CLASSICAL CONTROL SYSTEMS
COE/EE 387
G. S. KLOGO (PhD)
Course Description: Course Administration
• This course is an introduction to analysis and design of feedback control
systems, including classical control theory in the time and frequency domain.
Laplace transforms, mathematical modeling of physical processes.
• Transfer functions, signal flow diagrams, block diagram manipulation. Step,
impulse and frequency response of linear systems.
• Bode Plots, Nyquist Plots, Root locus and their application to design of
compensators.
• Feedback, feedforward and tacho feedback compensation. PID control,
identification of linear systems, stability of linear systems.
Suggested pre-requisites: Basic course on ordinary differential equations and
linear algebra, Knowledge of signals and systems will be an advantage.
Instructor:
•G. S. KLOGO (PhD), email: [Link]@[Link]
References Books:
•Modern Control Engineering, 4th Edition, by K. Ogata, Prentice Hall, 2001
•Modern Control Systems, 9th Edition, by Dorf and Bishop, Prentice Hall, 2001.
•Automatic Control Systems, by B. Kuo, Prentice Hall, 1995.
•Control Systems Engineering, sixth edition, Norman S. Nise, California State
Polytechnic University, Pomona, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Overview of the Course
1 Introduction to Feedback and Control
2 System Modeling/Analysis,
Review of ODEs, and Laplace
Transform
3 Stability and Performance
4 Root locus analysis. Design for time
domain specs.
5 Frequency Domain Design: Bode plot.
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Terms to Consider
System – An interconnection of elements and devices for a
desired purpose.
Control System – An interconnection of components forming a
system configuration that will provide a desired response.
Process – The device, plant, or
system under control. The input
and output relationship
represents the cause-and-effect
relationship of the process.
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Control System Concepts
• A system is a collection of components which are
co-ordinated together to perform a function.
• Systems interact with their environment across a
separating boundary.
• The interaction is defined in terms of variables.
– system inputs
– system outputs
– environmental disturbances
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Systems
Disturbance Inputs
System Outputs
Subsystem
Engineering systems
Biological systems
Information systems
Control Inputs
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System Variables
• The system’s boundary depends upon the
defined objective function of the system.
• The system’s function is expressed in terms of
measured output variables.
• The system’s operation is manipulated
through the control input variables.
• The system’s operation is also affected in an
uncontrolled manner through the disturbance
input variables.
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Car and Driver Example
• Objective function: to control the direction
and speed of the car.
• Outputs: actual direction and speed of the car
• Control inputs: road markings and speed signs
• Disturbances: road surface and grade, wind,
obstacles.
• Possible subsystems: the car alone, power
steering system, braking system, . . .
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Antenna Positioning Control System
• Original system: the antenna with
electric motor drive systems.
• Control objective: to point the
antenna in a desired reference direction.
• Control inputs: drive motor voltages.
• Outputs: the elevation and azimuth of the
antenna.
• Disturbances: wind, rain, etc
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Control system analysis and design
• Step1: Modeling
– By physical laws
– By identification methods
• Step2: Analysis
– Stability, controllability and observability
• Step3: Control law design
– Classical, modern and post-modern control
• Step4: Analysis
• Step5: Simulation
– Matlab/simulink, Fortran, etc….
• Step6: Implement
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Three eras of control
• Classical control : 1950 before
– Transfer function based methods
• Time-domain design & analysis
• Frequency-domain design & analysis
• Modern control : 1950~1960
– State-space-based methods
• Optimal control
• Adaptive control
• Post modern control : 1980 after
– H∞ control
– Robust control (uncertain system)
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General Control System
• Objective
– Causing output to track a reference even in the
presence of
• Measurement noise
• Model error
• Disturbances
• Metrics
– Stability
• Output remains bounded
– Performance
• How well an output tracks the reference
– Disturbance rejection
– Robustness
7/16/2020• Ability to tolerate modeling error of the plant 12
Control System
• Control physical system’s output
– By setting physical system’s input
• Tracking
• E.g.
– Cruise control
– Thermostat control
– Disk drive control
– Aircraft altitude control
• Difficulty due to
– Disturbance: wind, road, tire, brake; opening/closing
door…
– Human interface: feel good, feel right…
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Types of control systems
• Open-loop:
• Closed-loop:
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Open-Loop Control Systems
utilize a controller or control
actuator to obtain the desired
response.
Closed-Loop Control Systems
utilizes feedback to compare
the actual output to the
desired output response.
Multivariable Control System
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Control system applications
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Process Control
From R. Stenz and U. Kuhn, Automation of a Batch Distillation Column Using Fuzzy and
Conventional Control," IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology, vol. 3, no. 2, June
1995, page 172.
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Automotive applications for by-wire
By-wire is the concept
Replacing mechanical
and hydraulic control
mechanisms with an
electronic system
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Printed
Circuit
Board test
From: J. Shim, H. Cho and S. Kim, "An
Actively Compliable Probing System," IEEE
Control Systems Magazine, vol. 17, no. 1,
February 1997, page 15.
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Biomedical
From: R. Dorf and R. Bishop, Modern Control Systems, Addison
Wesley, 7th edition, 1995, page 706.
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Advantages of Control Systems
21
We build control systems for four primary reasons:
Power amplification
Remote control
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Convenience of input form
Compensation for disturbances
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Some human-designed control systems
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1. Liquid-Level Control
2. Steam Pressure and Temperature Controls
3. Speed Control
4. Stability
5. Stabilization
6. Steering
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Computer-Controlled Systems
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In many modern systems, the controller (or
compensator) is a digital computer.
The advantage of using a computer is that many loops
can be controlled or compensated by the same
computer through time sharing.
Furthermore, any adjustments of the compensator
parameters required to yield a desired response can be
made by changes in software rather than hardware.
The computer can also perform supervisory
functions, such as scheduling many required
applications.
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Analysis and Design Objectives
25
Analysis is the process by which a system's performance
is determined.
For example, we evaluate its transient response and
steady-state error to determine if they meet the desired
specifications.
Design is the process by which a system's performance is
created or changed.
For example, if a system's transient response and steady-
state error are analyzed and found not to meet the
specifications, then we change parameters or add
additional components to meet the specifications.
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Transient Response
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Transient response is important. In the case of an elevator, a
slow transient response makes passengers impatient, whereas
an excessively rapid response makes them uncomfortable.
If the elevator oscillates about the arrival floor for more than a
second, a disconcerting feeling can result.
Transient response is also important for structural reasons: Too
fast a transient response could cause permanent
physical damage.
In a computer, transient response contributes to the time
required to read from or write to the computer's disk storage
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Steady-State Response
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Another analysis and design goal focuses on the steady-state response. As we
have seen, this response resembles the input and is usually what remains after
the transients have decayed to zero.
For example, this response may be an elevator stopped near the fourth floor or
the head of a disk drive finally stopped at the correct track. We are concerned
about the accuracy of the steady-state response.
An elevator must be level enough with the floor for the passengers to exit, and a
read/write head not positioned over the commanded track results in computer
errors.
An antenna tracking a satellite must keep the satellite well within its
beamwidth in order not to lose track.
The design corrective action is to reduce the steady-state error of a system
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Stability
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Discussion of transient response and steady-state error is moot if
the system does not have stability.
In order to explain stability, we start from the fact that the total
response of a system is the sum of the natural response and the
forced response.
In linear differential equations, we mostly refer to these responses
as the homogeneous and the particular solutions, respectively.
Natural response describes the way the system dissipates or
acquires energy. The form or nature of this response is dependent
only on the system, not the input.
On the other hand, the form or nature of the forced response is
dependent on the input.
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Stability
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Total response = Natural response + Forced response.
For a control system to be useful, the natural response must:
(1) Eventually approach zero, thus leaving only the forced response,
or
(2) oscillate.
In some systems, however, the natural response grows without bound
rather than diminish to zero or oscillate. Eventually, the natural
response is so much greater than the forced response that the system
is no longer controlled.
This condition, called instability, could lead to self-destruction of the
physical device if limit stops are not part of the design. For example,
the elevator would crash through the floor or exit through the ceiling
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The Design Process
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The design process establishes an orderly sequence for
the design of feedback control systems.
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Step 1: Transform Requirements Into a Physical
System
31
We begin by transforming the requirements into a
physical system.
For example, in the antenna azimuth position
control system, the requirements would state the
desire to position the antenna from a remote location
and describe such features as weight and physical
dimensions.
Using the requirements, design specifications, such
as desired transient response and steady-state
accuracy, are determined.
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Step 2: Draw a Functional Block Diagram
32
The designer now translates a qualitative description of
the system into a functional block diagram that describes
the component parts of the system (that is, function
and/or hardware) and shows their interconnection.
The functional block diagram indicates functions such as
input transducer and controller, as well as possible
hardware descriptions such as amplifiers and motors.
At this point the designer may produce a detailed layout
of the system, from which the next phase of the analysis
and design sequence, developing a schematic diagram,
can be launched.
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Step 3: Create a Schematic
33
Position control systems consist of electrical, mechanical, and
electromechanical components. After producing the
description of a physical system, the control systems engineer
transforms the physical system into a schematic diagram.
The control system designer can begin with the physical
description, to derive a schematic. The engineer must make
approximations about the system and neglect certain
phenomena, or else the schematic will be unwieldy, making it
difficult to extract a useful mathematical model during the
next phase of the analysis and design sequence.
If the schematic is too simple and does not adequately account
for observed behavior, the control systems engineer adds
phenomena to the schematic that were previously assumed
negligible.
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Step 4: Develop a Mathematical Model (Block Diagram)
34
Once the schematic is drawn, the designer uses physical laws,
such as Kirchhoff's laws for electrical networks and Newton's
law for mechanical systems, along with simplifying
assumptions, to model the system mathematically.
Kirchhoffs and Newton's laws lead to mathematical models
that describe the relationship between the input and output of
dynamic systems. One such model is the linear, time-
invariant
m
differential
m 1
equation. m m 1
d c(t ) d c(t ) d r (t ) m 1 d r (t )
d n 1 ...... d c (t ) b b ..... b0 r (t )
dt n 1 dt m 1
0 m
dt n dt m
Many systems can be approximately described by this
equation, which relates the output, c(t), to the input, r(t), by
way of the system parameters, ai, and bj.
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In addition to the differential equation, the transfer function is another
way of mathematically modeling a system. The model is derived from the
linear, time-invariant differential equation using what we call the Laplace
transform.
Although the transfer function can be used only for linear systems, it yields
more intuitive information than the differential equation. We will be able to
change system parameters and rapidly sense the effect of these changes on
the system response. The transfer function is also useful in modeling the
interconnection of subsystems by forming a block diagram but with a
mathematical function inside each block.
Still another model is the state-space representation. One advantage of
state-space methods is that they can also be used for systems that cannot be
described by linear differential equations. Further, state-space methods are
used to model systems for simulation on the digital computer.
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Basically, this representation turns an nth order
differential equation into n simultaneous first-order
differential equations.
Finally, we should mention that to produce the
mathematical model for a system, we require
knowledge of the parameter values, such as
equivalent resistance, inductance, mass, and
damping, which is often not easy to obtain. Analysis,
measurements, or specifications from vendors are
sources that the control systems engineer may use to
obtain the parameters.
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Step 5: Reduce the Block Diagram
37
Subsystem models are interconnected to form block diagrams of larger systems, where each block has
a mathematical description. Notice that many signals, such as proportional voltages and error, are
internal to the system.
There are also two signals—angular input and angular output—that are external to the system. In order
to evaluate system response in this example, we need to reduce this large system's block diagram to a
single block with a mathematical description that represents the system from its input to its output.
Once the block diagram is reduced, we are ready to analyze and design the system.
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Step 6: Analyze and Design
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The next phase of the process, following block diagram reduction, is
analysis and design. If you are interested only in the performance of
an individual subsystem, you can skip the block diagram reduction
and move immediately into analysis and design.
In this phase, the engineer analyzes the system to see if the
response specifications and performance requirements can be met
by simple adjustments of system parameters. If specifications
cannot be met, the designer then designs additional hardware in
order to effect a desired performance.
Test input signals are used, both analytically and during testing, to
verify the design. It is neither necessarily practical nor illuminating
to choose complicated input signals to analyze a system's
performance. Thus, the engineer usually selects standard test
inputs. These inputs are impulses, steps, ramps, parabolas, and
sinusoids.
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Review Questions
39
1. Name three applications for feedback control systems.
2. Name three reasons for using feedback control systems and
at least one reason for not using them.
3. Give three examples of open-loop systems.
4. Functionally, how do closed-loop systems differ from open-
loop systems?
5. State one condition under which the error signal of a
feedback control system would not be the difference
between the input and the output.
6. Physically, what happens to a system that is unstable?
7. Instability is attributable to what part of the total response?
8. Describe a typical control system analysis task.
9. Describe a typical control system design task.
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