Unit -1 (Microbiology)

Microbiology
 Micro – Small

 Bios – Life

 Logos – Study

Microbiology is the branch of biology that deals with the study of microorganisms (microbes),
which are too small to be seen with the naked eye.

Microorganisms (microbes) are organisms having a diameter of 0.1 mm or less.

The term microbiology is associated with the pioneering work of Louis Pasteur, who made
significant contributions to the development of this field.

Branches of Microbiology
At present, six major groups are included under microorganisms, namely bacteria, fungi,
viruses, protozoa, algae, and parasites. Therefore, they are studied under the following
branches of microbiology:

Mycology- Study of fungi

Virology- Study of viruses

Protozoology- Study of protozoans

Phycology (Algology) - Study of algae

Parasitology- Study of parasites

History of Microbiology
The development of microbiology can be divided into the following three stages:

1. Discovery Stage (Before 1857)

o Early observations of microorganisms.

o Development of the first microscopes.

o Discovery of bacteria and protozoa by early scientists such as Anton van

Leeuwenhoek.

2. Transition Stage (1857–1914)

o Establishment of the Germ Theory of Disease.

o Major contributions by Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch.

o Development of sterilization, vaccination, and pure culture techniques.
 3. Modern Microbiology (1914–Present)
o Discovery of antibiotics.

o Advances in immunology, virology, molecular biology, and biotechnology.

o Development of genetic engineering, recombinant DNA technology, genomics,

and nanobiotechnology.

Discovery Stage
During this period, the microbial world was explored through the discovery of microorganisms.
Several scientists made significant contributions to the development of microbiology.

Scientist Contribution
Aristotle - Distinguished living and non-living organisms.

Roger Bacon - Proposed that diseases are caused by living organisms.

Girolamo Fracastoro- Suggested that communicable diseases are caused by germs.

Robert Hooke- First to report the cell structure (1665).

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek- First to observe microorganisms using a microscope; called them
"animalcules"; regarded as the Father of Microbiology.

Transition Stage
The Transition Stage of microbiology was marked by experiments that disproved the theory
of spontaneous generation and established that microorganisms originate from pre-existing
microorganisms.

Scientist contribution

Francesco Redi Disproved spontaneous generation using the meat and maggot experiment.

John Supported spontaneous generation after observing microbial growth in boiled

Needham broth.

Lazzaro Demonstrated that microorganisms come from air and not spontaneous
Spallanzani generation.

John Developed Tyndallization and explained the presence of heat-resistant bacterial

Tyndall spores.

Agostino Proved that muscardine disease in silkworms is caused by a fungus, linking

Bassi microbes to disease.
Modern Microbiology
The modern development of microbiology was brought about by the pioneering work of Louis
Pasteur, Robert Koch, Joseph Lister (Lord Lister), Alexander Fleming, and Paul Ehrlich.
Their discoveries laid the foundation of modern medical microbiology, immunology, and
antimicrobial therapy.

Louis Pasteur – Pasteurization, fermentation, vaccines, germ theory.

Robert Koch – Koch's postulates, tuberculosis, cholera, anthrax.

Joseph Lister – Antiseptic surgery using phenol.

Alexander Fleming – Discovery of penicillin.

Paul Ehrlich – Chemotherapy and Salvarsan.

Scope and Importance of Microbiology
1. Production of Antibiotics
Microorganisms are widely used in the production of antibiotics, which are substances that
inhibit the growth of or kill pathogenic microorganisms.

Microorganism (Bacteria/Fungi) Antibiotic Produced

Streptomyces aureofaciens Aureomycin (Chlortetracycline)

Streptomyces venezuelae Chloramphenicol

Saccharopolyspora erythraea (formerly

Erythromycin
Streptomyces erythraeus)

Penicillium notatum Penicillin

Penicillium griseofulvum Griseofulvin

2. Role in Alcohol and Vinegar Industry

Microorganisms play an important role in the production of alcohol and vinegar through the
process of fermentation.

Step 1: Alcoholic Fermentation

Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) converts glucose into ethanol and carbon dioxide under
anaerobic conditions.

𝐂𝟔 𝐇𝟏𝟐 𝐎𝟔 → 𝟐𝐂𝟐 𝐇𝟓 𝐎𝐇 + 𝟐𝐂𝐎𝟐

Glucose → Ethanol + Carbon dioxide

Step 2: Vinegar Production

Aerobic bacteria such as Acetobacter aceti and Mycoderma aceti oxidize ethanol into acetic
acid (vinegar) in the presence of oxygen.

𝐂𝟐 𝐇𝟓 𝐎𝐇 + 𝐎𝟐 → 𝐂𝐇𝟑 𝐂𝐎𝐎𝐇 + 𝐇𝟐 𝐎

Ethanol → Acetic acid (Vinegar)

3. Vitamin Production
Microorganisms are widely used for the industrial production of vitamins through fermentation
processes.

Vitamin Microorganism Application

Riboflavin (Vitamin B₂) Clostridium butylicum Industrial production of Vitamin B₂

Pseudomonas
Cobalamin (Vitamin B₁₂) Commercial production of Vitamin B₁₂
denitrificans

Vitamin A, C, D & E Algae Natural source of vitamins

Vitamin B₁, B₁₂ & C Fungi Rich natural source of vitamins

4. Baking Industry
Yeast plays an important role in the baking industry by fermenting sugars and producing carbon
dioxide, which causes dough to rise.

Microorganism Used

 Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)

Process of Bread Making

1. Flour is mixed with yeast and water to prepare dough.

2. During kneading, enzymes convert starch into simple sugars.

3. Yeast ferments the sugars using the enzyme zymase, producing ethanol and carbon
dioxide.

Fermentation Reaction
Yeast (Zymase)
𝐂𝟔 𝐇𝟏𝟐 𝐎𝟔 → 𝟐𝐂𝟐 𝐇𝟓 𝐎𝐇 + 𝟐𝐂𝐎𝟐 + 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲

Glucose → Ethanol + Carbon dioxide

Role of Carbon Dioxide

 Carbon dioxide bubbles become trapped within the dough.

 This causes the dough to rise and become soft, porous, light, and spongy.

 During baking, ethanol evaporates while carbon dioxide expands, producing the
characteristic texture of breads.
[Link] of Organic Acids

Aspergillus niger is one of the most important industrial fungi for the production of citric acid
and gluconic acid.

Microorganism Organic Acid Produced

Penicillium glaucum / Aspergillus gallomyces Gallic acid
Aspergillus niger Citric acid
Aspergillus niger Gluconic acid

Production of Industrial Enzymes

Industrial microorganisms produce commercially valuable enzymes such as amylase, protease,
invertase, and streptokinase.

Aspergillus oryzae -Amylase (Hydrolysis of starch in food and brewing industries)

Bacillus subtilis -Protease (Detergent, leather, and food industries)

Saccharomyces cerevisiae -Invertase (Hydrolysis of sucrose in confectionery industries)

Streptococcus pyogenes -Streptokinase (Dissolution of blood clots in thrombolytic therapy)

6. Cosmetic and Perfume Industry

Microorganisms and their natural products are widely used in the manufacture of cosmetics,
perfumes, soaps, and personal care products.

Applications
 Lichens, such as Evernia and Ramalina, are used in the manufacture of perfumes and
soaps because of their pleasant fragrance and fixative properties.

 Carrageenan, extracted from red seaweeds, is used as a thickening, stabilizing, and

gelling agent in the manufacture of:

o Ice cream

o Toothpaste

o Shampoos

o Cosmetic creams and lotions

o Paints
7. Production of Dairy Products

 Microorganisms, particularly lactic acid bacteria (LAB), play an essential role in the
production of various dairy products by fermenting lactose into lactic acid. This process
improves the flavor, texture, shelf life, and nutritional value of dairy products.

Microorganisms Used in Dairy Products

Microorganism Dairy Product Produced

Lactococcus lactis (formerly Streptococcus lactis) Cheese
Streptococcus lactis Curd, Butter
Streptococcus lactis and Streptococcus cremoris Buttermilk
Lactobacillus lactis Cheese

8. Agriculture and Soil Industry

Microorganisms play a vital role in improving soil fertility and plant growth through the
nitrogen cycle.

Importance of Nitrogen
 Nitrogen is an essential nutrient required for the growth and development of plants.

 Plants absorb nitrogen mainly in the form of nitrates (NO₃⁻) and ammonium ions
(NH₄⁺).

9. Use of Microorganisms as Food

Microorganisms, especially algae (seaweeds), are important sources of food additives and
essential nutrients. They are widely used in the food industry because of their nutritional value
and functional properties.

Applications
 Gelidium and Gracilaria are red algae that produce agar-agar, a jelly-like
polysaccharide.

 Agar-agar is widely used as:

o A gelling agent in food products.

o A stabilizer in the manufacture of ice cream, jellies, desserts, and confectionery.

o A culture medium in microbiological laboratories.

 Laminaria (brown seaweed) is a rich natural source of iodine, an essential mineral

required for the normal functioning of the thyroid gland and the synthesis of thyroid
hormones.