom) lower the levels of oxygen causing fish kill.

FLOODING
POLAR ICE MELTING

Combustion of fossil fuel also releases Sulphur & Nitrogen in

atmosphere in addition to CO2.
Sulphur & Nitrogen are responsible for ACID RAIN.
ACID RAIN damages soil, roots, leaves, changes the pH of
river/streams, kill aquatic animals & plants, damages
buildings/bridges.

Lecture-3
Diversity
Diversity means the variety or variation, thus biodiversity
means variation of life forms on the earth and their habitats.

Biodiversity
The term biodiversity was coined by E.
O. Wilson in 1988.
Biodiversity or Biological diversity
represent the sum total of various life-
forms such as unicellular fungi,
protozoa, bacteria & multicellular
organisms such as plants, fishes and
mammals at various biological levels
including genes, species, habitats and
ecosystems.

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Biodiversity means variation and abundance of species and Biodiversity can be divided into following three levels:
their habitats. Biodiversity is the variety of the world’s a) Genetic Biodiversity
organisms, including their genetic diversity at all levels. b) Species Biodiversity
c) Ecosystem Biodiversity
India is rich in biodiversity because of varied eco-climatic
condition, unique geographical features. With only 2.4% of Genetic Biodiversity
world’s land area, India accounts for 7-8% of the species of the
Genetic Biodiversity means the variation within the same
world. In terms of species richness India ranks 7th in mammal,
species. It indicate variety of versions of same gene within the
9th in birds, 5th in reptiles.
specific species. Lack of biodiversity at this level means lack of
ability of species to survive in adverse condition.
For e.g.- Large variety of wheat, rice, pulses, cow, horse.

A number of hybrid varieties of crops and animals are formed

by incorporating several useful genes from several species.
These hybrid species have more production, longer life and
better resistance to disease.

Species Biodiversity
Species Biodiversity means the number of different kinds
organisms found at a particular location and it varies place to
place and even seasonally at the same place.
Species Biodiversity means the number of species in an
ecosystem.
For e.g.- Number of various kinds of plants, trees, birds, insects,
animals, fishes etc. in a particular location / in an ecosystem.

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Ecosystem Biodiversity Importance of Biodiversity

Ecosystem Biodiversity is the distinctive group of species that
 Biodiversity is of both aesthetic as well as of practical
live together in the same area and interact with the physical
importance.
environment in unique ways.
Ecosystem Biodiversity means number of different ecosystems  Rich biodiversity is an indicator of the health of a particular
in a region. If the region has only one kind of ecosystem then it habitat and its potential to sustain life.
reflects lack of biodiversity.

 Biodiversity helps in enriching soil, maintaining water and

other climatic cycles, precipitation (rainfall), and recycling
and conversion of waste material into nutrients.

 Biodiversity helps to satisfy the need of human being by

providing food, cloths, medicines, raw material for various
industries and domestic uses.

 Biodiversity is a valuable genetic resource. Most of the hybrid  Several species plays important role in maintaining &
varieties of crops and animals have been developed by using improving our natural environment. For e.g.- Earthworm
genes from different species. For e.g.- Pony, Sheep Dolly helps in aerating the soil and increase its fertility. Snakes
 Diverse species of plant, animals & micro organisms provide protect the crop by eating rodents.
invaluable and indispensable ecological services. For e.g.-
Maintaining the chemical composition of atmosphere,  Biodiversity also preserves and improve the socio-economic,
maintaining nutrient in soil and water, recycling of solid aesthetic, cultural and religious values of ecosystem.
waste etc.

 The insect fauna containing a large number of species are

superior wee control agent, crop pollination and are parasites
on pests.

 Several plant species such as Neem, Tulsi, Aloe Vera etc. have
medicinal values and used in various medicines. About 1/3rd
of chemical compounds used for drug making are evolved by
plants

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 To qualify as a biodiversity hotspots on Norman Myers 2000

Hotspots of Biodiversity edition of the hotspot map, a region must meet two criteria-
1) Must contain more than 0.5% or 1500 species of vascular
 The most notable area on earth are also the most threatened plants as endemics.
ones and most of them have been reduced to less than 10% of 2) It has lost atleast 70% of its original vegetation.
their original vegetation. These area/places are called
Hotspots of Biodiversity for preservation.  Around the world 36 areas qualify under this definition and
supports 60% of the world’s plant, bird, mammal, reptile and
 A biodiversity hotspot is a bio geographic region with amphibian species with very high share of endemic specie.
significant reservoir of biodiversity that is under threat from  Hotspots of India: Eastern Himalayas, Western ghats, Indo-
humans. These are the areas that are extremely rich in Burma Region and Sundaland.
biodiversity, have high level of endemism and are constant
threat of species extinction and habitat destruction.

 Hotspots approach to the conservation of threatened

ecosystem and species is a highly targeted strategy at global
level.

Population Risk: Variation in population rate (i.e. birth rate

Threats to Biodiversity & death rate) can cause a species in low abundance to become
extinct.
It’s a risk to species that consist of only a single population in
Extinction, the elimination of species is a normal process in
low abundance in one habitat.
nature. Species die out and are replaced by other as part of
For e.g.- Blue whales
evolutionary process.

The rate of extinction in a undisturbed ecosystem remain Environmental Risk: Variation in the physical or biological
unchanged but due to human activities the rate of elimination environment including variation in predator, prey or competitor
of species has increased. species. If the specie is rare and isolated then such
environmental variation can lead to extinction of specie.
Cause of Extinction
Natural Catastrophe: Natural catastrophe is the sudden
1) Population Risk 2) Environmental Risk
change in the environment (Fire, storme, flood, earthquakes,
3) Natural Catastrophe 4) Genetic Risk volcanic eruption, changes in oceanic currents). Such natural
catastrophe may cause the local extinction of the specie.
5) Human Actions

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Genetic Risk: Change in genetic characteristic in small Lecture-4

population of species due to reduced genetic variation make the
specie more prone for extinction because it lacks variety, or Habitat Destruction
mutation that leads to poor health become fixed in population.
Loss of biodiversity is due to the habitat destruction that result
Human Actions: Human actions like hunting, development from the expansion of human population and activities.
of agricultural activities, rapid deforestation, rise of civilization,
new areas were explored for industrialization, emission of The major factors causing habitat destruction are large
chemicals, pesticides etc. into the environment are responsible industrial and commercial activities such as mining, cattle
for the extinction of species. ranching, construction of dams.
Habitat Fragmentation
Factors responsible for the loss of Biodiversity
Factors responsible for the loss of biodiversity are: Habitat fragmentation is the process where a large and
continuous area of habitat is reduced and divided into two or
1) Habitat Destruction 2) Habitat Fragmentation more fragments by roads, fields, towns, canals, power lines etc.

3) Habitat Degradation and Pollution Habitat fragmentation forces the species for dispersal and
4) Introduction of Exotic Species 5) Over Exploitation colonisation.

If disease causing micro organism is introduced to virgin area,

Habitat Degradation and Pollution
they may cause epidemics and native species are eliminated
The most adverse form of habitat degradation is environmental completely.
pollution due to the usage of pesticide, industrial chemicals and Over Exploitation
wastes, emission from factories and automobiles and sediment
deposits from eroded hill sides. Increasing human population has escalated the use of natural
resources. Growing rural poverty, advancement in agricultural
Acid Rain, Global Warming and Depletion of ozone layer are methods and techniques and globalization of economy exploit
also responsible for habitat degradation. species to the point of extinction or population size become so
low that the specie is unable to recover.
Introduction of Exotic Species
Conservation of Biodiversity
Introduction of exotic species accidently or deliberately results
in the loss of biodiversity. One of the biggest environmental issue is the conservation of
biodiversity.
Exotic species kill / eat native specie to the point of extinction or
Objectives of conservation of natural resources are:
may change the habitat to such an extent that many natives no
longer able to persist.  Maintain essential ecological processes

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 Preserve the diversity of species

In-situ Conservation of Biodiversity
 Ensure sustainable utilization of species and ecosystem

The wildlife conservation efforts are mostly centred on In-situ or on-site conservation means conservation of species in
protecting plant and animal life in protected habitats such as natural ecosystem or in man-made ecosystem (artificial
botanical gardens, zoos, sanctuaries, national parks etc. ecosystem).

Wildlife life conservation in protected habitat can be done by

In-situ or on-site conservation is the conservation of wild flora
following approaches:
and fauna and not to domesticated animal and plants because
1) In-situ conservation
conservation is possible by protection of population in nature.
2) Ex-situ conservation

Protection of population in nature is done by declaring the area

as protected area/biosphere reserve with emphasis either to
save the entire area or the endangered specie and applying
proper legal measures.

Protected areas/zones are essential for the conservation of large

number of species of living organisms otherwise man-made
habitats (Zoo, Aquarium) may end up with static gene-pool.

For e.g.- National Park, Sanctuary, Wild Life Sanctuaries etc.

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Ex-situ Conservation of Biodiversity

Ex-situ or off-site conservation means conservation of species
particularly endangered species away from their natural habitat
under human supervision.

Ex-situ or off-site conservation is the conservation in captivity

under human care. Many rare species or species having small
remaining population are protected by this strategy. Seed Bank Gene Bank

Extinction of specie may takes place due to genetic drift,

inbreeding, environmental and demographic variation,
deteriorating habitat quality, competition, disease or over
population.

For e.g.- Zoo, Aquarium, Botanical garden, Seed Bank, Gene

Bank
Botanical Garden Zoo

Home Assignment Mega-Biodiversity

Watch following videos and make a report on Endangered, Rare and Mega diversity means exhibiting great diversity. Mega diverse
Exotic species: country refers to the group of nations that harbour the majority
Source: [Link] of Earth’s species and high number of endemic species.

The Rare and Exotic Animals- National Geographic Documentary.

Planet Earth- Giraffes: Africa’s Gentle Giant by David Attenborough, A Mega diversity country must have
BBC. atleast 5000 species of endemic plants.
Conservation International identified
17 megadivese countries in 1998 and .

Australia, Brazil, China, Colombia, Democratic republic of the

Congo, Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Malaysia,
Mexico, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, South Africa,
United States, Venezuela.

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Mega-Biodiversity of India The Western ghats have moist deciduous forest and
rainforests. The region shows high species diversity as well as
India is one of the 17 mega diversity of the world. The country if high level of endemism. About 62% of reptile and 77% of
divided 10 biogeographical regions is considered as Mega- amphibians are found here.
Biodiversity.
The North-eastern states depicts high altitudinal variations.
The diverse physical features and climatic situations have This area has atleast 163 globally threatened species.
formed ecological habitats like forest, grasslands, wetlands,
coastal and marine ecosystems which harbour and sustain
About 15000 species of flowering plants, 53430 species of
immense biodiversity.
insect, 5050 species of mollusks, 6500 species of other
It has 14 basins through which drain numerous rivers, annual invertbrate, 2546 species of fishes, 1228 species of birds, 446
rainfall varies from 37mm in Rajasthan to 1500mm in species of reptiles, 372 species of mammals and 204 species of
Cherapunji. The country experiences three seasons Summer, amphibians are identified in India.
winter and rainy.
India’s biodiversity is estimated to be over 45000 plant species
It has 2 global terrestrial biodiversity hotspots – The North- representing 7% of worlds flora and stand 10th in 25 most plant
eastern states and Western ghats. rich countries of the world.

It has variety of animal life represent 6.5% of world’s funa. India Assignment
has atleast 166 species of crop plants and 320 wild relatives of
cultivated crops. Biodiversity conservation and Ganga river rejuvenation.

It has marine diversity due to its 7500 km long coastline and to

preserve rich biodiversity, nine biospheres have been set up in Methodology
specific biogeographic zones.

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