Lecture 2

Mathematical Models

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 Modeling in the Frequency Domain

 In every case the first step in developing a mathematical

model is to apply the fundamental physical laws of
science and engineering.

 For example, when we model electrical networks, Ohm's

law and Kirchhoff's laws, which are basic laws of electric
networks, will be applied initially.

 We will sum voltages in a loop or sum currents at a node.

When we study mechanical systems, we will use
Newton's laws as the fundamental guiding principles.
Here we will sum forces or torques. From these
equations we will obtain the relationship between the
system's output and input.
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 A differential equation can describe the relationship between the
input and output of a system. The form of the differential equation
and its coefficients are a formulation or description of the system.
Although the differential equation relates the system to its input
and output, it is not a satisfying representation from a system
perspective.

 Looking at linear, time-invariant differential equation. a general,

nth-order, linear, time invariant differential equation, we see that
the system parameters, which are the coefficients, as well as the
output, c(t), and the input, r(t), appear throughout the equation.

 We would prefer a mathematical representation such as that shown

in Figure 1, where the input, output, and system are distinct and
separate parts. Also, we would like to represent conveniently the
interconnection of several subsystems.

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 For example, we would like to represent cascaded interconnections, as
shown in Figure 2, where a mathematical function, called a transfer
function, is inside each block, and block functions can easily be
combined to yield Figure 1 for ease of analysis and design. This
convenience cannot be obtained with the differential equation.

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 Laplace Transform

 A system represented by a differential equation is difficult to

model as a block diagram. With Laplace transform, we can
represent the input, output, and system as separate entities.
Further, their interrelationship will be simply algebraic.
 The Laplace transform is defined as L 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐹 𝑠 =
∞
‫׬‬0− 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Where s = σ + 𝑗𝜔, a complex variable. Thus, knowing 𝑓 𝑡 and
that the integral above exists, we can find a function, F(s), that
is called the Laplace transform of 𝑓(𝑡)

 Using differential equations, we have to solve for the initial

conditions after the discontinuity knowing the initial
conditions before the discontinuity. Using the Laplace
transform we need only know the initial conditions before the
discontinuity.
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 Laplace transform table

Table
F ( s )  L f (t ) 
f (t ) 
[Link].

0
f (t )e  st dt
1. U (t )  U (t  a) 1
U1(t )  L t
a 0 a
Unit impulse
2. U (t )  1 (Unit step) 1
s
3. t n 1 1
(n  1, 2, 3…)
(n  1)! sn
4. e  at 1
( s  a)
5. t n 1e  at 1
(n  1)! (s  a) n
6. 1 1
(e  at  e bt )
(b  a ) ( s  a )( s  b)
7. 1 s
(ae  at  be bt )
(b  a ) ( s  a )( s  b)
8. te  a t 1
(s  a) 2
9. (1  at )e  at s
(s  a) 2

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 Laplace transform table cont’d

 Table
10. cos at s
s2  a2
11. sin at a
s2  a2
12. cosh at s
s2  a2
13. sinh at a
s2  a2

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 Example #1: Find the Laplace transform of 𝑓 𝑡 = 5 + 4𝑒 −2𝑡
Solution
∞

𝐹 𝑠 =𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 = න 5 + 4𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
∞

= න 5𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 + 4𝑒 −(𝑠+2)𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
5 4
=− 0−1 − 0−1
𝑠 (𝑠 + 2)

5 4
= +
𝑠 (𝑠 + 2)
9𝑠 + 10
=
𝑠(𝑠 + 2)

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 Inverse Laplace Transform

1
 Example #2: Find the inverse Laplace transform of 𝐹 𝑠 =
𝑠+3
Solution
1
𝐹 𝑠 =
𝑠+3
1
From the Laplace table ,𝐿 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 =
𝑠+𝑎

1
Therefore if 𝐹 𝑠 = ’
𝑠+3

Then 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑒 −3𝑡

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 1
Example #3: Find the inverse Laplace transform of 𝐹 𝑠 = 2
𝑠+3
Solution
1
From the Laplace table ,𝐿 𝑡𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 = 2
𝑠+𝑎

1
Therefore if 𝐹 𝑠 = 2 ’
𝑠+3

Then 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡𝑒 −3𝑡

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 Partial Fraction Expansion

 To find the inverse Laplace transform of a complicated function, we can

convert the function to a sum of simpler terms for which we know the
Laplace transform of each term. The result is called a partial-fraction
expansion.

𝑁(𝑠)
 If 𝐹1 𝑠 = ൗ𝐷(𝑠),where the order of 𝑁(𝑠) is less than the order of 𝐷(𝑠),
then a partial-fraction expansion can be made.

 If the order of N(s) is greater than or equal to the order of D(s), then N(s)
must be divided by D(s) successively until the result has a remainder
whose numerator is of order less than its denominator. For example, if
𝑠3+2𝑠2+6𝑠+7
𝐹(𝑠) = ,we must perform the indicated division until we obtain
𝑠2+𝑠+5
a remainder whose numerator is of order less than its denominator. After
2
division, 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠 + 1 + 2
𝑠 +𝑠+5
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 Partial Fraction Expansion Cases

Case 1: Roots of the Denominator of F(s) Are Real and Distinct

Example
2
𝐹(𝑠) =
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)
Expand into partial fractions:
𝐴1 𝐴2
𝐹 𝑠 = +
𝑠+1 𝑠+2
Finding coefficients,
2
𝐴 1 = 𝑠 + 1 𝐹 𝑠 |𝑠 = − 1 = =2
𝑠+2
2
𝐴2 = 𝑠 + 2 𝐹 𝑠 |𝑠 = −2 = = −2
𝑠+1
2 −2
𝐹 𝑠 = −
𝑠+1 𝑠+2
Hence, 𝑓(𝑡) is the sum of the inverse Laplace transform of each term, or
𝑓 𝑡 = 2𝑒 −𝑡 − 2𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
The 𝑢(𝑡) shows that the response is zero until 𝑡 = 0.

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 Case 2: Roots of the Denominator of F(s) Are Real and Repeated
Example
2
𝐹(𝑠) = 2
𝑠+1 𝑠+2
Expand into partial fractions:
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3
𝐹 𝑠 = + +
𝑠+1 𝑠+2 2 𝑠+2
Finding coefficients,
2
𝐴1 = 𝑠 + 1 𝐹 𝑠 |𝑠 = −1 = =2
𝑠+2 2
2
𝐴2 = 𝑠 + 2 2𝐹 𝑠 |𝑠 = −2 = = −2
𝑠+1
1 2
2
𝐴3 = 𝑠 + 2 𝐹 𝑠 |𝑠 = − 2 = − = −2
1! 𝑠+1 2
2 −2 −2
𝐹 𝑠 = − −
𝑠+1 𝑠+2 𝑠+2
Hence, 𝑓(𝑡) is the sum of the inverse Laplace transform of each term, or
𝑓 𝑡 = 2𝑒 −𝑡 − 2𝑒 −2𝑡 − 2𝑒 −2𝑡

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 Case 3: Roots of the Denominator of F(s) Are Complex or Imaginary
 Method 1
Example
3
𝐹(𝑠) =
𝑠 𝑠2 + 2𝑠 + 5

𝐴1 𝐴2𝑠 + 𝐴3
𝐹 𝑠 = + 2
𝑠 𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 5

3 3
𝐴1 = 𝑠𝐹 𝑠 |𝑠 = 0 = =
𝑠2 + 2𝑠 + 5 5
3 3 𝐴2𝑠 + 𝐴3
= +
𝑠 𝑠2 + 2𝑠 + 5 5 𝑠2 + 2𝑠 + 5

3 2 6
3 = 𝐴2 + 𝑠 + 𝐴3 + 𝑠+3
5 5

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 3 3
𝐴2 + = 0, A2 = −
5 5
6 6
𝐴3 + = 0, 𝐴3 = −
5 5
3 3 𝑠+2
𝐹 𝑠 = − 2
5𝑠 5 𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 5

𝐴(𝑠 + 𝑎)
𝐿 𝐴𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 =
𝑠 + 𝑎 2 + 𝜔2

𝐵𝜔
𝐿 𝐵𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 =
𝑠 + 𝑎 2 + 𝜔2
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 3 3 𝑠 + 1 + (1/2)(2)
𝐹 𝑠 = −
5𝑠 5 𝑠 + 1 2 + 22

3 3 −𝑡 1
𝑓 𝑡 = − 𝑒 (𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡)
5 5 2

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 The Transfer Function

 The transfer function of a linear, time-invariant, differential equation

system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output
(response function) to the Laplace transform of the input (driving
function) under assumption that all initial conditions are zero. Consider the
linear time-invariant system defined by the following differential equation:
𝑑𝑛𝑐(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑛 −1 𝑐 𝑡 𝑑 𝑚𝑟 𝑡 𝑑𝑚 − 1𝑟 𝑡
 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑎0𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑏𝑚 𝑑𝑡𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚 − 1 𝑑𝑡𝑚−1 + ⋯+
𝑑𝑡𝑛 − 1 𝑑𝑡𝑛−1
𝑏0𝑟(𝑡)

where c(t) is the output, r(t) is the input, and the a’s, b’s, and the form of the
differential equation represent the system.

 Taking the Laplace transform of both sides,

𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑛𝐶 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛 − 1𝑠𝑛 − 1𝐶 𝑠 + ⋯ + 𝑎0𝐶 𝑠 + 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐 𝑡

= 𝑏𝑚𝑠𝑚𝑅 𝑠 + 𝑏𝑚 − 1𝑠𝑚 − 1𝑅 𝑠 + ⋯ + 𝑏0𝑅 𝑠
+ 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟(𝑡)
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Assuming that all initial conditions are zero,
𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛 − 1𝑠𝑛 − 1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0 𝐶 𝑠 = (𝑏𝑚𝑠𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚 − 1𝑠𝑚 − 1 + ⋯ + 𝑏0)𝑅 𝑠

 Now form the ratio of the output transform, C(s), divided by the input
transform, R(s):
𝐶 𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑛+𝑎𝑛 1𝑠𝑛−1+⋯+𝑎0
 =𝐺 𝑠 = −
𝑅(𝑠) (𝑏𝑚𝑠𝑚+𝑏𝑚 1𝑠𝑚−1+⋯+𝑏0)
−
 The ratio, G(s), is called the transfer function and is evaluated with
zero initial conditions.
 The transfer function can be represented as a block diagram, as shown

 we can find the output, C(s) by using C s = 𝑅 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠)

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Electrical Network Transfer Functions

 Equivalent circuits for the electric networks that we work with first
consist of three passive linear components: resistors, capacitors,
and inductors.

 We combine these electrical components into circuits, decide on the

input and output, and find the transfer function. Our guiding
principles are Kirchhoff s laws.

 We sum voltages around loops or sum currents at nodes, depending

on which technique involves the least effort in algebraic
manipulation, and then equate the result to zero.

 From these relationships we can write the differential equations for

the circuit. Then we can take the Laplace transforms of the
differential equations and finally solve for the transfer function.

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 Relationship between three passive linear
components for electric networks

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 Example: Find the transfer function relating the capacitor voltage,
Vc(s), to the input voltage, V(s)

 Summing the voltages around the loop, assuming zero initial

conditions, yields the integro-differential equation for this network
as
𝑑𝑖(𝑡) 1 𝑡
 𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖 𝑡 + ‫׬‬0 𝑖 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑑𝑞(𝑡)
 Changing variables from current to charge using 𝑖 𝑡 = yields
𝑑𝑡

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 𝑑2𝑞(𝑡) 𝑑𝑞(𝑡) 1
 𝐿 + 𝑅 + 𝑞 𝑡 =𝑣 𝑡 , but 𝑞 𝑡 = 𝐶𝑣𝑐(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡2 𝑑𝑡 𝑐
𝑑2𝑣𝑐(𝑡) 𝑑𝑣 (𝑡)
 𝐿𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶 𝑐 + 𝑣𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 ,
𝑑𝑡2 𝑑𝑡

 Taking the Laplace transform assuming zero initial

conditions, rearranging terms, and simplifying yields
 (𝐿𝐶𝑠2 + 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1)𝑣𝑐 𝑠 = 𝑣 𝑠
𝑣𝑐 (𝑠) 1 1Τ
 Transfer function: = = 𝐿𝐶
𝑣(𝑠) (𝐿𝐶𝑠2+𝑅𝐶𝑠+1) 𝑠 + ൗ𝐿𝑠+1Τ𝐿𝐶
2 𝑅

 Block diagram
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 Translational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions

 Mechanical systems parallel electrical networks to such an

extent that there are analogies between electrical and
mechanical components and variables.

 Mechanical systems, like electrical networks, have three

passive, linear components. Two of them, the spring and the
mass, are energy-storage elements; one of them, the viscous
damper, dissipates energy.

 The two energy-storage elements are analogous to the two

electrical energy-storage elements, the inductor and capacitor.

 The energy dissipater is analogous to electrical resistance.

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 Relationship between three passive linear components for electric networks

 K, fv, and M are called spring constant, coefficient of viscous friction, and mass,
respectively
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 Example: Find the transfer function, X(s)/F(s), for the system shown below:

 Begin the solution by drawing the free-body diagram

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 Write the differential equation of motion using
Newton's law to sum to zero all of the forces:
𝑑2𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
𝑀 + 𝑓𝑣 + 𝐾𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡2 𝑑𝑡
 Taking the Laplace transform, assuming zero
initial conditions,
 𝑀𝑠2𝑋 𝑠 + 𝑓𝑣𝑠𝑋 𝑠 + 𝐾𝑋 𝑠 = 𝐹(𝑠)
 (𝑀𝑠2 + 𝑓𝑣𝑠 + 𝐾)𝑋 𝑠 = 𝐹(𝑠)
 Solving for the transfer function yields:
𝑋(𝑆) 1
𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝐹(𝑠) (𝑀𝑠2+𝑓𝑣𝑠+𝐾)
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 Try the following
 1. Find the transfer function, X2(s)/F(s), for the
system shown:

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 2. Find the transfer function, G(s) = X2(s)/F(s), for
the translational mechanical system shown:

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 Rotational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions

 Rotational mechanical systems are handled the same

way as translational mechanical systems, except that
torque replaces force and angular displacement
replaces translational displacement.

 The mechanical components for rotational systems

are the same as those for translational systems,
except that the components undergo rotation instead
of translation.

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 Relationship between components

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