MATRUSRI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Saidabad, Hyderabad-500 059.

(Approved by AICTE & Affiliated to Osmania University)
All Branches Accredited by NBA

Course File
Course Name : ………Metallurgy Material Science……………………………

Course Code : …………PC 221ME…………………………….

Semester : …………III…………………………….

Department of
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
 COURSE FILE CONTENTS
[Link]. Topic Page no.
1. Department Vision and Mission
2. Course Description
3. Course Overview
4. Course Pre-requisites
5. Marks Distribution
6. POs and PSOs
7. Course outcomes (COs)
8. CO mapping with POs and PSOs
9. Syllabus, Textbooks and Reference Books
10. Gaps in syllabus
11. Course plan/Lesson Plan
12. Lecture Notes
Unit-I
Unit-II
Unit-III
Unit-IV
Unit-V
13. Unit wise Question Bank
a. Short answer questions
b. Long answer questions
14. Previous University Question papers
15. Internal Question Papers with Key
16. Unit wise Assignment Questions
17. Content Beyond Syllabus
Methodology used to identify Weak and bright
students
 Support extended to weak students
 Efforts to engage bright students
 CERTIFICATE

I, the undersigned, have completed the course allotted to me as shown below,

[Link]. Semester Name of the Subject Course ID Total
Units

1 III Metallurgy PC221ME 5

Material Science

Date: 18/02/2021 Prepared by

Academic Year: 2020-2021 1. …..P. NAVEEN KISHORE…….

2. …………………….

Verifying authority:
1. Head of the Department: …[Link]…....

2.

3.

PRINCIPAL
 MATRUSRI ENGINEERING COLLEGE
Saidabad, Hyderabad-500 059.
(Approved by AICTE & Affiliated to Osmania University)

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT VISION
The Mechanical Engineering department strives to produce quality engineers to enable
them pursue diverse careers with professional standards and ethical values.

DEPARTMENT MISSION
M1: To provide relevant and quality education to meet needs of industry and society.
M2: To equip with requisite set of skills and knowledge to succeed and thrive as
engineers and leaders.
M3: To provide a continuous learning environment for promoting research activities.
M4: To provide a competitive atmosphere to encourage innovative and original
thinking.

COURSE DESCRIPTOR

Course Title METALLURGY MATERIAL SCIENCE

PC221ME
Course Code

Programme B.E

Semester III

Course Type Core

Regulation 2020-2021

Theory Practical

Lectures Tutorials Credits Laboratory Credits

3 3

Course Faculty
Mr. P. NAVEEN KISHORE

I. COURSE OVERVIEW:
The Objective of this course is to impart the knowledge of
 Enable to understand structure property relations, analyze the failures of metals and their
prevention.
 To broad understanding of phase diagrams.
  Acquire basic knowledge in various heat treatment operations, their purpose and applications.
Expose To various methods of extractive metallurgy techniques.
 Understand various modes of failure and suggest mechanisms for preventions of failures.
 Understand applications of conventional metals and alloys.

II. COURSE PRE-REQUISITES:

Level Course Code Semester Prerequisites Credits

UG

UG

III. MARKS DISTRIBUTION:

SEE CIA
Subject Total Marks
Examination Examination
METALLURGY MATERIAL SCIENCE 70 30 100

IV. PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs):

The students will be able to:

Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
PO1 fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
PO2 Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PO3 Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and
design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
PO4 Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research
methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of
the information to provide valid conclusions.
PO5 Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities
with an understanding of the limitations.
The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
PO6 societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to
the professional engineering practice.
PO7 Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and
need for sustainable development.
PO8 Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
PO9 Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in
diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
PO10 Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and
receive clear instructions.
 Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
PO11 engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
PO12
independent and life- long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

V. PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs):

The students will be able to:

PSO1 To become an entrepreneur/ pursue a profession in Mechanical Engineering.

PSO2 To take up multi-disciplinary and cost effective research oriented projects

PSO3
VI. COURSE OUTCOMES (COs):

The course should enable the students to:

CO1 Know the fundamental science and engineering principles relevant to material.

CO2 Suggest appropriate physical metallurgical methods (phase diagrams).

The type of heat treatment operation to be given to any metal in order to improve
CO3
desired Mechanical properties.
CO4 Suggest the appropriate methods for prevention of failures.

CO5 Analyze the applications of conventional metals and alloys.

VII. MAPPING COURSE OUTCOMES (COs) with POs and PSOs:

(3 = High; 2 = Medium; 1 = Low )
POs PSOs
COs
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2 PSO3

CO1 3 2 2 - 1 - - 1 1 1 2 1 2 2

CO2 2 2 2 - 1 - - 1 1 1 2 1 1 2

CO3 3 2 2 - 2 - - 2 1 1 2 1 2 2

CO4 2 2 2 - 2 - - 1 1 1 2 1 2 2

CO5 2 2 2 - 2 - - 1 1 1 2 1 1 1

VIII. SYLLABUS :
UNIT I- [Link] Hrs
Introduction to Materials engineering, classification of materials- metals and
alloys, ceramics, polymers and composites, Space lattice, unit cell, crystal
structure, crystal directions and planes, crystal imperfections- point defects, line
defects, surface defects, volume defects. Types of dislocations, Effect of slip and 10
twinning on the plastic deformation, Jogs and its effect on yield phenomenon,
Hall-Petch equation, Orange peel effect, cold and hot working, strain hardening
and Bauchinger effect. Recovery, Recrystallisation, Grain growth and its effect on
mechanical properties of metals.
 Mechanical properties of materials- Tensile properties, stress-strain diagrams,
elasticity, plasticity, ductility, toughness, modulus of elasticity, resolved shear
stress, tensile and compression test, hardness and its measurement
UNIT II-
Fracture: Ductile and Brittle fracture, modes of fracture, ductile to brittle
transition, crack initiation and propagation.
Fatigue: S-N curve, Structure of fatigue fracture specimen, Fatigue crack
propagation, Effect of metallurgical variables on fatigue of metal, Experimental
determination of fatigue strength (RR-Moore Test). 8
Creep: Creep strength, Creep curve, Creep deformation mechanisms, Creep Test,
Differences between creep curve and stress rupture curve.
UNIT III-
Structure of Alloys: Types of solid solution, Substitutional and Hume Rothary’s
rules for solid solution, Construction and interpretation of Binary equilibrium
diagram, Isomorphous, Eutectic and Peritectic diagrams, Intermediate phases and 9
phase rule, Iron-Iron Carbide equilibrium diagram, construction and interpretation.
Types of Plain Carbon Steels, Cast Iron and their properties and Characteristics.
UNIT IV-
Alloy Steels: Effects of alloying elements like Nickel, Chromium, Manganese,
Silicon and Tungsten. Titanium. Study about Stainless steels, HSS, Maraging
steels, Brass, Bronze, Muntz Metal, Invar, Duralumin and Ti Alloy (Ti-6Al-4V) –
their composition and Properties.
7
Heat Treatment: Annealing, Normalising, Hardening, Tempering, Construction
and interpretation of T.T.T Curve. Austempering and Martempering.
Case Hardening: Carburising, Nitriding, Carbo-nitriding, Flame Hardening,
Induction Hardening. Brief introduction of Age Hardening.
UNIT V-
Non-ferrous metals and alloys: Properties and applications of –Cu and its alloys,
Al and its alloys, Age hardening, Ti and its alloys, Ni- based alloys
Ceramics, Polymers and Composites: Ceramics, crystalline ceramics, glasses, 8
properties and applications of ceramics, polymers-polymerization, thermoplastics
and thermosetting plastics, properties and applications of polymers. Composites:
concept of composites, matrix and reinforcement, rule of mixtures, classification
of composites, applications of composites.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. [Link], Material Science and Engineering, Prentice Hall of India Ltd., 4th Edition,
1994.
2. S.H. Avner, Introduction to Physical Metallurgy, Tata McGraw Hill, 2nd Edn.1997.

3. S.P. Nayak, Engineering Metallurgy and Material Science, Charotar Publishing House, 6th
Edition, 1995.
REFERENCES:

1 E. Dieter, Mechanical Metallurgy, Metric Editions, Tata McGraw Hill, 3rd Edn,1997.

2. Robert M Jones, Mechanics of Composite Materials, Taylor and Francis.

IX. GAPS IN THE SYLLABUS - TO MEET INDUSTRY / PROFESSION REQUIREMENTS:

Proposed Relevance With Relevance With

S No Description
Actions POs PSOs
1

2
 3

X. COURSE PLAN/ LECTURE PLAN:

PPT/BB/
Text
Lecture OHP/ No. Relevant
Topics to be covered Book/Reference
No. e- of Hrs COs
Book
material
1 I Introduction to Materials [Link],
engineering, PPT 1
1
Material Science
and Engineering
2 classification of materials- metals [Link],
and alloys, ceramics, polymers and PPT 1 1 Material Science
composites and Engineering
3 Space lattice, unit cell, crystal [Link],
1
structure, crystal directions and 1 Material Science
planes PPT and Engineering
4 crystal imperfections- point defects, [Link],
line defects, PPT/BB 1 1 Material Science
and Engineering
5 surface defects, volume defects. [Link],
Types of dislocations, PPT/BB 1 1 Material Science
and Engineering
6 Effect of slip and twinning on the [Link],
plastic deformation, Jogs and its PPT/BB 1 1 Material Science
effect on yield phenomenon, and Engineering
7 Hall-Petch equation, Orange peel [Link],
effect, cold and hot working, strain PPT 1 1 Material Science
hardening and Bauchinger effect. and Engineering
8 Recovery, Recrystallisation, Grain [Link],
growth and its effect on mechanical Material Science
PPT/BB 1 1
properties of metals. and Engineering

9 Mechanical properties of [Link],

materials- Tensile properties, Material Science
stress-strain diagrams, elasticity, PPT 1 1 and Engineering
plasticity, ductility, toughness,
modulus of elasticity,
10 resolved shear stress, tensile and [Link],
compression test, hardness and its PPT/BB 1 1 Material Science
measurement and Engineering
11 II Fracture: Ductile and Brittle S.P. Nayak,
fracture, modes of fracture, Engineering
PPT/BB 1 2
Metallurgy and
Material Science
12 Brittle fracture, modes of fracture, S.P. Nayak,
Engineering
PPT/BB 1 2
Metallurgy and
Material Science
 PPT/BB/
Text
Lecture OHP/ No. Relevant
Topics to be covered Book/Reference
No. e- of Hrs COs
Book
material
13 ductile to brittle transition, crack S.P. Nayak,
initiation and propagation Engineering
PPT/BB 1 2
Metallurgy and
Material Science
14 Fatigue: S-N curve, Structure of S.P. Nayak,
fatigue fracture specimen, Fatigue Engineering
PPT/BB 1 2
crack propagation, Metallurgy and
Material Science
15 Effect of metallurgical variables on S.P. Nayak,
fatigue of metal, Experimental Engineering
determination of fatigue strength PPT/BB 1 2 Metallurgy and
(RR-Moore Test). Material Science

16 Creep: Creep strength, Creep S.P. Nayak,

curve, Engineering
PPT/BB 1 2
Metallurgy and
Material Science
17 Creep deformation mechanisms, S.P. Nayak,
Engineering
PPT 1 2
Metallurgy and
Material Science
18 Creep Test, Differences between S.P. Nayak,
creep curve and stress rupture Engineering
PPT 1 2
curve. Metallurgy and
Material Science
19 III Structure of Alloys: Types of E. Dieter,
solid solution, PPT/BB 1 3 Mechanical
Metallurgy,
20 Substitutional and Hume E. Dieter,
Rothary’s rules for solid solution, PPT/BB 1 3 Mechanical
Metallurgy,
21 Construction and interpretation of E. Dieter,
Binary equilibrium diagram, PPT/BB 1 3 Mechanical
Metallurgy,
22 Isomorphous, Eutectic and E. Dieter,
Peritectic diagrams, PPT/BB 1 3 Mechanical
Metallurgy,
23 Intermediate phases and phase E. Dieter,
rule, Iron-Iron Carbide PPT/BB 1 3 Mechanical
equilibrium diagram, construction Metallurgy,
24 Iron-Iron Carbide equilibrium E. Dieter,
diagram, interpretation. PPT/BB 1 3 Mechanical
Metallurgy,
25 Types of Plain Carbon Steels, E. Dieter,
PPT 1 3 Mechanical
Metallurgy,
26 Cast Iron and their properties and E. Dieter,
Characteristics. PPT 1 3 Mechanical
Metallurgy,
27 Cast Iron and their properties and E. Dieter,
Characteristics. PPT 1 3 Mechanical
Metallurgy,
 PPT/BB/
Text
Lecture OHP/ No. Relevant
Topics to be covered Book/Reference
No. e- of Hrs COs
Book
material
28 IV Alloy Steels: Effects of alloying S.P. Nayak,
elements like Nickel, Chromium, Engineering
Manganese, Silicon and Tungsten.
PPT 1 4
Metallurgy and
Titanium. Material Science
29 Study about Stainless steels, HSS, S.P. Nayak,
Maraging steels, Brass, Bronze, Engineering
Muntz Metal, Invar, Duralumin and PPT 1 4 Metallurgy and
Ti Alloy (Ti-6Al-4V) – their Material Science
composition and Properties.
30 Heat Treatment: Annealing, S.P. Nayak,
Normalising Engineering
PPT/BB 1 4
Metallurgy and
Material Science
31 Hardening, Tempering, S.P. Nayak,
Engineering
PPT/BB 1 4
Metallurgy and
Material Science
32 Construction and interpretation of S.P. Nayak,
T.T.T Curve. Austempering and Engineering
PPT/BB 1 4
Martempering. Metallurgy and
Material Science
33 Case Hardening: Carburising, S.P. Nayak,
Nitriding, Carbo-nitriding, Engineering
PPT/BB 1 4
Metallurgy and
Material Science
34 Flame Hardening, Induction S.P. Nayak,
Hardening. Brief introduction of Engineering
Age Hardening.
PPT/BB 1 4
Metallurgy and
Material Science
35 V Non-ferrous metals and alloys: [Link],
Properties and applications of –Cu Material Science
PPT 1 5
and its alloys, Al and its alloys, and Engineering,

36 Age hardening, Ti and its alloys, [Link],

Ni- based alloys PPT 1 5 Material Science
and Engineering,
37 Ceramics, Polymers and [Link],
Composites: Ceramics, crystalline Material Science
ceramics, applications of
PPT 5
and Engineering,
ceramics,
38 glasses, properties and [Link],
applications of glasses PPT 1 5 Material Science
and Engineering,
39 polymers-polymerization, [Link],
thermoplastics and thermosetting PPT 1 5 Material Science
plastics, and Engineering,
40 properties and applications of [Link],
polymers PPT 1 5 Material Science
and Engineering,
41 Composites: concept of [Link],
composites, matrix and Material Science
reinforcement, rule of mixtures,
PPT 1 5
and Engineering,
classification of composites,
 PPT/BB/
Text
Lecture OHP/ No. Relevant
Topics to be covered Book/Reference
No. e- of Hrs COs
Book
material
42 Applications of composites. [Link],
PPT 1 5 Material Science
and Engineering,

LECTURE NOTES
UNIT-I:
 UNIT I

1.1 Introduction of Materials Science and Engineering

Materials Science – Investigating relationships that exist between the structure and properties of materials.

Materials Engineering – On the basis of these structure-property correlations, designing or engineering the
structure of a material to produce a pre-determined set of properties.

Structure
Structure of a material usually relates to the arrangement of its internal components.

Subatomic - Structure involves electrons within the individual atoms and interactions with their nuclei.

Atomic level- structure encompasses the organization of atoms or molecules relative to one another.

Microscopic - Which contains large groups of atoms that are normally agglomerated together.

Macroscopic – viewable with the naked eye.

Property
A property is a material trait in terms of the kind and magnitude of response to a specific imposed stimulus.
Properties are made independent of material shape and size.

Example-

A specimen subjected to forces will experience deformation,

A polished metal surface will reflect light.

Properties of solid materials may be grouped into six different categories: (1) mechanical, (2)electrical, (3)
thermal, (4) magnetic, (5) optical and (6) deteriorative.

The four components of the discipline of materials science and engineering and their interrelationship.

Classification of Materials
Solid materials have been conveniently grouped into three basic classifications:

(1) metals, (2) ceramics, and (3) polymers.

1. Metals-

• Materials in this group are composed of one or more metallic elements (such as iron, aluminum, copper,
titanium, gold, and nickel), and often also nonmetallic elements (for example, carbon, nitrogen, and
oxygen) in relatively small amounts.
• Atoms in metals and their alloys are arranged in a very orderly manner.
• In comparison to the ceramics and polymers, are relatively dense.
• Mechanical Property- relatively stiff and strong , ductile (i.e., capable of large amounts of deformation
without fracture), and are resistant to fracture.
• Metallic materials have large numbers of nonlocalized electrons; that is, these electrons are not bound to
particular [Link] properties of metals are directly attributable to these electrons.
• Example, metals are extremely good conductors of electricity,and heat, and are not transparent to visible
light; a polished metal surface has a lustrous appearance.
• Some of the metals (viz., Fe, Co, and Ni) have desirable magnetic properties.

2. Ceramics

• Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements; they are most frequently oxides,
nitrides, and carbides.
• Examples-aluminum oxide (or alumina, Al2O3), silicon dioxide (or silica, SiO2),silicon carbide (SiC),
silicon nitride (Si3N4).
• Examples of traditional ceramics — clay minerals (i.e., porcelain), cement, and glass.

Properties-

• Relatively stiff and strong—stiffnesses and strengths are comparable to those of the metals , very hard,
extremely brittle (lack ductility),.highly susceptible to fracture.
• Thermal and electrical Properties- Insulative to the passage of heat and electricity low electrical
conductivities and are more resistant to high temperatures
• Optical characteristics-Ceramics may be transparent, translucent, or opaque.

Polymers
Carbon-based compounds

• Chain of H-C molecules. Each repeat unit of H-C is a monomer e.g. ethylene (C2H4), Polyethylene – (–
CH2 –CH2)n.
• Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials.
• Many of them are organic compounds that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and other
nonmetallic elements (viz. O, N, and Si).
• They have very large molecular structures, often chain-like in nature that have a backbone of carbon
atoms. Some of the common and familiar polymers are polyethylene (PE), nylon, poly (vinyl
chloride)(PVC), polycarbonate (PC), polystyrene (PS), and silicone rubber.
Properties

• Low densities, not as stiff nor as strong as ceramics and metals.

• Extremely ductile and pliable (i.e., plastic).
• Relatively inert chemically and unreactive in a large number of environments.

Limitations

• Tendency to soften and/or decompose at modest temperatures, which, in some instances,limits their use.
• Low electrical conductivities and are nonmagnetic.

Composites
• A composite is composed of two (or more) individual materials, which come from the categories
discussed above—viz., metals, ceramics, and polymers.
• Objective-to achieve a combination of properties that is not displayed by any single material

Examples

• Cemented carbides (WC with Co binder)

• Plastic molding compounds containing fillers
• Rubber mixed with carbon black
• Wood (a natural composite as distinguished from a synthesized composite)

Advance Materials
• Materials that are utilized in high-technology (or high-tech) applications are sometimes termed advanced
materials.

Examples

• Include electronic equipment (camcorders, CD/DVD players, etc.), computers, fiber-optic systems,
spacecraft, aircraft, and military rocketry, liquid crystal displays (LCDs), and fiber optics.
• These advanced materials may be typically traditional materials types (e.g., metals, ceramics, polymers)
whose properties have been enhanced, and, also newly developed, high-performance materials.
• Advanced materials include semiconductors, biomaterials, and what we may term“ materials of the
future.

Biomaterials
• Biomaterials are employed in components implanted into the human body for replacement of diseased or
damaged body parts.
• These materials must not produce toxic substances and must be compatible with body tissues (i.e., must
not cause adverse biological reactions).
• All of the above materials—metals, ceramics, polymers, composites, and semiconductors—may be used
as biomaterials.
Example-

Titanium and its alloy, Co-Cr alloy, stainless steel, zirconia, HA, TiO2 etc.

Semiconductors
• Semiconductors have electrical properties that are intermediate between the electrical conductors (viz.
metals and metal alloys) and insulators (viz. ceramics and polymers).
• The electrical characteristics of these materials are extremely sensitive to the presence of minute
concentrations of impurity atoms, for which the concentrations may be controlled over very small spatial
regions.
• Semiconductors have made possible the advent of integrated circuitry that has totally revolutionized the
electronics and computer industries (not to mention our lives) over the past three decades.

The Materials Selection Process

• Pick Application and determine required Properties.
• Properties: mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical, deteriorative.
• Properties- Identify candidate Material(s)
• Material: structure, composition.
• Material- Identify required Processing
• Processing: changes structure and overall shape

Example: casting, sintering, vapor deposition, doping forming, joining, annealing.

1.2 Defects in Solids

• The term “defect” or “imperfection” is generally used to describe any deviation from the perfect
periodic array of atoms in the crystal.
• The properties of some materials are extremely influenced by the presence of imperfections such as
mechanical strength, ductility, crystal growth, magnetic hysteresis, dielectric strength, condition in
semiconductors, which are termed structure sensitive are greatly affected by the-relatively minor
changes in crystal structure caused by defects or imperfections.
• There are some properties of materials such as stiffness, density and electrical conductivity which are
termed structure-insensitive, are not affected by the presence of defects in crystals.
• It is important to have knowledge about the types of imperfections that exist and the roles they play in
affecting the behavior of materials.
• Crystal imperfections can be classified on the basis of their geometry as
Point Defects in Metals
It is a zero dimension defect, associated with one or two atomic positions.

Vacancies -The simplest of the point defects is a vacancy, or vacant lattice site, one normally
occupied from which an atom is missing. All crystalline solids contain vacancies and, in fact, it is not possible
to create such a material that is free of these defects, vacant atomic sites in a structure.

Self-Interstitials- when an atom occupies an interstitial site where no atom would ordinarily appear, causing an
interstitialcy.
Point Defects in Ceramics

Vacancies- vacancies exist in ceramics for both cations and anions.

Interstitials - interstitials exist for cations, interstitials are not normally observed for anions because anions
are large relative to the interstitial sites.

Frenkel Defect

To maintain the charge neutrality, a cation vacancy-cation interstitial pair occur together. This is called a
Frenkel defect. The cation leaves its normal position and moves to the interstitial site. There is no change in
charge because the cation maintains the same positive charge as an interstitial.

Schottky Defect

A cation vacancy–anion vacancy pair known as a Schottky defect. To maintain the charge neutrality, remove
one cation and one anion; this creates two vacancies.
EFFECT OF POINT IMPERFECTIONS

• The presence of a point imperfection introduces distortions in the crystal.

• In the case of impurity atom, because of its difference in size, elastic strains are created in the
regions surrounding the impurity atom.
• All these factors tend to increase the potential energy of the crystal called ‘enthalpy’. The work done
for the creation of such a point defect is called the ‘enthalpy of formation’ of the point imperfection

LINE IMPERFECTIONS

• A dislocation is a linear or one-dimensional defect around which some of the atoms are misaligned. The
defects, which take place due to distortion of atoms along a line, in some direction are called as ‘line
defects,.Line defects are also called dislocations.

• It is responsible for the phenomenon of slip by which most metals deform plastically.

The two types of dislocations are,

Edge dislocation

• It is a linear defect that centers around the line that is defined along the end of the extra half-plane of
atoms.
• The distorted configuration extends all along the edge into the crystal.
• Thus as the region of maximum distortion is centered around the edge of the incomplete plane, this
distortion represents a line imperfection and is called an edge dislocation.
• Edge dislocations are represented by ‘⊥’ or ‘Τ‘ depending on whether the incomplete plane starts from
the top or from the bottom of the crystal.
• These two configurations are referred to as positive and negative edge dislocations respectively.
Screw dislocation:-

• In this dislocation, the atoms are displaced in two separate planes perpendicular to each other.

• It forms a spiral ramp around the dislocation.

• The Burgers Vector is parallel to the screw dislocation line.

• Speed of movement of a screw dislocation is lesser compared to edge dislocation.

Burgers vector - The magnitude and direction of the lattice distortion associated with a dislocation is expressed
in terms of a Burgers vector, denoted by a b.

The Burger vector can be found by the gap in the Burger circuit which is obtained by moving equal distances in
each direction around the dislocation.
Mixed dislocations - Most dislocations found in crystalline materials are probably neither pure edge nor pure
screw, but exhibit components of both types; these are termed mixed dislocations.

Surface imperfections

• Surface imperfections arise from a change in the stacking of atomic planes on or across a boundary.
• The change may be one of the orientations or of the stacking sequence of atomic planes.
• In geometric concept, surface imperfections are two- dimensional. They are of two types external and
internal surface imperfections.

External Surfaces

• They are the imperfections represented by a boundary. At the boundary the atomic bonds are terminated.
• Surface atoms are not bonded to the maximum number of nearest neighbors, and are therefore in a
higher energy state than the atoms at interior positions. The bonds of these surface atoms that are not
satisfied give rise to a surface energy, expressed in units of energy per unit area (J/m2 or erg/cm2).

Grain Boundaries
• The boundary separating two small grains or crystals having different crystallographic orientations in
polycrystalline materials.
Twin Boundaries

• A twin boundary is a special type of grain boundary across which there is a specific mirror lattice
symmetry; that is, atoms on one side of the boundary are located in mirror-image positions of the atoms
on the other side.

• The region of material between these boundaries is appropriately termed a twin.

• Twins result from atomic displacements that are produced from applied mechanical shear forces
(mechanical twins), and also during annealing heat treatments following deformation (annealing twins).

Volume Defects-

These include pores, cracks, foreign inclusions, and other phases. They are normally introduced during
processing and fabrication steps.

Effect on property

• There are some properties of materials such as stiffness, density and electrical conductivity which are
termed structure-insensitive, are not affected by the presence of defects in crystals while there are many
properties of greatest technical importance such as mechanical strength, ductility, crystal growth,
magnetic.

• Hysteresis, dielectric strength, condition in semiconductors, which are termed structure sensitive are
greatly affected by the-relatively minor changes in crystal structure caused by defects or imperfections.
Mechanisms/modes of plastic deformation
Plastic deformation in crystalline solid is accomplished by means of various processes mentioned below; among
which slip is the most important mechanism.
Plastic deformation of crystalline materials takes place by mechanisms which are very different from that for
amorphous materials (glasses). Plastic deformation in amorphous materials occur by other mechanisms
including flow (~viscous fluid) and shear banding.
Plastic deformation by dislocation Motion (SLIP)

 SLIP is the most important mechanism of plastic deformation. At low temperatures (especially in BCC
metals) twinning may also become important.
 At the fundamental level plastic deformation (in crystalline materials) by slip involves the motion of
dislocations on the slip plane (creating a step of Burgers vector).
 Slip is caused by shear stresses (at the level of the slip plane). Hence, a purely hydrostatic state of stress
cannot cause slip.
 A slip system consists of a slip direction lying on a slip plane.
 Slip is analogous to the mode of locomotion employed by a caterpillar


 Dislocations move more easily on specific planes and in specific directions.

 Ordinarily, there is a preferred plane (slip plane), and specific directions (slip direction) along which
dislocations move. The combination of slip plane and slip direction is called the slip system.
 The slip system depends on the crystal structure of the metal.
 The slip plane is the plane that has the most dense atomic packing (the greatest planar density). The slip
direction is most closely packed with atoms (highest linear density).
 In CCP, HCP materials the slip system consists of a close packed direction on a close packed plane.
 Just the existence of a slip system does not guarantee slip → slip is competing against other processes
like twinning and fracture. If the stress to cause slip is very high (i.e. CRSS is very high), then fracture
may occur before slip (like in brittle ceramics).
  For slip to occur in polycrystalline materials, 5 independent slip systems are required. Hence, materials
which are ductile in single crystalline form may not be ductile in polycrystalline form. CCP crystals (Cu,
Al, and Au) have excellent ductility.
 At higher temperatures more slip systems may become active and hence polycrystalline materials which
are brittle at low temperature may become ductile at high temperature.
Crystal Slip plane(s) Slip direction Number of slip systems

FCC {111} ½<110> 12

HCP (0001) <1120> 3

BCC {110}, {112}, {123} ½[111] 48

{110}
NaCl (Ionic) ½<110> 6
{111} not a slip plane

C (Diamond cubic) {111} ½<110> 12

TiO2(Rutile) {101} <101>

CaF2, UO2, ThO2

{001} <110>
Fluorite

CsCl {110} <001>

NaCl, LiF, MgO

{110} <110> 6
Rock Salt
C, Ge, Si
{111} <110> 12
Diamond cubic
MgAl2O4
{111} <110>
Spinel
Al2O3
(0001) <1120>
Hexagonal

Slip in Single Crystal

• If a single crystal of a metal is stressed in tension beyond its elastic limit, it elongates slightly and a step
appears on the surface due to the relative displacement of one part of the crystal with respect to the
others and the elongation stops.
• Further increase in the load causes movement of another parallel plane, resulting in another step.
Similarly numbers of small steps are formed on the surface of the single crystal that are parallel to one
another and loop around the circumference of the specimen.

• Each step (shear band) results from the movement of a large number of dislocations and their
propagation in the slip system.

• Extent of slip in a single crystal depends on the magnitude of shearing stress produced by external loads,
geometry of the crystal structure and the orientation of he active slip planes with respect to the shearing
stress.

• Slip begins when the shearing stress on slip plane in the slip direction/Resolved Shear Stress (RSS)
reaches a critical value called the Critical Resolved Shear Stress (CRSS) and plastic deformation starts
(The actual Schmid’s law)

• Even if we apply an tensile force on the specimen → the shear stress resolved onto the slip plane is
responsible for slip.
 • τ RSS is maximum (P/2A) when ϕ = λ=45o
• If the tension axis is normal to slip plane i.e. λ=90o or if it is parallel to the slip plane i.e. ϕ = 90o
then τ RSS = 0 and slip will not occur as per Schmid’s law.

• τCRSS is a material parameter, which is determined from experiments.

Plastic deformation by Twin

• In addition to slip (dislocation movement), plastic deformation can also occur by twinning.
• Twinning results when a portion of the crystal takes up an orientation that is related to the orientation of
the rest of the un twinned lattice in a definite, symmetrical way.
• Twinned portion of the crystal is a mirror image of the parent crystal and the plane of symmetry between
the two portions is called twinning plane.
• Twinning may favorably reorient slip systems to promote dislocation movement.

• Twins are generally of two types: Mechanical Twins and Annealing twins
• Mechanical twins are generally seen in bcc or hcp metals and produced under conditions of rapid
rate of loading and decreased temperature.
• Annealing twins are produced as the result of annealing. These twins are generally seen in fcc
metals.
• Annealing twins are usually broader and with straighter sides than mechanical twins.
(a) Mechanical Twins (Neumann bands in iron), (b) Mechanical Twins in zinc produced by polishing (c)
Annealing Twins in gold-silver alloy

• Twinning generally occurs when the slip systems are restricted or when the slip systems are restricted
or when something increases the critical resolved shear stress so that the twinning stress is lower than
the stress for slip.

• So, twinning generally occurs at low temperatures or high strain rates in bcc or fcc metals or in hcp
metals.

• Twinning occurs on specific twinning planes and

twinning directions.
Bauschinger effect

• The Bauschinger effect refers to a property of materials where the material's stress/strain characteristics
change as a result of the microscopic stress distribution of the material. For example, an increase in
tensile yield strength occurs at the expense of compressive yield strength. The effect is named after
German engineer Johann Bauschinger.
• The Bauschinger effect is normally associated with conditions where the yield strength of a metal
decreases when the direction of strain is changed. It is a general phenomenon found in most
polycrystalline metals.
• The basic mechanism for the Bauschinger effect is related to the dislocation structure in the cold worked
metal. As deformation occurs, the dislocations will accumulate at barriers and produce dislocation pile-
ups and tangles. Based on the cold work structure, two types of mechanisms are generally used to
explain the Bauschinger effect.

Work Hardening

Room temperature deformation.

• Common forming techniques used to change the cross sectional area:
Dislocations during Cold Work

• Dislocations entangle one another during cold work.

• Dislocation motion becomes more difficult, which makes the material stronger overall

Isotropic grains are approx. spherical, Anisotropic (directional) since rolling

equiaxed & randomly oriented. affects grain orientation and shape.

Result of Cold Work

• Dislocation density increases, which leads to a increase in yield strength: Materials becomes harder.
• Ductility and tensile strength also increases.

Recovery, Recrystallization & Grain Growth

Recovery

• Recovery takes place at low temperatures of annealing.

• Apparently no change in microstructure.
• During recovery, some of the stored internal strain energy is relieved through dislocation motion due to
enhanced atomic diffusion at the elevated temperatures.
 • Leads to reduction in the number of dislocations.

• This process also removes the residual stresses formed due to cold working significant.
• The recovering of physical and mechanical properties varies with the temperature and time.
• Recovery is a relaxation process with the following characteristics:

 There is no incubation period

 Recovery rate is large at the beginning, and then it slows down till it is near zero
 Recovery has a limit value varying with temperature; the higher the temperature, the greater is the limit
value and the shorter is the time needed to reach the limit value
 The greater the deformation, the greater is the initial recovery rate, and decrease in grain size helps to
accelerate the recovery process

The characteristic of recovery can be expressed as the following equation:

Where
t is the time of heating under constant temperature
x is the fraction of property increase caused by cold work after heating
c is a constant related with material and temperature
The value of constant parameter c can be described with the Arrhenius equation:

Recrystallization

• After recovery is complete, the grains are still in a relatively high strain energy state.

• Recrystallization is the formation of a new set of strain-free and uniaxial grains that have low dislocation
densities.

• The temperature at which materials are recrystallized is known as the recrystallization temperature,
Trecrystallization ∈ (0.3 – 0.5) Tm

• The driving force to produce the new grain structure is the internal energy difference between strained
and unstrained material.

• •The new grains form as very small nuclei and grow until they consume the parent material.

• Recrystallization is a heterogeneous process and dependent on the deformation state of steels.

• The kinetics of recrystallization depends on nucleation rate, N, and growth rate, G.

Grain Growth

• After recrystallization, the strain-free grains will continue to grow if the metal specimen is left at
elevated temperatures. Grains begin to grow via grain boundary immigration; this phenomenon is called
grain growth.
 • Grain growth is driven by the tendency to decrease the total boundary surface energy by decreasing the
grain boundary area.

• Large grains grow at the expense of smaller grains.

(a)
(b) (c) (d)

Fig.1.1. (a) Work hardening, (b) recovery, (c) recrystallization, and (d) grain growth during annealing.

Solidification

Solidification is basically phase transformation from liquid phase to solid phase. The progress of a phase
transformation takes place in two stages: nucleation and growth. Nucleation involves the appearance of very
small particles, or nuclei of the new phase (often consisting of only a few hundred atoms), which are capable of
growing. During the growth stage these nuclei increase in size, which results in the disappearance of some (or
all) of the parent phase.
Mechanical Properties of Metals

Stress-Strain curve (Mild Steel)

Elastic deformation:
When the stress is removed, the material returns to the dimension it had before the loadwas
applied. Valid for small strains (except the case of rubbers).Deformation is reversible, non
permanent
Plastic deformation:
When the stress is removed, the material does not return to its previous dimension but there is a
permanent, irreversible deformation. In tensile tests, if the deformation is elastic, the stress-strain
relationship is called Hooke's law:
σ=Eε
That is, E is the slope of the stress-strain curve. E is Young's modulus or modulus of elasticity. In
some cases, the relationship is not linear so that E can be defined alternatively as the local slope:
E = dσ/dε
Shear stresses produce strains according to:
τ=Gγ
where G is the shear modulus. Elastic moduli measure the stiffness of the material. They are
related to the second derivative of the interatomic potential, or the first derivative of the force vs.
inter nuclear distance. By examining these curves we can tell which material has a higher
modulus. Due to thermal vibrations the elastic modulus decreases with temperature. E is large for
ceramics (stronger ionic bond) and small for polymers (weak covalent bond). Since the
interatomic distances depend on direction in the crystal, E depends on direction (i.e., it is
anisotropic) for single crystals. For randomly oriented policrystals, E is isotropic.
Tensile Properties
Yield point. If the stress is too large, the strain deviates from being proportional to the stress.
The point at which this happens is the yield point because there the material yields, deforming
permanently (plastically).

Yield stress. Hooke's law is not valid beyond the yield point. The stress at the yield point is
called yield stress, and is an important measure of the mechanical properties of materials. In
practice, the yield stress is chosen as that causing a permanent strain of 0.002 The yield stress
measures the resistance to plastic deformation. The reason for plastic deformation, in normal
materials, is not that the atomic bond is stretched beyond repair, but the motion of dislocations,
which involves breaking and reforming bonds. Plastic deformation is caused by the motion of
dislocations.

Tensile strength: When stress continues in the plastic regime, the stress-strain passes through a
maximum, called the tensile strength, and then falls as the material starts to develop a neck and it
finally breaks at the fracture point.

For structural applications, the yield stress is usually a more important property than the tensile
strength, since once it is passed, the structure has deformed beyond acceptable limits.

Ductility: The ability to deform before braking. It is the opposite of brittleness. Ductility can be
given either as percent maximum elongation åmax or maximum area reduction.
%EL = åmax x 100 %
%AR = (A0 - Af)/A0
These are measured after fracture (repositioning the two pieces back together).

Resilience: Capacity to absorb energy elastically. The energy per unit volume is the area under
the strain-stress curve in the elastic region.

Toughness: Ability to absorb energy up to fracture. The energy per unit volume is the total area
under the strain-stress curve. It is measured by an impact test .
The Brinell Hardness Test
The Brinell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a 10 mm diameter
hardened steel or carbide ball subjected to a load of 3000 kg. For softer materials the load can be
reduced to 1500 kg or 500 kg to avoid excessive indentation. The full load is normally applied
for 10 to 15 seconds in the case of iron and steel and for at least 30 seconds in the case of other
metals. The diameter of the indentation left in the test material is measured with a low powered
microscope. The Brinell harness number is calculated by dividing the load applied by the surface
area of the indentation.

Rockwell Hardness Test

The Rockwell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a diamond cone
or hardened steel ball indenter. The indenter is forced into the test material under a preliminary
minor load F0 (Fig. 1A) usually 10 kgf. When equilibrium has been reached, an indicating
device, which follows the movements of the indenter and so responds to changes in depth of
penetration of the indenter is set to a datum position. While the preliminary minor load is still
applied an additional major load is applied with resulting increase in penetration (Fig. 1B). When
equilibrium has again been reach, the additional major load is removed but the preliminary minor
load is still maintained. Removal of the additional major load allows a partial recovery, so
reducing the depth of penetration. The permanent increase in depth of penetration, resulting from
the application and removal of the additional major load is used to calculate the Rockwell
hardness number. Advantages of the Rockwell hardness method include the direct Rockwell
hardness number readout and rapid testing time.

Vickers Hardness Test

The Vickers hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a diamond indenter,
in the form of a right pyramid with a square base and an angle of 136 degrees between opposite
faces subjected to a load of 1 to 100 kgf. The full load is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds.
The two diagonals of the indentation left in the surface of the material after removal of the load
are measured using a microscope and their average calculated. The area of the sloping surface of
the indentation is calculated. The Vickers hardness is the quotient obtained by dividing the kgf
load by the square mm area of indentation.

When the mean diagonal of the indentation has been determined the Vickers hardness may be
calculated from the formula, but is more convenient to use conversion tables. The Vickers
hardness should be reported like 800 HV/10, which means a Vickers hardness of 800, was
obtained using a 10 kgf force. Several different loading settings give practically identical
hardness numbers on uniform material, which is much better than the arbitrary changing of scale
with the other hardness testing methods. The advantages of the Vickers hardness test are that
extremely accurate readings can be taken, and just one type of indenter is used for all types of
metals and surface treatments. Although thoroughly adaptable and very precise for testing the
softest and hardest of materials, under varying loads, the Vickers machine is a floor standing unit
that is more expensive than the Brinell or Rockwell machines.

F = Load in kgf
D =Arithmetic mean of the two diagonals, d1 and d2 in mm
HV = Vickers hardness
UNIT-II:
 UNIT-II
Fundamentals of Fracture
Fracture is a form of failure where the material separates in pieces due to stress, at temperatures
below the melting point. The fracture is termed ductile or brittle depending on whether the
elongation is large or small. Steps in fracture (response to stress):
• Crack formation
• Crack propagation

Ductile Fracture

Stages of ductile fracture

Ø Initial necking
Ø Small cavity formation (micro voids)
Ø Void growth (ellipsoid) by coalescence into a crack
Ø Fast crack propagation around neck. Shear strain at 45o
Ø Final shear fracture (cup and cone)
The interior surface is fibrous, irregular, which signify plastic deformation.
Brittle Fracture
There is no appreciable deformation, and crack propagation is very fast. In most brittle materials,
crack propagation (by bond breaking) is along specific crystallographic planes (cleavage planes).
This type of fracture is transgranular (through grains) producing grainy texture (or faceted
texture) when cleavage direction changes from grain to grain. In some materials, fracture is
intergranular.

Fracture occurs due to stress concentration at flaws, like surface scratches, voids,
Impact Fracture:

Impact fractures can best be described as a flute or strip of material that was cleanly sheared
from a projectile point. The most common type of impact fracture starts at the tip of a point and
runs down one blade edge possibly reaching the shoulder of a point. Some points were reworked
into a useable point after having been damaged by an impact fracture. Normalized tests, like the
Charpoy and Izod tests measure the impact energy required to fracture a notched specimen with
a hammer mounted on a pendulum. The energy is measured by the change in potential energy
(height) of the pendulum. This energy is called notch toughness.

Ductile brittle transition

Ductile to brittle transition occurs in materials when the temperature is dropped below a
transition temperature. Alloying usually increases the ductile-brittle transition temperature, for
ceramics, this type of transition occurs at much higher temperatures than for metals.

The notched-bar impact test can be used to determine whether or not a material experiences a
ductile-to-brittle transition as the temperature is decreased. In such a transition, at higher
temperatures the impact energy is relatively large since the fracture is ductile. As the temperature
is lowered, the impact energy drops over a narrow temperature range as the fracture becomes
more brittle.

The transition can also be observed from the fracture surfaces, which appear fibrous or dull for
totally ductile fracture, and granular and shiny for totally brittle fracture. Over the ductile-to-
brittle transition features of both types will exist.

While for pure materials the transition may occur very suddenly at a particular temperature, for
many materials the transition occurs over a range of temperatures. This causes difficulties when
trying to define a single transition temperature and no specific criterion has been established.

The ductile-brittle transition is exhibited in bcc metals, such as low carbon steel, which become
brittle at low temperature or at very high strain rates. Fcc metals, however, generally remain
ductile at low temperatures.

Fatigue:

Fatigue is the catastrophic failure due to dynamic (fluctuating) stresses. It can happen in bridges,
airplanes, machine components, etc. The characteristics are: • long period of cyclic strain
· the most usual (90%) of metallic failures (happens also in ceramics and polymers)
· is brittle-like even in ductile metals, with little plastic deformation
· it occurs in stages involving the initiation andpropagation of cracks.
Cyclic Stresses
These are characterized by maximum, minimum and mean stress, the stress amplitude, and the
stress ratio.

Crack Initiation and Propagation

Stages is fatigue failure:
I. crack initiation at high stress points (stress raisers)
II. propagation (incremental in each cycle)
III. final failure by fracture
Stage I - propagation
· slow
· along crystallographic planes of high shear stress
· flat and featureless fatigue surface
Stage II - propagation
Crack propagates by repetitive plastic blunting and sharpening of the crack tip.

Creep
Creep is the time-varying plastic deformation of a material stressed at high temperatures.
Examples: turbine blades, steam generators. Keys are the time dependence of the strain and the
high temperature.
The Creep Curve

Creep in metals is defined as time dependent plastic deformation at constant stress (or load) and
temperature. The form of a typical creep curve of strain versus time is in Figure. The slope of
this curve is the creep rate dε/dt. The curve may show the instantaneous elastic and plastic strain
that occurs as the load is applied, followed by the plastic strain which occurs over time. Three
stages to the creep curve may be identified:

Primary creep: in which the creep resistance increases with strain leading to a decreasing creep
strain rate.

Secondary (Steady State) creep: in which there is a balance between work hardening and
recovery processes, leading to a minimum constant creep rate.

Tertiary creep: in which there is an accelerating creep rate due to the accumulating damage,
which leads to creep rupture, and which may only be seen at high temperatures and stresses and
in constant load machines.

The minimum secondary creep rate is of most interest to design engineers, since failure
avoidance is required and in this region some predictability is possible. In the USA two
Standards are commonly used: (i) The stress to produce a creep rate of 0.0001% per hour (1% in
10,000 hours). (ii) The stress to produce a creep rate of 0.00001% per hour (1% in 100,000 hours
or approximately 11.5 years). The first requirement would be typical of that for gas turbine
blades, while the second for steam turbines. Constant load machines simulate real engineering
situations more accurately, but as the specimen extends its cross section area reduces, leading to
a rising stress. Machines designed to reduce the load to compensate for the reduced area and
maintain constant stress may produce an extended steady state region.
Stress and Temperature Effects

Both temperature and the level of the applied stress influence the creep characteristics. The
results of creep rupture tests are most commonly presented as the logarithm of stress
versus the logarithm of rupture lifetime. Creep becomes more pronounced at higher
temperatures. There is essentially no creep at temperatures below 40% of the melting point
Creep increases at higher applied stresses. The behavior can be characterized by the following
expression, where K, n and Qc are constants for a given material:
dε/dt = K σn exp(-Qc/RT)
Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms

Basic Concept of dislocation

Dislocations can be edge dislocations, screw dislocations and exist in combination of the two.
Their motion (slip) occurs by sequential bond breaking and bond reforming . The number of
dislocations per unit volume is the dislocation density, in a plane they are measured per unit area.

Characteristics of Dislocations
There is strain around a dislocation which influences how they interact with other dislocations,
impurities, etc. There is compression near the extra plane (higher atomic density) and tension
following the dislocation line. Dislocations interact among themselves. When they are in the
same plane, they repel if they have the same sign and annihilate if they have opposite signs
(leaving behind a perfect crystal). In general, when dislocations are close and their strain fields
add to a larger value, they repel, because being close increases the potential energy (it takes
energy to strain a region of the material). The number of dislocations increases dramatically
during plastic deformation. Dislocations spawn from existing dislocations, and from defects,
grain boundaries and surface irregularities.

Plastic Deformation
Slip directions vary from crystal to crystal. When plastic deformation occurs in a grain, it will be
constrained by its neighbors, which may be less favorably oriented. As a result, polycrystalline
metals are stronger than single crystals (the exception is the perfect single crystal, as in
whiskers.)

Mechanisms of Strengthening in Metals

General principles. Ability to deform plastically depends on ability of dislocations to move.
Strengthening consists in hindering dislocation motion. We discuss the methods of grain-size
reduction, solid-solution alloying and strain hardening. These are for single phase metals. We
discuss others when treating alloys. Ordinarily, strengthening reduces ductility.
Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction
This is based on the fact that it is difficult for a dislocation to pass into another grain, especially
if it is very misaligned. Atomic disorder at the boundary causes discontinuity in slip planes. For
high-angle grain boundaries, stress at end of slip plane may trigger new dislocations in adjacent
grains. Small angle grain boundaries are not effective in blocking dislocations.

The finer the grains, the larger the area of grain boundaries that impedes dislocation motion.
Grain-size reduction usually improves toughness as well. Grain size can be controlled by the rate
of solidification and by plastic deformation.

Solid-Solution Strengthening
Adding another element that goes into interstitial or substitutional positions in a solution
increases strength. The impurity atoms cause lattice strain (Figs. 7.17 and 7.18) which can
"anchor" dislocations. This occurs when the strain caused by the alloying element compensates
that of the dislocation, thus achieving a state of low potential energy. It costs strain energy for
the dislocation to move away from this state (which is like a potential well). The scarcity of
energy at low temperatures is why slip is hindered. Pure metals are almost always softer than
their alloys.

Strain Hardening
Phenomenon where ductile metals become stronger and harder when they are deformed
plastically is called strain hardening or work hardening. Increasing temperature lowers the rate of
strain hardening. Hence materials are strain hardened at low temperatures, thus also called cold
working. During plastic deformation, dislocation density increases. And thus their interaction
with each other resulting in increase in yield stress. Strain hardening (work hardening) is the
reason for the elastic recovery. The reason for strain hardening is that the dislocation density
increases with plastic deformation (cold work) due to multiplication. The average distance
between dislocations then decreases and dislocations start blocking the motion of each one
UNIT-III:
 UNIT-III
Phase Diagram
Introduction

• Phase diagrams are an important tool in the armory of an materials scientist

• In the simplest sense a phase diagram demarcates regions of existence of various phases. (Phase
diagrams are maps)

• Phase diagrams are also referred to as “equilibrium diagrams” or “constitutional diagrams”. This usage
requires special attention: through the term used is “equilibrium”, in practical terms the equilibrium is
not global equilibrium but Microstructural level equilibrium.

• → those involving time and those which do

Broadly two kinds of phase diagrams can be differentiated*
not involve time.

• In this chapter we shall deal with the phase diagrams not involving time.

o This type can be further sub classified into:

o Those with composition as a variable (e.g. T vs. %Composition)

o Those without composition as a variable (e.g. P vs. T)

• Time-Temperature-Transformation (TTT) diagrams and Continuous-Cooling-Transformation (CCT)

diagrams involve time.

Components of a system

• Independent chemical species which comprise the system. These could be Elements, Ions, Compounds

Example: Au-Cu system : Components →Au, Cu (elements)

Ice-water system : Component→H2O (compound)

Al2O3-Cr2O3 system : Components→Al2O3, Cr2O3

Phase

• A physically homogeneous and distinct portion of a material system (e.g. gas, crystal, amorphous…)

• Gases : Gaseous state always a single phase → mixed at atomic or molecule level.

• → e.g. Nacl in H 2O and Liquid mixtures consists of two or

Liquids: Liquid solution is a single phase
more phases → e.g. Oil in water (no mixing at the atomic level)

• Solids: In general due to several compositions and crystals structures many phases are possible.
 o For the same composition different crystal structures represent different phases. E.g. Fe (BCC)
and Fe (FCC) are different phases

What kinds of phases exist?

• Based on state → Gas, Liquid, Solid

• Based on atomic order → Amorphous, Quasi-crystalline, Crystalline

• Based on band structure → Insulating, Semi-conducting, Semi-metallic, Metallic

• Based on Property → Para-electric, Ferromagnetic, Superconducting

• Based on stability → Stable, Metastable, Unstable

• Also sometimes- Based on size/geometry of an entity → Nanocrystalline, mesoporous, layered.

Phase transformation

• Phase transformation is the change of one phase into another. For example

 Water → Ice and α-Fe (BCC) → γ-Fe (FCC)

Grain

• The single crystalline part of polycrystalline metal separated by similar entities by a grain boundary

Solute

• The component of either a liquid or solid solution that is present to a lesser or minor extent; the
component that is dissolved in the solvent.

Solvent

• The component of either a liquid or solid solution that is present to a greater or major extent; the
component that dissolves the solute.

System

• System has two meanings. First, ‘‘system’’ may refer to a specific body of material or object. Or, it may
relate to the series of possible alloys consisting of the same components, but without regard to alloy
composition.

Solubility Limit

• For many alloy systems and at some specific temperature, there is a maximum concentration of solute
atoms that may dissolve in the solvent to form a solid solution; this is called a Solubility Limit.

Microstructure

• (Phases + defects + residual stress) & their distributions

 • Structures requiring magnifications in the region of 100 to 1000 times. (or) The distribution of phases
and defects in a material.

Phase diagram

• Map that gives relationship between phases in equilibrium in a system as a function of T, P and
composition. Map demarcating regions of stability of various phases

Variables/Axis of phase diagrams

• The axes can be:

o Thermodynamic (T, P, V)

o Kinetic (t) or Composition variables (C, %X)

• In single component systems (unary systems) the usual variables are T & P

• In phase diagrams used in materials science the usual variable are T & %X

• In the study of phase transformation kinetics TTT diagrams or CCT diagrams are also used where the
axis are T & t

System Components

Phase diagrams and the systems they describe are often classified and named for the number (in Latin) of
components in the system:

Number of components Name of system or diagram

One Unary
Two Binary
Three Ternary
Four Quaternary
Five Quinary
Six Sexinary
Seven Septenary
Eight Octanary
Nine Nonary
Ten Decinary

Experimental Methods

Thermal Analysis: A plot is made of temperature vs. time, at constant composition, the resulting cooling curve
will show a change in slope when a phase change occurs because of the evolution of heat by the phase change.
This method seems to be best for determining the initial and final temperature of solidification. Phase changes
occurring solely in the solid state generally involve only small heat changes, and other methods give more
accurate results.
Metallographic Methods: This method consists in heating samples of an alloy to different temperatures,
waiting for equilibrium to be established, and then quickly cooling to retain their high temperature structure.
The samples are then examined microscopically. This method is difficulty to apply to metals at high
temperatures because the rapidly cooled samples do not always retain their high temperature structure, and
considerable skill is then required to interpret the observed microstructure correctly.

X-ray diffraction: Since this method measures lattice dimensions, it will indicate the appearance of a new
phase either by the change in lattice dimension or by the appearance of a new crystal structure. This method is
simple, precise, and very useful in determining the changes in solid solubility with temperature.

Gibbs Phase Rule

• The phase rule connects the Degrees of Freedom, the number of components in a system and the number
of phases present in a system via a simple equation.

• To understand the phase rule one must understand the variables in the system along with the degrees of
freedom.

• We start with a general definition of the phrase “degrees of freedom”.

Degrees of Freedom: The degree of freedom, F, are those externally controllable conditions of temperature,
pressure, and composition, which are independently variable and which must be specified in order to
completely define the equilibrium state of the system.

The degrees of freedom cannot be less than zero so that we have an upper limit to the number of phases that can
exist in equilibrium for a given system.

Variables in a phase diagram

• C – No. of components

• P – No. of phases

• F – No. of degrees of freedom

• Variables in the system = Composition variables + Thermodynamic variables

• Composition of a phase specified by (C – 1) variables (If the composition is expressed in %ages then the
total is 100% → there is one equation connecting the composition variables and we need to specify only
(C - 1) composition variables)

• No. of variables required to specify the composition of all phases: P(C – 1) (as there are P phases and
each phase needs the specification of (C – 1) variables)
• Thermodynamic variables = P + T (usually considered) = 2 (at constant pressure (e.g. atmospheric
pressure) the thermodynamic variable becomes 1)

• Total no. of variables in the system = P (C – 1) + 2

• F < no. of variables → F < P (C – 1) + 2For a system in equilibrium the chemical potential of each
species is same in all the phases

• If α, β, γ… are phases, then: μA (α) = μA (β) = μA (γ)…..

• Suppose there are 2 phases (α and β phases) and 3 components (A, B, C) in each phase then : μA(α) =
μA(β), μB(α) = μB(β), μC(α) = μC(β) → i.e. there are three equations. For each component there are (P –
1) equations and for C components the total number of equations is C(P – 1). In the above example the
number of equations is 3(2 – 1) = 3 equations.

• F = (Total number of variables) – (number of relations between variables)

• = [P(C – 1) + 2] – [C(P – 1)] = C – P + 2

• In a single phase system F = Number of variables

• P↑ → F↓ (For a system with fixed number of components as the number phases increases the degrees of
freedom decreases.

Unary Phase Diagram

• Let us start with the simplest system possible: the unary system wherein there is just one component.

• Though there are many possibilities even in unary phase diagram (in terms of the axis and phases), we
shall only consider a T-P unary phase diagram.

• Let us consider the water (H2O) unary phase

diagram

• The Gibbs phase rule here is: F=C-P+2 (2 is for

T&P) (no composition variables here)

• Along the 2 phase co-existence (at B & C) lines the

degree of freedom (F) is 1→ i.e. we can chose
either T or P and the other will be
automatically fixed.

• The 3 phase co-existence points (at A) are invariant

points with F=0. (Invariant point implies they are
fixed for a given system).

• The single phase region at point D, T and P can both be varied while still being in the single phase
region with F = 2.
 • The above figure represents the phase diagram for pure
iron. The triple point temperature and pressure are 490ºC and
110 kbars, respectively. α, γ and ε refer to ferrite, austenite and
ε-iron, respectively. δ is simply the higher temperature
designation of α.

Binary Phase Diagram

 Binary implies that there are two components.

 Pressure changes often have little effect on the equilibrium of solid phases (unless of course we
apply ‘huge’ pressures).

 Hence, binary phase diagrams are usually drawn at 1 atmosphere pressure.

 The Gibbs phase rule is reduced to:

 Variables are reduced to : F = C – P + 1 (1 is for T).

 T & Composition (these are the usual variables in materials phase diagrams)

 In the next page we consider the possible binary phase diagrams. These have
been classified based on:

 Complete solubility in both liquid & solid states

 Complete solubility in both liquid state, but limited solubility in the solid state

 Limited solubility in both liquid & solid states

Isomorphous Phase Diagram

• Isomorphous phase diagrams form when there is complete solid and liquid solubility.

• Complete solid solubility implies that the crystal structure of the two components have to be
same and Hume-Rothery rules to be followed.

• Examples of systems forming isomorphous systems: Cu-Ni, Ag-Au, Ge-Si, Al2O3-Cr2O3

• Both the liquid and solid contain the components A and B.

• In binary phase diagrams between two single phase regions there will be a two phase region →
In the isomorphous diagram between the liquid and solid state there is the (Liquid + Solid) state.

• The Liquid + Solid state is NOT a semi-solid state → it is a solid of fixed compositio n and
structure, in equilibrium with a liquid of fixed composition.

• In some systems (e.g. Au-Ni system) there might be phase separation in the solid state (i.e.,the
→ these will be considered as a
complete solid solubility criterion may not be followed)
variation of the isomorphous system (with complete solubility in the solid and the liquid state.
Cooling curves: Isomorphous system

Isomorphous Phase Diagram

Tie line and Lever rule

Chemical Composition of Phases: To determine the actual chemical composition of the phases of an alloy, in
equilibrium at any specified temperature in a two phase region, draw a horizontal temperature line, called a tie
line, to the boundaries of the field . These points of intersection are dropped to the base line, and the
composition is read directly.

Relative Amounts of Each Phase:

• To determine the relative amounts of the two phases in equilibrium at any specified temperature in a two
phase region, draw a vertical line representing the alloy and a horizontal temperature line to the
boundaries of the field.

• The vertical line will divide the horizontal line into two parts whose lengths are inversely proportional to
the amount of the phases present. This is also known as Lever rule.

• The point where the vertical line intersects the horizontal line may be considered as the fulcrum of a
lever system.

• The relative lengths of the lever arms multiplied by the amounts of the phases present must balance.

Tie line and Lever rule

• We draw a horizontal line (called the Tie Line)at the temperature of interest (say T0). Let Tie line is XY.

• Solid (crystal) of composition C 1 coexists with liquid of

composition C 2

• Note that tie lines can be drawn only in the two phase
coexistence regions (fields). Though they may be
extended to mark the temperature.

• To find the fractions of solid and liquid we use the lever

rule.

• The portion of the horizontal line in the two phase

region is akin to ‘lever’ with the fulcrum at the
nominal composition (C0)

• The opposite arms of the lever are

proportional to the fraction of the solid and
liquid phase present (this is lever rule).
 Non Equilibrium Cooling - Coring

 In actual practice it is extremely difficult to cool under equilibrium conditions. Since diffusion in the
solid state takes place at a very slow rate, it is expected that with ordinary cooling rates there will be
some difference in the conditions as indicated by the equilibrium diagram.

 Consider again 70A-30B alloy, solidification starts at

T1 forming a solid solution of composition α1 .

 At T2 the liquid is L2 and the solid solution now forming

is of composition α2 . Since diffusion is too slow to keep
pace with crystal growth, not enough time will be
allowed to achieve uniformity in the solid, and the
average composition will be between α1 and α2, say α’2.

 As the temperature drops, the average

composition of the solid solution will depart still further
from equilibrium conditions. It seems that the composition of the solid solution is following a
“nonequilibrium” solidus line α1 to α’5, shown dotted lines in figure.

 The liquid, on the other hand, has essentially the composition given by the liquidus line, since diffusion
is relatively rapid in liquid. At T3 the average solid solution will be of composition α’3 instead of α3.

 Under equilibrium cooling, solidification should be complete at T4 ; however, since the average
composition of the solid solution α’4 has not reached the composition of the alloy, some liquid must still
remain. Applying lever rule at T4 gives α’4 = 75% and L4 = 25%.
 Therefore, solidification will continue until T5 is reached. At this temperature the composition of the
solid solution α’5 coincides with the alloy composition, and solidification is complete. The last liquid to
solidify, L5, is richer in B than the last liquid to solidify under equilibrium conditions.

 The more rapidly the alloy is cooled the greater will be the composition range in the solidified alloy.
Since the rate of chemical attack varies with composition, proper etching will reveal the dendritic
structure microscopically (see below figure). The final solid consists of a “cored” structure with a
higher-melting central portion surrounded by the lower-melting, last-to-solidify shell. The above
condition is referred to as coring or dendritic segregation.

 To summarize, nonequilibrium cooling results in an increased temperature range over which liquid and
solid are present; Since diffusion has not kept pace with crystal growth, there will be a difference in
chemical composition from the center to the outside of the grains. The faster the rate of cooling, the
greater will be the above effects.

Eutectic Phase Diagram

• Very few systems exhibit an isomorphous phase diagram (usually the solid solubility of one component
in another is limited).

• Often the solid solubility is severely limited – through the solid solubility is never zero (due to entropic
reasons).

• In a Simple eutectic system (binary), there is one composition at which the liquid freezes at a single
temperature. This is in some sense similar to a pure solid which freezes at a single temperature (unlike a
pure substance the freezing produces a two solid phases both of which contain both the components).

• The term Eutectic means easy melting → The alloy of eutectic composition freezes at a lower
temperature than the melting point s of the constituent components.

• This has important implifications → e.g. the Pb -Sn eutectic alloy melts at 183 ºC, which is lower than
the melting points of both Pb (327ºC) and Sn (232ºC)→ Can be used for soldering purposes (as we
want to input least amount of heat to solder two materials).

• In the next page we consider the Pb-Sn eutectic phase diagram.

Application of Lever rule in Eutectic System

Peritectic Phase Diagram

• Like the eutectic system, the Peritectic reaction is found in systems with complete liquid solubility but
limited solid solubility.

• In the Peritectic reaction the liquid (L) reacts with one solid (α) to produce another solid (β). L+α → β

• Since the solid β forms at the interface between the L and the α, further reaction is dependent on solid
state diffusion. Needless to say this becomes the rate limiting step and hence it is difficult to
‘equilibrate’ peritectic reactions (as compared to say eutectic reactions).

• In some Peritectic reactions (e.g. the Pt-Ag system – previous page). The (pure) β phase is not stable
below the Peritectic temperature (TP = 1186 ºC for Pt- Ag system) and splits into a mixture of (α+β)
just below TP.

Monotectic Phase Diagram

• In all the types discussed previously, it was assumed that there was complete solubility in the liquid
state. It is quite possible, however, that over a certain composition range two liquid solutions are formed
that are not soluble in each other.

• Another term for solubility is miscibility. Substances that are not soluble in each other, such as oil and
water, are said to be immiscible. Substances that are partly soluble in each other are said to show a
miscibility gap, and this is related to Monotectic Systems.

• When one liquid forms another liquid, plus a solid, on cooling, it is known as a Monotectic Reaction.

• It should be apparent that the Monotectic reaction resembles the eutectic reaction, the only difference
being that one of the products is a liquid phase instead of a solid phase.
 • An example of an alloy system showing a Monotectic reaction is that between copper and lead given in
next page. Notice that in this case the L1 + L2 is closed.

• Also, although the terminal solids are indicated as α and β, the solubility is actually so small that they
are practically the pure metals, copper and lead.

The Eutectoid Reaction

 This is a common reaction in the solid state. It is very similar to the eutectic reaction but does not
involve the liquid . In this case, a solid phase transforms on cooling into two new solid phases. The
general equation may be written as..!

 The resultant Eutectoid mixture is extremely fine, just like the eutectic mixture. Under the microscope
both mixtures generally appear the same, and it is not possible to determine microscopically whether the
mixture resulted from a eutectic reaction or eutectoid reaction.

 An equilibrium diagram of Cu-Zn, illustrating the eutectoid reaction is shown in figure.

 In copper (Cu) – Zinc (Zn) system contains two terminal solid solutions i.e. these are extreme ends of
phase diagram α and η, with four intermediate phases called β, γ, δ and ε. The β’ phase is termed an
ordered solid solution, one in which the copper and zinc atoms are situated in a specific and ordered
arrangement within each unit cell.
• In the diagram, some phase boundary lines near the bottom are dashed to indicate that there positions
have not been exactly determined. The reason for this is that at low temperatures, diffusion rates are
very slow and inordinately long times are required for the attainment of equilibrium.

• Again only single- and two- phase regions are found on the diagram, and the same and we can utilize
the lever rule for computing phase compositions and relative amounts.

• The commercial material brasses are copper-rich copper-zinc alloys: for example, cartridge brass has a
composition of 70 wt% Cu-30 wt% Zn and a microstructure consisting of a single α phase.

The Peritectoid
Reaction

• This is a fairly common reaction in the solid state and appears in many alloy systems. The peritectoid
reaction may be written as

• The new solid phase is usually an intermediate alloy, but it may also be a solid solution .The peritectoid
reaction has the same relationship to the peritectic reaction as the eutectoid has to the eutectic.
Essentially, it is the replacement of a liquid by a solid.
Summary of Invariant reactions

Allotropic Transformations

• As we discussed earlier that several metals may exist in more than one type of crystal structure
depending upon temperature , Iron, Tin, Manganese and Cobalt are examples of metals which exhibit
this property , known as Allotropy.
• On an equilibrium diagram, this allotropic change is indicated by a point or points on the vertical line
which represents the pure metal. This is illustrated in below figure. In this diagram, the gamma solid
solution field is ‘looped’. The pure metal Fe and alloys rich in Fe undergo two transformations.

Order-disorder Transformations

• Ordinarily in the formation of substitutional type of solid solution the solute atoms do not occupy any
specific position but are distributed at random in the lattice structure of the solvent. The alloy is said to
be in a ‘disordered’ condition.
 • Some of these random solid solutions, if cooled slowly, undergo a rearrangement of the atoms where the
solute atoms move into definite positions in the lattice. This structure is known as an ordered solid
solution or superlattice.

• Ordering is most common in metals that are completely soluble in the solid state, and usually the
maximum amount of ordering occurs at a simple atomic ratio of the two elements.

• For this reason, the ordered phase is sometimes given a chemical formula, such as AuCu and AuCu3 in
the gold-copper alloy system. On the equilibrium diagram, the ordered solutions are frequently
designated as α , β , etc. or α , α , etc., and the area in which they are found is usually bounded by a
dot-dash line.

• When the ordered phase has the same lattice structure as the disordered phase, the effect of ordering on
mechanical properties is negligible. Hardening associated with the ordering process is most pronounced
in those systems where the shape of the unitcell is changed by ordering.

• Regardless of the structure formed as a result of ordering, an important property change produced, even
in the absence of hardening, is a significant reduction in electrical resistance. Notice the sharp decrease
in electrical resistivity at the compositions which correspond to the ordered phases AuCu and AuCu3.

Allotropic Transformations in

Iron

• Iron is an allotropic metal, which means that it can exist in more than one type of lattice structure
depending upon temperature. A cooling curve for pure iron is shown below:
Iron – Cementite Phase Diagram

• The Fe-C (or more precisely the Fe-Fe3C) diagram is an important one. Cementite is a metastable phase
and ‘strictly speaking’ should not be included in a phase diagram. But the decomposition rate of
cementite is small and hence can be thought of as ‘stable enough’ to be included in a phase diagram.
Hence, we typically consider the Fe-Fe3C part of the Fe-C phase diagram.

• A portion of the Fe-C diagram – the part from pure Fe to 6.67 wt.% carbon (corresponding to cementite,
Fe3C) – is technologically very relevant.

• Cementite is not a equilibrium phase and would tend to decompose into Fe and graphite. This reaction is
sluggish and for practical purpose (at the microstructural level) cementite can be considered to be part of
the phase diagram. Cementite forms as it nucleates readily as compared to graphite.

• Compositions upto 2.1%C are called steels and beyond 2.1% are called cast irons. In reality the
calssification should be based on ‘castability’ and not just on carbon content.

• Heat treatments can be done to alter the properties of the steel by modifying the microstructure → we
will learn about this in coming chapters.
Figure: Iron – Cementite Phase Diagram

Carbon Solubility in Iron

Solubility of carbon in Fe = f (structure, temperature)

Where is carbon located in iron lattice?

Characteristics of phases appeared in Fe-Fe3C phase diagram

Ferrite (α)

• It is an interstitial solid solution of a small amount of carbon

dissolved in α iron. The maximum solubility is 0.025%C at
723ºC and it dissolves only 0.008%C at room temperature.
It is the softest structure that appears on the diagram

• The crystal structure of ferrite (α) is B.C.C

• Tensile strength – 40,000 psi or 275 Mpa

• Elongation – 40% in 2 in.

• Hardness - < 0 HRC or < 90 HRB

Cementite (Fe3C)

• Cementite or iron carbide, chemical formula Fe3C, contains 6.67%C by weight and it is a metastable
phase.

• It is typically hard and brittle interstitial compound of low tensile strength (approx. 5000 psi) but high
compressive strength.

• It is the hardest structure that appears on the diagram.

• Its crystal structure is orthorhombic

Pearlite (α + Fe3C)

 Pearlite is the eutectoid mixture containing 0.80 %C and is formed at 723ºC on very slow cooling.

 It is very fine platelike or lamellar mixture of

ferrite and cementite. The fine fingerprint mixture
called pearlite is shown in below figure.

 Tensile strength – 120,000 psi or 825 Mpa

 Elongation – 20 percent in 2 in.

 Hardness – HRC 20, HRB 95-100, or BHN

250-300

Austenite (γ)

 It is an interstitial solid solution of a small amount of carbon

dissolved in γ iron. The maximum solubility is 2.1%C at 1147ºC.

 The crystal structure of Austenite (γ) is F.C.C

 Tensile strength – 150,000 psi or 1035 Mpa

 Elongation – 10% in 2 in.

 Hardness - 40 HRC and Toughness is high.

Ledeburite (γ+ Fe3C)

• Ledeburite is the eutectic mixture of austenite and cementite.

It contains 4.3%C and is formed at 1147ºC

• Structure of ledeburite contains small islands of austenite are

dispersed in the carbide phase.

• Not stable at room temperature

Ferrite (δ)

• Interstitial solid solution of carbon in iron of body

centered cubic crystal structure. (δ iron ) of higher
lattice parameter (2.89Å) having solubility limit of
0.09 wt% at 1495°C with respect to austenite. The
stability of the phase ranges between 1394- 1539°C.
 • This is not stable at room temperature in plain carbon steel. However it can be present at room
temperature in alloy steel especially duplex stainless steel.

Microstructures involved in eutectoid mixture \

Eutectoid reaction

• Phase changes that occur upon passing from the γ region into
the α+ Fe3C phase field.

• Consider, for example, an alloy of eutectoid composition

(0.8%C) as it is cooled from a temperature within the γ phase
region, say 800ºC – that is, beginning at point ‘a’ in figure and
moving down vertical xx’. Initially the alloy is composed
entirely of the austenite phase having composition 0.8 wt.% C and
then transformed to α+ Fe3C [pearlite]

• The microstructure for this eutectoid steel that is slowly cooled

through eutectoid temperature consists of alternating layers or
lamellae of the two phases α and Fe3C

• The pearlite exists as grains, often termed “colonies”; within each colony the layers are oriented in
essentially the same direction, which varies from one colony to other.

• The thick light layers are the ferrite phase, and the cementite phase appears as thin lamellae most of
which appear dark.
Hypo eutectoid region

 Hypo eutectoid region – 0.008 to 0.8 %C

 Consider vertical line yy’ in figure, at about 875ºC, point c, the microstructure will consist entirely of
grains of the γ phase.

 In cooling to point d, about 775ºC, which is within the α+γ phase region, both these phases will coexist
as in the schematic microstructure Most of the small α particles will form along the original γ grain
boundaries.

 Cooling from point d to e, just above the eutectoid but still in the α+γ region, will produce an increased
fraction of the α phase and a microstructure similar to that also shown: the α particles will have grown
larger.

 Just below the eutectoid temperature, at point f, all the γ phase that was present at temperature e will
transform pearlite. Virtually there is no change in α phase that existed at point e in crossing the eutectoid
temperature – it will normally be present as a continuous matrix phase surrounding the isolated pearlite
colonies.

 Thus the ferrite phase will be present both in the pearlite and also as the phase that formed while cooling
through the α+γ phase region. The ferrite that is present in the pearlite is called eutectoid ferrite, whereas
the other, is termed proeutectoid (meaning pre- or before eutectoid) ferrite.

Hyper eutectoid region

• Hyper eutectoid region – 0.8 to 2.1 %C

• Consider an alloy of composition C1 in figure that, upon

cooling, moves down the line zz’. At point g only the γ phase
will be present and the microstructure having only gamma
grains.

• Upon cooling into the γ+ Fe3C phase field – say to point h –

the cementite phase will began to form along the initial γ
grain boundaries, similar to the α phase in point d. this
 cementite is called proeutectoid cementite that which forms before the eutectoid reaction.

• As the temperature is lowered through the eutectoid to point I, all remaining austenite of eutectoid
composition is converted into pearlite; thus the resulting microstructure consists of pearlite and
proeutectoid cementite as microconstituents.

Application of Lever rule in Fe-Fe3C phase diagram

 Plain carbon steels

Various types of carbon steel

Carbon steel is steel in which the main interstitial alloying constituent is carbon in the range of
0.12–2.0%. The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) defines carbon steel as the following:
"Steel is considered to be carbon steel when no minimum content is specified or required for
chromium, cobalt, molybdenum, nickel, niobium, titanium, tungsten, vanadium or zirconium, or
any other element to be added to obtain a desired alloying effect; when the specified minimum
for copper does not exceed 0.40 percent; or when the maximum content specified for any of the
following elements does not exceed the percentages noted: manganese 1.65, silicon 0.60, copper
0.60.

Types:

Carbon steel is broken down into four classes based on carbon content:

Mild and low-carbon steel

Mild steel also known as plain-carbon steel, is the most common form of steel because its price
is relatively low while it provides material properties that are acceptable for many applications,
more so than iron. Low-carbon steel contains approximately 0.05–0.320 % carbon making it
malleable and ductile. Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and
malleable; surface hardness can be increased through carburizing.

It is often used when large quantities of steel are needed, for example as structural steel. The
density of mild steel is approximately 7.85 g/cm3 (7850 kg/m3 or 0.284 lb/in3) and the Young's
modulus is 210 GPa (30,000,000 psi).

Low-carbon steels suffer from yield-point run out where the material has two yield points. The
first yield point (or upper yield point) is higher than the second and the yield drops dramatically
after the upper yield point. If low-carbon steel is only stressed to some point between the upper
and lower yield point then the surface may develop louder bands. Low-carbon steels contain less
carbon than other steels and are easier to cold-form, making them easier to handle.
Higher carbon steels

Carbon steels which can successfully undergo heat-treatment have carbon content in the range of
0.30–1.70% by weight. Trace impurities of various other elements can have a significant effect
on the quality of the resulting steel. Trace amounts of sulfur in particular make the steel red-
short, that is, brittle and crumbly at working temperatures. Low-alloy carbon steel, such as A36
grade, contains about 0.05% sulfur and melts around 1,426–1,53°C (2,599–2,800°F). Manganese
is often added to improve the harden ability of low-carbon steels. These additions turn the
material into low-alloy steel by some definitions, but AISI's definition of carbon steel allows up
to 1.65% manganese by weight.

Low carbon steel

Less than 0.3% carbon content

Medium carbon steel

Approximately 0.30–0.59% carbon content. Balances ductility and strength and has good wear
resistance; used for large parts, forging and automotive components.

High-carbon steel

Approximately 0.6–0.99% carbon content. Very strong, used for springs and high-strength wires.

Ultra-high-carbon steel

Approximately 1.0–2.0% carbon content. Steels that can be tempered to great hardness. Used for
special purposes like (non-industrial-purpose) knives, axles or punches. Most steels with more
than 1.2% carbon content are made using powder metallurgy. Note that steel with carbon content
above 2.14% is considered cast iron.

Alloy steel

Alloy steel is steel that is alloyed with a variety of elements in total amounts between 1.0% and
50% by weight to improve its mechanical properties. Alloy steels are broken down into two
groups: low-alloy steels and high-alloy steels. The difference between the two is somewhat
arbitrary: Smith and Has hemi define the difference at 4.0%, while Degarmo, et al., define it at
8.0%. Most commonly, the phrase "alloy steel" refers to low-alloy steels.

Types:
According to the World Steel Association, there are over 3,500 different grades of steel,
encompassing unique physical, chemical and environmental properties.

In essence, steel is composed of iron and carbon, although it is the amount of carbon, as well as
the level of impurities and additional alloying elements that determines the properties of each
steel grade.

The carbon content in steel can range from 0.1-1.5%, but the most widely used grades of steel
contain only 0.1-0.25% carbon. Elements such as manganese, phosphorus and sulphur are found
in all grades of steel, but, whereas manganese provides beneficial effects, phosphorus and
sulphur are deleterious to steel's strength and durability.

Different types of steel are produced according to the properties required for their application,
and various grading systems are used to distinguish steels based on these properties. According
to the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), steels can be broadly categorized into four
groups based on their chemical compositions:

1. Carbon Steels
2. Alloy Steels
3. Stainless Steels
4. Tool Steels

1) Carbon Steels:

Carbon steels contain trace amounts of alloying elements and account for 90% of total steel
production. Carbon steels can be further categorized into three groups depending on their carbon
content:

• Low Carbon Steels/Mild Steels contain up to 0.3% carbon

• Medium Carbon Steels contain 0.3 – 0.6% carbon
• High Carbon Steels contain more than 0.6% carbon

2) Alloy Steels:

Alloy steels contain alloying elements (e.g. manganese, silicon, nickel, titanium, copper,
chromium and aluminum) in varying proportions in order to manipulate the steel's properties,
such as its hardenability, corrosion resistance, strength, formability, weldability or ductility.
Applications for alloys steel include pipelines, auto parts, transformers, power generators and
electric motors.

3) Stainless Steels:

Stainless steels generally contain between 10-20% chromium as the main alloying element and
are valued for high corrosion resistance. With over 11% chromium, steel is about 200 times more
resistant to corrosion than mild steel. These steels can be divided into three groups based on their
crystalline structure:

• Austenitic: Austenitic steels are non-magnetic and non heat-treatable, and generally contain
18% chromium, 8% nickel and less than 0.8% carbon. Austenitic steels form the largest
portion of the global stainless steel market and are often used in food processing equipment,
kitchen utensils and piping.
• Ferritic: Ferritic steels contain trace amounts of nickel, 12-17% chromium, less than 0.1%
carbon, along with other alloying elements, such as molybdenum, aluminum or titanium.
These magnetic steels cannot be hardened with heat treatment, but can be strengthened by
cold works.
• Martensitic: Martensitic steels contain 11-17% chromium, less than 0.4% nickel and up to
1.2% carbon. These magnetic and heat-treatable steels are used in knives, cutting tools, as
well as dental and surgical equipment.

4) Tool Steels:

Tool steels contain tungsten, molybdenum, cobalt and vanadium in varying quantities to increase
heat resistance and durability, making them ideal for cutting and drilling equipment.
Steel products can also be divided by their shapes and related applications:

• Long/Tubular Products include bars and rods, rails, wires, angles, pipes, and shapes and
sections. These products are commonly used in the automotive and construction sectors.
• Flat Products include plates, sheets, coils and strips. These materials are mainly used in
automotive parts, appliances, packaging, shipbuilding, and construction.
• Other Products include valves, fittings, and flanges and are mainly used as piping
materials.

Cast iron

Cast iron is iron or a ferrous alloy which has been heated until it liquefies, and is then poured
into a mould to solidify. It is usually made from pig iron. The alloy constituents affect its colour
when fractured: white cast iron has carbide impurities which allow cracks to pass straight
through. Grey cast iron has graphite flakes which deflect a passing crack and initiate countless
new cracks as the material breaks.

Carbon (C) and silicon (Si) are the main alloying elements, with the amount ranging from 2.1–4
wt% and 1–3 wt%, respectively. Iron alloys with less carbon content are known as steel. While
this technically makes these base alloys ternary Fe–C–Si alloys, the principle of cast iron
solidification is understood from the binary iron–carbon phase diagram. Since the compositions
of most cast irons are around the eutectic point of the iron–carbon system, the melting
temperatures closely correlate, usually ranging from 1,150 to 1,200 °C (2,100 to 2,190 °F),
which is about 300 °C (572 °F) lower than the melting point of pure iron.

Cast iron's properties are changed by adding various alloying elements, or alloyants. Next to
carbon, silicon is the most important alloying because it forces carbon out of solution. Instead the
carbon forms graphite which results in a softer iron, reduces shrinkage, lowers strength, and
decreases density. Sulfur, when present, forms iron sulfide, which prevents the formation of
graphite and increases hardness. The problem with sulfur is that it makes molten cast iron
sluggish, which causes short run defects. To counter the effects of sulfur, manganese is added
because the two form into manganese sulfide instead of iron sulfide. The manganese sulfide is
lighter than the melt so it tends to float out of the melt and into the slag. The amount of
manganese required to neutralize sulfur is 1.7 × sulfur content + 0.3%. If more than this amount
of manganese is added, then manganese carbide forms, which increases hardness and chilling,
except in grey iron, where up to 1% of manganese increases strength and density.

Nickel is one of the most common alloying elements because it refines the pearlite and graphite
structure, improves toughness, and evens out hardness differences between section thicknesses.
Chromium is added in small amounts to the ladle to reduce free graphite, produce chill, and
because it is a powerful carbide stabilizer; nickel is often added in conjunction. A small amount
of tin can is added as a substitute for 0.5% chromium. Copper is added in the ladle or in the
furnace, on the order of 0.5–2.5%, to decrease chill, refine graphite, and increase fluidity.
Molybdenum is added on the order of 0.3–1% to increase chill and refine the graphite and
pearlite structure; it is often added in conjunction with nickel, copper, and chromium to form
high strength irons. Titanium is added as a degasser and deoxidizer, but it also increases fluidity.
0.15–0.5% vanadium is added to cast iron to stabilize cementite, increase hardness, and increase
resistance to wear and heat. 0.1–0.3% zirconium helps to form graphite, deoxidize, and increase
fluidity.

In malleable iron melts, bismuth is added, on the scale of 0.002–0.01%, to increase how much
silicon can be added. In white iron, boron is added to aid in the production of malleable iron; it
also reduces the coarsening effect of bismuth.

Grey cast iron

Grey cast iron is characterised by its graphitic microstructure, which causes fractures of the
material to have a grey appearance. It is the most commonly used cast iron and the most widely
used cast material based on weight. Most cast irons have a chemical composition of 2.5–4.0%
carbon, 1–3% silicon, and the remainder is iron. Grey cast iron has less tensile strength and
shock resistance than steel, but its compressive strength is comparable to low and medium
carbon steel.

White cast iron

It is the cast iron that displays white fractured surface due to the presence of cementite. With a
lower silicon content (graphitizing agent) and faster cooling rate, the carbon in white cast iron
precipitates out of the melt as the metastable phase cementite, Fe3C, rather than graphite. The
cementite which precipitates from the melt forms as relatively large particles, usually in a
eutectic mixture, where the other phase is austenite (which on cooling might transform to
martensite). These eutectic carbides are much too large to provide precipitation hardening (as in
some steels, where cementite precipitates might inhibit plastic deformation by impeding the
movement of dislocations through the ferrite matrix). Rather, they increase the bulk hardness of
the cast iron simply by virtue of their own very high hardness and their substantial volume
fraction, such that the bulk hardness can be approximated by a rule of mixtures. In any case, they
offer hardness at the expense of toughness. Since carbide makes up a large fraction of the
material, white cast iron could reasonably be classified as a cermet. White iron is too brittle for
use in many structural components, but with good hardness and abrasion resistance and relatively
low cost, it finds use in such applications as the wear surfaces (impeller and volute) of slurry
pumps, shell liners and lifter bars in ball mills and autogenous grinding mills, balls and rings in
coal pulverisers, and the teeth of a backhoe's digging bucket (although cast medium-carbon
martensitic steel is more common for this application).

It is difficult to cool thick castings fast enough to solidify the melt as white cast iron all the way
through. However, rapid cooling can be used to solidify a shell of white cast iron, after which the
remainder cools more slowly to form a core of grey cast iron. The resulting casting, called a
chilled casting, has the benefits of a hard surface and a somewhat tougher interior.

High-chromium white iron alloys allow massive castings (for example, a 10-tonne impeller) to
be sand cast, i.e., a high cooling rate is not required, as well as providing impressive abrasion
resistance. These high-chromium alloys attribute their superior hardness to the presence of
chromium carbides. The main form of these carbides are the eutectic or primary M7C3 carbides,
where "M" represents iron or chromium and can vary depending on the alloy's composition. The
eutectic carbides form as bundles of hollow hexagonal rods and grow perpendicular to the to the
hexagonal basal plane. The hardness of these carbides are within the range of 1500-1800HV

Malleable cast iron

Malleable iron starts as a white iron casting that is then heat treated at about 900 °C (1,650 °F).
Graphite separates out much more slowly in this case, so that surface tension has time to form it
into spheroidal particles rather than flakes. Due to their lower aspect ratio, spheroids are
relatively short and far from one another, and have a lower cross section vis-a-vis a propagating
crack or phonon. They also have blunt boundaries, as opposed to flakes, which alleviates the
stress concentration problems faced by grey cast iron. In general, the properties of malleable cast
iron are more like mild steel. There is a limit to how large a part can be cast in malleable iron,
since it is made from white cast iron.

Ductile cast iron

A more recent development is nodular or ductile cast iron. Tiny amounts of magnesium or
cerium added to these alloys slow down the growth of graphite precipitates by bonding to the
edges of the graphite planes. Along with careful control of other elements and timing, this allows
the carbon to separate as spheroidal particles as the material solidifies. The properties are similar
to malleable iron, but parts can be cast with larger sections.

TYPICAL USES

Cast iron is used in a wide variety of structural and decorative applications, because it is
relatively inexpensive, durable and easily cast into a variety of shapes. Most of the typical uses
include:

Ø historic markers and plaques

Ø hardware: hinges, latches
Ø columns, balusters
Ø stairs
Ø structural connectors in buildings and monuments
Ø decorative features
Ø fences
Ø tools and utensils
Ø ordnance
Ø stoves and firebacks
Ø piping.
UNIT-IV:
 UNIT-IV
Heat Treatment

A heat treatment can be defined as the process to subject a material to a predetermined time-temperature profile
in the solid state to achieve desired combination of properties through alteration of microstructural features,
such as, grain size, phase distribution, etc.

General heat treatment processes

Annealing

Annealing cycles are varied according to the temperature and the method of cooling used. Annealing
temperatures may be classified as:

• Subcritical annealing (below the lower critical temperature, A1)

• Intercritical annealing (above A1 but below the upper critical temperature, A3 in hypoeutectoid steels, or
Acm in hypereutectoid steels)
• Supercritical annealing to achieve full austenitization of either hypo- or hyper-eutectoid steels.

Some commonly used heat treatment cycle superimposed on Fe-C equilibrium diagram is shown in Fig. 1.
 Fig.4.1 Approximate temperature ranges for various heat treatments applied to steels.

Full Annealing

• The temperatures for full annealing are typically 50°C (90°F) above the upper critical temperature (A3)
for hypoeutectic steels and the lower critical temperature (A1) for hypereutectoid steels.
• It is referred to as full annealing because it achieves full austenitization of hypoeutectoid steels.
• The indicated temperatures for full annealing are a supercritical anneal for hypoeutectoid steels, but are
in the range of an intercritical anneal for hypereutectoid steels.
• Full annealing produces a microstructure that is softer and more amenable to other processing such as
forming or machining.
• In addition, stainless and high-alloy steels may be austenitized (fully annealed) and quenched to
minimize the presence of grain boundary carbides or to improve the ferrite distribution.
• The temperatures for full annealing are in approximately the same range of austenitization temperatures
for water quenching (Fig. 4.1) but are below austenitization temperatures for either normalizing or
hardening by oil quenching.
Recrystallization Annealing

• When cold worked metals are heated to a sufficiently high temperature, the badly deformed cold worked
grains are replaced by new strain-free grains.

• This process is referred to as recrystallization, which is distinct from the recovery process during stress
relief. At a constant temperature, recovery starts rapidly and then decreases with time. On the other
hand, recrystallization, which is a nucleation and growth process, starts slowly and then builds up to a
maximum rate before rapidly leveling off. Recrystallization annealing of steel is done at subcritical
temperatures (Fig. 4.1).

• Recrystallization annealing of cold worked metal can produce a new grain structure without inducing a
phase change. The recrystallization temperature is often defined as the temperature required for the
microstructure to undergo 50% recrystallization in 30 min, and for complete recrystallization in
approximately one hour.

• Although there is a trade-off between time and temperature, temperature is a much more dominant
variable than time. Recrystallization occurs more rapidly at higher temperatures. For most kinetic
processes, increasing the temperature by approximately 11°C (20°F) doubles the reaction rate. Once
recrystallization is complete, further heating causes grain growth to occur. The recrystallized grain size
is dependent on both the recrystallization time and temperature, particularly the temperature. Higher
temperatures tend to promote larger grain sizes.

• The temperature required for recrystallization is not exact—it depends on the composition of the alloy
and in particular on the amount of cold work performed. Therefore, recovery may affect the
recrystallization temperature, because the tendency toward recrystallization is lowered when appreciable
recovery has occurred; that is, a higher temperature may then be required to cause recrystallization. In
addition, grain size affects the nucleation rate and the recrystallization temperature. For equal amounts
of cold work, a lower recrystallization temperature and shorter recrystallization time occurs for fine-
grained metal than in coarse grained metal.

Stress Relief Annealing

• Annealing at subcritical temperatures (below Ac1) includes three different temperature regions (Fig.
4.1). The first is the temperature range for stress-relief annealing.

• Annealing involves uniform heating of a structure, or portion thereof, and holding at this temperature for
a predetermined period of time, followed by uniform cooling. Stress relief temperatures are sufficiently
high to help activate the microstructural process of recovery, such that stored internal strain energy is
relieved by rearrangement of dislocations into lower-energy configurations without any change in the
shape and orientation of grains.

• Stress-relief heat treating is used to relieve stresses from cold working. Care must be taken to ensure
uniform cooling, particularly when a component is composed of variable section sizes. If the rate of
cooling is not constant and uniform, new residual stresses can result that are equal to or greater than
those that the heat-treating process was intended to relieve.
 • Stress-relief heat treating can reduce distortion and high stresses from welding that can affect service
performance. The presence of residual stresses can lead to stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) near welds
and in regions of a component that has been cold strained during processing.

Spheroidizing

• Depending on the time-temperature exposure of a steel, the cementite carbides in a steel can form
different morphologies, such as the lamellar cementite of pearlite, or a network of cementite along prior
austenite grain boundaries in a hypereutectoid steel.

• The shape and distribution of the carbides can be modified by heat treatment, and spheroidization
treatments are used to produce carbides with a more spherical morphology.

• Because spherical shapes have lower surface energy than angular shapes, the lamellar shape of
cementite in pearlite changes morphology to form spheroids. Portions of the lamellae “pinch off”
(dissolve) to form a spheroid from the remaining portions of lamellae. This process can occur over a
long period of time, or it can be accelerated by heat treatment. Depending on the steel, spheroidized
carbides can lead to improved machinability, toughness, and formability.

• In hypoeutectoid steels, prolonged holding at a temperature just below Ae1 accelerates the process of
spheroidization. The process may take several hours. To improve on kinetics for full spheroidization,
some treatments involve heating and cooling alternately between temperatures that are just above Ac1
and just below Ar1.

• In low-carbon steels, the typical purpose of spheroidizing is to improve the cold formability of steels.
The formability of steel is altered significantly depending on whether carbides are spheroids or present
as lamellae in pearlite. Low-carbon steels are seldom spheroidized for machining, because in the
spheroidized condition they are excessively soft and “gummy,” cutting with long, tough chips.

• In hypereutectoid steels (C > 0.77%) and tool steels, spheroidization is done to improve machinability
and improve toughness. Heating of hypereutectoid steels above Ac1 is done to create dispersed
cementite particulates. Heating to dissolve the carbide prevents reformation of a carbide network. If a
temperature slightly above Ac1 is to be used, good loading characteristics and accurate temperature
controls are required for proper results; otherwise, it is conceivable that Ac1 may not be reached and that
austenitization may not occur.

Normalizing

• Steel is normalized to refine grain size, make its structure more uniform, make it more responsive to
hardening, and to improve machinability.
 • When steel is heated to a high temperature, the carbon can readily diffuse, resulting in a reasonably
uniform composition from one area to the next. The steel is then more homogeneous and will respond to
the heat treatment more uniformly.

• Normalizing is an austenitizing heating cycle followed by cooling in still or slightly agitated air.
Typically, the temperatures for normalizing (Fig. 4.1) are approximately 55°C (100°F) above the upper
critical line (that is, above Ac3 for hypoeutectoid steels and above Acm for hypereutectoid steels).

• To be properly classed as a normalizing treatment, the heating portion of the process must produce a
homogeneous austenitic phase prior to cooling. Fig. 4.2 compares the time-temperature cycle of
normalizing to that of full annealing.

Fig. 4.2 Comparison of normalizing and full annealing heat treatment cycle

Hardening

• The maximum hardness of any steel is associated with a fully martensitic structure. This microstructure
can be produced only if the cooling rate applied is higher than the critical cooling rate for the
corresponding steel.

• Hardenability is defined as the “susceptibility to hardening by rapid cooling”, or as “the property, in

ferrous alloys, that determines the depth and distribution of hardness produced by quenching”. Both of
these definitions emphasize hardness. As discussed previously, the source of hardening is the formation
and presence of martensite, and therefore a third definition of hardenability, “the capacity of a steel to
transform partially or completely from austenite to some percentage of martensite at a given depth when
cooled under some given conditions,” more accurately describes the physical process underlying
hardening.
Severity of Quench
• The effectiveness of a given quenching medium is ranked by a parameter referred to as its “severity of
quench.” This measure of cooling or quenching power is identified by the letter “H” and is determined
experimentally by quenching a series of round bars of a given steel.

• Table I lists H values for a number of commonly used quenches. Note that apart from the nature of the
quenching medium, the vigorousness of the shake determines the severity of the quench. When a hot
solid is put into a liquid medium, gas bubbles form on the surface of the solid (interface with medium).
As gas has a poor conductivity the quenching rate is reduced. Providing agitation (shaking the solid in
the liquid) helps in bringing the liquid medium in direct contact with the solid; thus improving the heat
transfer (and the cooling rate).

Table I. Severity of quench (H) for various quenching media

Jominy test for Hardenability

• Fig. 4.3 shows the shape and dimensions of a Jominy specimen and the fixture for supporting the
specimen in a quenching system.

• The specimen is cooled at one end by a column of water; thus, the entire specimen experiences a range
of cooling rates between those associated with water and air cooling.

• After quenching, parallel flats are ground on opposite sides of the specimen, and hardness readings are
taken every 1⁄16 in. from the quenched end and plotted as shown in Fig. 4.4.

• Hardenability differences between different grades of steels can be readily compared if Jominy curves
are available. For example, Fig. 4.5 shows hardenability differences between different grades of alloy
steels containing 0.5% C. Higher hardness persists to greater distances from the quenched end in the
more hardenable steels.
 Fig. 4.3 Jominy-Boegehold specimen for end-quench test for hardenability.

Fig. 4.4 Method of plotting hardness data Fig.4.5 Results of end-quench tests for four
from an end-quenched Jominy specimen. different grades of alloy steels, all containing
0.5% C.
Tempering

• Martensite in steels can be a very strong and in its “as quenched” condition rather brittle. It is then
necessary to modify its mechanical properties by heat treatment in the range 150–700oC. This process is
called tempering, in which the microstructure approaches equilibrium under the influence of thermal
activation.

• The general trend during the tempering of martensite therefore begins with the rejection of excess
carbon to precipitate carbides but the substitutional solutes do not diffuse during this process. The end
result of tempering is a dispersion of coarse carbides in a ferritic matrix which bears little resemblance
to the original martensite.

• It should be borne in mind that in many steels, the martensite reaction does not go to completion on
quenching, resulting in varying amounts of retained austenite which might decompose during the
tempering process.

• The effect of tempering temperature on the hardness of steel is shown in Fig.4. 6.

Tempering of Plain Carbon Steels

On reheating as-quenched martensite, the tempering takes place in four distinct but overlapping stages:

Stage 1, up to 250◦C: precipitation of ε-iron carbide; partial loss of tetragonality in martensite.

Stage 2, between 200◦C and 300◦C: decomposition of retained austenite.
Stage 3, between 200◦C and 350◦C: replacement of ε-iron carbide by cementite; martensite loses tetragonality.
Stage 4, above 350◦C: cementite coarsens and spheroidizes; recrystallization of ferrite.
 Fig. 4.6 Hardness of iron–carbon martensites tempered 1 h at 100–700oC.

Martempering

• Martempering is a heat treatment for steel involving austenitisation followed by step quenching, at a rate
fast enough to avoid the formation of ferrite, pearlite or bainite to a temperature slightly above the
martensite start (Ms) point. A schematic of above the process is shown in Fig.4 7.

• The advantage of martempering lies in the reduced thermal gradient between surface and center as the
part is quenched to the isothermal temperature and then is air cooled to room temperature.

• Residual stresses developed during martempering are lower than those developed during conventional
quenching because the greatest thermal variations occur while the steel is in the relatively plastic
austenitic condition and because final transformation and thermal changes occur throughout the part at
approximately the same time. Martempering also reduces or eliminate ssusceptibility to cracking.
Fig. 4. 7. Schematic representation of the Martempering process.

Austempering
• Austempering process is similar to the Martempering process except that the sample after the
homogenization of temperature from surface and temperature, instead of quenching, held at that
temperature above Ms for sufficient time (in the bainite transformation range) to produce banitic
microstructure.
• A schematic of this process is shown in Fig. 4.8. An advantage of this process over Martempering is that
the tempering can be avoided. Other advantages include, Higher ductility, Resistance to shock, Uniform
hardness, Tougher and more wear restiance, Higher impact and Fatigue Strengths.
Fig. 4.8. Schematic representation of the Martempering process.

Surface Hardening

• Numerous industrial applications require a hard wear resistant surface called the case, and a relatively
soft, tough inside called the core. Example: Gears
• They are two different categories. They are thermo chemical and thermo mechanical treatments. Thermo
chemical treatment is related to change in chemical composition and In Thermo mechanical treatment,
there is no change of chemical composition of the steel and are essentially shallow- hardening methods.
• A detailed flow chart is given below related to surface hardening treatments.
Carburizing

• Carburizing is the most widely used method of surface hardening. Here, the surface layers of a low
carbon steel (<0.25) is enriched with carbon up to 0.8-1.0%. The source of carbon may be a solid
medium, a liquid or a gas.
• In all cases, the carbon enters the steel at the surface and diffuses into the steel as a function of time
at an elevated temperature. Carburizing is done at 920-950°C. at this temperature the following
reaction takes place

Fe + 2CO 
→ Fe (c) + CO2

• Where Fe(c) represents carbon dissolved in austenite. the rate of diffusion of carbon in austenite, at a
given temperature is dependent upon the diffusion coefficient and the carbon concentration gradient.
• The carburizing equation given previously, Fe+2CO Fe(c) + CO2 is reversible and may proceed
to the left, removing carbon from the surface layer if the steel is heated in an atmosphere containing
carbon dioxide (CO2). This is called decarburization.
• Decarburization may be prevented by using an endothermic gas atmosphere in the furnace to protect
the surface of the steel from oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapor.
• An endothermic gas atmosphere is prepared by reacting relatively rich mixtures of air and
hydrocarbon gas (usually natural gas) in an externally heated generator in the presence of a nickel
catalyst.

Liquid carburizing
• Liquid carburizing is a method of case hardening steel by placing it in a bath (8% NaCN, 82% BaCl2
and 10% NaCl) of molten cyanide so that carbon will diffuse from the bath into the metal and
produce a case comparable to one resulting from pack or gas carburizing.
• Liquid carburizing may be distinguished from cyaniding by the character and composition of the
case produced. The cyanide case is higher in nitrogen and lower in carbon; the reverse is true of
liquid carburized cases.

BaCl2 + 2 NaCN 
→ Ba(CN ) 2 + 2 NaCl

Ba (CN ) 2 + Fe 
→ Fe( C ) + Ba (CN ) 2
Pack carburizing

• In pack carburizing, the article s to be carburized are packed in a box, embedding them in a powdery
mixture of 85% charcoal and 15% of energizers such as BaCO3 . The box is sealed with fireclay and
loaded into the furnace kept at 930°C. The residual air in the box combines with carbon to produce
CO. The energizer decomposes as below :

BaCO3 
→ BaO + CO2

CO2 + C 
→ 2CO
• The carbon enters the steel through the following reaction:

Fe + 2CO 
→ Fe (c) + CO2

• If selective carburization is to be done, copper is electroplated to a thickness of ~0.05 mm in regions

where carburization is not desired. Alternatively, a refractory paste of fireclay mixed with asbestos
can be applied. Control of temperature and penetration depth is less in pack carburizing as compared
to liquid and gas carburizing. Also, direct quench from the carburizing temperature to harden the
surface is not possible.

Gas Carburizing

• The steel is heated in contact with carbon monoxide and/or a hydrocarbon which is readily
decomposed at the carburizing temperature.
• A mixture consisting of 5-15% methane (or propane) in a neutral carrier gas is used. The methane
decomposes according to the following reaction:
CH 4 + Fe 
→ 2 H 2 + Fe(c)

• The carbon potential of the gas mixture increases with increasing concentration of methane. Too
large a concentration or too high a gas velocity releases carbon faster than it can be absorbed and
may result in soot formation on the surface.
• Closer control of temperature and case depth is possible in gas carburizing, as compared to pack
carburizing. Also, post quenching can be done directly.
Heat treatment after carburizing

• Since steel is carburized in the austenite region, direct quenching from the carburizing temperature
will harden both the case and core will harden both the case and core if the cooling rate is greater
than the critical cooling rate. Direct quenching of coarse grained steels often leads to brittleness and
distortion, so that this treatment should be applied only to fine grained steels. A diagrammatic
representation of various hardening treatments for carburized steels shown in next slide.

TREATMENT CASE CORE

A – best
adapted to fine Refined; Excess carbide not dissolved Unrefined; soft and machinable
grained steels
B-best adapted to fine Slightly coarsened; some solution of Partially refined; stronger and tougher
grained steels excess carbide than A
Somewhat coarsened; solution of
Refined: maximum core strength and
C-best adapted to fine excess carbide favored; austenite
hardness; better combination of
grained steels retention promoted in highly alloyed
strength and ductility than B
steels.
Refined; soft and machinable;
D-best treatment for Refined solution of excess carbide
maximum toughness and resistance to
coarse grained steels favored; austenite retention minimized
impact
Unrefined with excess carbide
E-adapted to fine
dissolved; austenite retained; distortion Unrefined but hardened
grained steels only
minimized

F-adapted to fine Refined; solution of excess carbide

Unrefined; fair toughness
grained steels only favored; austenite retention minimized
Cyaniding and Carbonitriding

• In this case that contain both carbon and nitrogen are produced in liquid salt baths (cyaniding) or by use
of gas atmospheres (carbonitriding). The temperatures used are generally lower than those used in
carburizing, being between 750-900°C.
• Exposure is for a shorter time, and thinner cases are produced, up to 0.010in. For cyaniding and up to
0.030in. For carbonitriding.
• In Cyaniding is done in a liquid bath of NaCN, with the concentration varying between 30 and 97%.
Both carbon and nitrogen enter the steel via the following reactions:

2 NaCN + O2 
→ 2 NaCNO
3 NaCNO 
→ NaCN + Na2CO3 + C + 2 N
• The temperature used for cyaniding is lower than that for carburizing and in the range of 800-870°C. the
time of cyaniding is 0.5-3 hour to produce a case depth of 0.25 mm or less.
• Carbonitriding is a case-hardening process in which a steel is heated in a gaseous atmosphere of such
composition that carbon and nitrogen are absorbed simultaneously.
• This process is also known as dry cyaniding or gas cyaniding. It is the gas carburizing process modified
by the addition of anhydrous ammonia.
• The decomposition of ammonia provides the nitrogen, which enters the steel along with carbon.
• A typical gas mixture consists of 15% NH3, CH4, and 80% of neutral carrier gas. The temperature used
is 750-900°C. With increasing temperature, a greater proportion of carbon enters the steel.
• The presence of nitrogen in the austenite accounts for the major differences between carbonitriding and
carburizing. Carbon-nitrogen austenite is stable at lower temperatures than plain-carbon austenite and
transforms more slowly on cooling. Carbonitriding therefore can be carried out at lower temperatures
and permits slower cooling rates than carburizing in the hardening operation.

Nitriding
• In contrast to the processes described before, nitriding is carried out in the ferrite region. Consequently,
no phase change occurs after nitriding .
• This part to be nitrided should possess the required core properties prior to nitriding. Pure ammonia
decomposes to yield nitrogen which enters the steel:

• The solubility of nitrogen in 3 →

ferrite
2 NH 2 N + Most
is small. 3H 2 of the nitrogen that enters the steel forms hard nitrides
(e.g. Fe3N). A typical nitriding steel contains alloying elements of 1%Al, 1.5%Cr and 0.2%Mo. Al, Cr,
and Mo form very hard and wear resistant nitrides.
• The temperature of nitriding is 500-590°C. the time for a case depth of 0.02mm is about 2 hour. In
addition with wear resistance, it also increases the resistance of a carbon steel to corrosion in moist
atmospheres.
• A common problem encountered in nitriding is the formation of γꞌ nitride (Fe4N) on the outer layers of
the case , known as the “white layer”, as it looks white under the microscope. This layer is very brittle
and tends to crack. It must be removed by final grinding operation. Its formation can be minimized by
maintaining the correct ratio of NH3/ H2 in the gas mixture during the heat treatment.

Induction Hardening

• Here, an alternating current of high frequency passes through an induction coil enclosing the steel part to
be heat treated. The induced emf heats the steel. the depth up to which the heat penetrates and rises the
temperature above Ac3 is inversely proportional to the square root of the AC frequency.
• Correspondingly, the hardened depth decreases with increasing frequency in induction hardening, the
heating time is usually a few seconds. Immediately after heating water jets are activated to quench the
surface . Martensite is produced at the surface, making it hard and wear resistant. The microstructure of
the core remains unaltered. Induction hardening is suitable for mass production of articles of uniform
cross section
 TTT Diagram

Time-Temperature-Transformation (TTT) Diagrams

• Davenport and Bain were the first to develop the TTT diagram of eutectoid steel. They determined
pearlite and bainite portions whereas Cohen later modified and included MS and MF temperatures for
martensite.

• There are number of methods used to determine TTT diagrams. The most popular method is salt bath
techniques combined with metallography and hardness measurement with addition of this we have
other techniques like dilatometry, electrical resistivity method, magnetic permeability, in situ diffraction
techniques (X-ray, neutron), acoustic emission, thermal measurement techniques, density measurement
techniques and thermodynamic predictions.

• TTT diagrams, also called as Isothermal (temperature constant) Transformation diagrams.

• TTT diagrams give the kinetics of isothermal transformations.

• For every composition of steel we should draw a different TTT diagram.

• For the determination of isothermal transformation (or) TTT diagrams, we consider molten salt bath
technique combined with metallography and hardness measurements.

• In molten salt bath technique two salt baths and one water bath are used. Salt bath I is maintained at
austenising temperature (780˚C for eutectoid steel). Salt bath II is maintained at specified temperature at
which transformation is to be determined (below Ae1), typically 700-250°C for eutectoid steel. Bath III
which is a cold water bath is maintained at room temperature.

• In bath I number of samples are austenite at A1+20-40°C for eutectoid, A3+20-40°C for hypo-eutectoid
steel and ACm+20-40°C for hyper-eutectoid steels for about an hour.

• Then samples are removed from bath I and put in bath II and each one is kept for different specified
period of time say t1, t2, t3, t4,…..........,tn etc. After specified times, the samples are removed and
quenched in cold water. The microstructure of each sample is studied using metallographic techniques.
The type, as well as quantity of phases, is determined on each sample.
 As pointed out before one of the important utilities of the TTT diagrams comes from the overlay of
micro-constituents (microstructures) on the diagram.

 Depending on the T, the (γ+ Fe3C) phase field is labeled with micro-constituents like Pearlite, Bainite.
 The time taken to 1% transformation to, say pearlite or bainite is considered as transformation start time
and for 99% transformation represents transformation finish.

 We had seen that TTT diagrams are drawn by instantaneous quench to a temperature followed by
isothermal hold.

 Suppose we quench below (~225°C, below the temperature marked Ms), then Austenite transforms via
a diffusionless transformation (involving shear) to a (hard) phase known as Martensite. Below a
temperature marked Mf this transformation to Martensite is complete. Once γ is exhausted it cannot
transform to (γ + Fe3C).

 Hence, we have a new phase field for Martensite. The fraction of Martensite formed is not a function of
the time of hold, but the temperature to which we quench (between Ms and Mf).

 Strictly speaking cooling curves (including finite quenching rates) should not be overlaid on TTT
diagrams (remember that TTT diagrams are drawn for isothermal holds!).

TTT diagram for Hypo eutectoid steel

 In hypo- (and hyper-) eutectoid steels (say composition

C1) there is one more branch to the ‘C’ curve-NP (next slide:
marked in red).
 The part of the curve lying between T1 and TE (marked in fig : next slide) is clear, because in this range
of temperatures we expect only pro-eutectoid α to form and the final microstructure will consist of α and
γ. (E.g. if we cool to Tx and hold).

 The part of the curve below TE is a bit of a ‘mystery’ (since we are instantaneously cooling to below TE,
we should get a mix of α+ Fe3C what is the meaning of a ‘pro’-eutectoid phase in a TTT diagram?
(remember ‘pro-’ implies ‘pre-’)

 Suppose we quench instantaneously an hypo-eutectoid composition C1 to Tx we should expect the

formation of α+Fe3C (and not pro-eutectoid α first).

 The reason we see the formation of pro-eutectoid α first is that the undercooling w.r.t to Acm is more
than the undercooling w.r.t to A1. Hence, there is a higher propensity for the formation of pro-eutectoid
α.

TTT diagram for Hyper eutectoid steel

 Similar to the hypo-eutectoid case, hyper-eutectoid compositions C2 have a γ+Fe3C branch.

 For a temperature between T2 and TE (say Tm (not melting point- just a label)) we land up with γ+Fe3C.

 For a temperature below TE (but above the nose of the ‘C’ curve) (say Tn), first we have the formation
of pro-eutectoid Fe3C followed by the formation of eutectoid γ+Fe3 C.
Transformation to Pearlite

• The transformation product above the nose region is pearlite. The pearlite microstructure is the
characteristic lamellar structure of alternate layers of ferrite and cementite.

• As the transformation temperature decreases, the characteristic lamellar structure is maintained, but the
spacing between the ferrite and carbide layers becomes increasingly smaller until the separate layers
cannot be resolved with the light microscope.

• As the temperature of transformation and the fineness of the pearlite decreases, it is apparent that the
hardness will increase.
• Nucleation and growth

• Heterogeneous nucleation at grain boundaries

• Interlamellar spacing is a function of the temperature of transformation

• Lower temperature → finer spacing → higher hardness

Transformation to Bainite
• In between the nose region of approximately 510˚C and the M s temperature, a new, dark-etching
aggregate of ferrite and cementite appears. This structure, named after [Link], is called bainite.

• At upper temperatures of the transformation range, it resembles pearlite and is known as upper or
feathery bainite. At low temperatures it appears as a black needlelike structure resembling martensite
and is known as lower or acicular banite.

 Pearlite is nucleated by a carbide crystal, bainite is nucleated by a ferrite crystal, and this results in a
different growth pattern.

 Acicular, accompanied by surface distortions

 ** Lower temperature → carbide could be ε carbide (hexagonal structure, 8.4% C)

 Bainite plates have irrational habit planes

 Ferrite in Bainite plates possess different orientation relationship relative to the parent Austenite than
does the Ferrite in Pearlite

Continuous Cooling Transformation diagrams

 The TTT diagrams are also called Isothermal Transformation Diagrams, because the transformation
times are representative of isothermal hold treatment (following a instantaneous quench).
 In practical situations we follow heat treatments (T-t procedures/cycles) in which (typically) there are
steps involving cooling of the sample. The cooling rate may or may not be constant. The rate of cooling
may be slow (as in a furnace which has been switch off) or rapid (like quenching in water).

 Hence, in terms of practical utility TTT curves have a limitation and we need to draw separate diagrams
called Continuous Cooling Transformation diagrams (CCT), wherein transformation times (also:
products & microstructure) are noted using constant rate cooling treatments. A diagram drawn for a
given cooling rate (dT/dt) is typically used for a range of cooling rates (thus avoiding the need for a
separate diagram for every cooling rate).

 However, often TTT diagrams are also

used for constant cooling rate
experiments- keeping in view the
assumptions & approximations
involved.

 The CCT diagram for eutectoid steel

is considered next.

 Important difference between the CCT

& TTT transformations is that in the CCT
case Bainite cannot form.
Stainless Steels
 Stainless Steels are a large group of special alloys developed primarily to withstand corrosion. These
steels contain chromium in excess of 12% by weight which imparts “stainless” characteristics to iron
alloys.
AISI Grades of stainless steels:

Martensitic Stainless Steel

• These are primarily straight chromium steels with 11.5 to 18% Cr, 0.15% C, 1.25% Mn, and 1%Si.
• Common examples are 403, 410, 416, 420, 440A, 501 & 502 (AISI grades).
• Used for turbine blades and corrosion resistant applications.
 Heat Treatment

• Process Annealing → 650 - 760 o C, increase ductility and machinability

• Austenitizing → 925 -1065 o C followed by oil quenching or air cooling, increase
corrosion resistance and strength

Austenitic Stainless Steel

• These are chrome-nickel (3xx type) or chrome -nickel- manganese(2xx type) alloys.
• Total content of Ni and Cr is at least 23%.
• Difficult to machine but can be improved by addition of selenium of sulfur.
• Best high temperature strength and scaling resistance. Hence shows best corrosion resistance
• Used in chemical industry and for household and sanitary fittings.
Heat Treatment

• Cold working causes work hardening but hot working can easily be done.
• Annealing at high temperatures → Recrystallization and carbide solution
• Solution treatment → Dissolution of chromium carbides

Tool Steel
 Tool steel refers to a variety of carbon and alloy steels that are particularly well-suited to be made into
tools.
 Characteristics include high hardness, resistance to abrasion (excellent wear), an ability to hold a cutting
edge, resistance to deformation at elevated temperatures (red-hardness).
 Tool steel are generally used in a heat-treated state.
Ferritic Stainless Steel
• These are primarily straight chromium steels with 14 to 27% Cr. Carbon is restricted both to maintain
high toughness and ductility and to prevent austenite formation (As carbon expands the gamma loop)
• These steels can be cold formed easily and hence are used for deep drawn parts such as vessels for food
and chemical industries and for architectural and automotive trim.
Heat Treatment

• Can be cold or hot worked.

• Annealing → 760 - 966oC, Recrystallization of cold-worked structures → achieves maximum softness,
ductility and corrosion resistance.
Uses
• Shock resisting tool steels→ Intended for applications requiring toughness and resistance to shock -
loading such as hammers, chisels, punches, driver bits and others.
• Water hardening tool steels → Shallow hardened and relatively low resistance to softening. They are
suitable for woodworking tools, hand-metal cutting tools such as taps and reamers and cutlery.
• Steels for Room Temperature Use (Classified according to their quenching media)
• Water hardened grades (W) → Plain carbon steels with 0.6-1.0 %C. These have a low hardenability, ie.,
martensite only to a depth of 0.5 in. V can be added (forms V4C3)to improve the hardness and wear
resistance of these steels.
• Shock resistant grades (S) → Contain small amounts of Cr or Mo and are quenched in oil. They have
lower C contents (0.5%) to improve impact strength.
• Oil hardened grades (O)→ Small percentages of Cr and W with 0.9 %C. The have medium hardness
and are used to short run cold forming dies.
• Air hardening grades (A)→ Greater amounts of Cr and Mo and 1 %C. Used for complicated shapes
and thread rolling. Mo and W are relatively expensive so they are only added in small amounts to give
much improved hardenability.
• High carbon, high Cr grades (D grade) → 12 %Cr and 1.5 -2.25 %C are extremely wear resistant and
used for long run dies and for gauges. Chromium is a relatively low cost addition for increasing
hardenability with the excess Cr, Cr23C6 is also formed, which improves wear resistance.
 Steels for High Temperature Use

• Chromium hot working steels (H grades) → 5 -7 % Cr, 0.4-1.0% V, 1.5-7.0% W, 1.5% Mo, 0.35%
C. Medium hot working for Mg and Al extrusion die-casting dies.
• Tungsten hot working steels (H ) → 9.5 -12 % W, 3.5-12.0 % Cr, 0.35 % C. Hot working, extrusion
and forging dies for brass, nickel and steel.
• Tungsten high speed steel (T)→ 12 -18 % W, 4.0 % Cr, 1-5 % V, 0.7-1.5 % C. Original high speed
(HS) cutting steel with excellent HT wear resistance.
• Molybdenum HS steel (M) → 3.5-8.0 % Mo, 1.5-6.0 % W, 4.0 % Cr, 1-5 % V, 5 % Co, 0.8-1.5 %
C. Used for 85% of US cutting steels before the advent of ceramic cutting tools.

High Speed Steel (HSS)

• HSS is a subset of tool steel, commonly used in tool bits and cutting tools. It is often used in power saw
blades and drill bits.
• They are characterized by high carbon contents, sometimes up to 1.5%, and major additions of strong
carbide forming elements such as chromium, molybdenum, tungsten and vanadium. Up to 12% Co is
also included in some of the more complex grades.
• It can withstand higher temperatures without losing its temper (hardness) which allows it to cut faster
than high carbon steel, hence the name.
• Other characteristics include high hardness, resistance to abrasion (excellent wear), an ability to hold a
cutting edge, resistance to deformation at elevated temperatures (red-hardness).
• Modulus Of elasticity: 221GPa, Density : 8767 kg/m3 (↑ durability & hardness), Thermal Conductivity:
21W/m/K
• HSS are mainly of two types: Tungsten based ones (T grades), Molybdenum based ones (M grades)
NON FERROUS METAL & ALLOYS

Copper

v Copper is one of the earliest metals discovered by man.

v The boilers on early steamboats were made from copper.
v The copper tubing used in water plumbing in Pyramids was found in serviceable
condition after more than 5,000 years.
v Cu is a ductile metal. Pure Cu is soft and malleable, difficult to machine.
v Very high electrical conductivity – second only to silver.
v Copper is refined to high purity for many electrical

Applications

· Excellent thermal conductivity – Copper cookware most highly regarded – fast and uniform
heating.
· Electrical and construction industries are the largest users of Cu.

Copper Alloys

· Brasses and Bronzes are most commonly used alloys of Cu. Brass is an alloy with Zn.
Bronzes contain tin, aluminum, silicon or beryllium.
· Other copper alloy families include copper-nickels and nickel silvers. More than 400 copper-
base alloys are recognized.

Applications

Ø Electrical wires,
Ø roofing, nails, rivets
Ø Automotive radiator
Ø core, lamp fixture,
 Ø clutch disk,
Ø diaphragm, fuse clips,
Ø springs
Ø Furniture, radiator
Ø fittings, battery clamps,
Ø light fixtures
Ø Bearings, bushings,
Ø valve seats and guards
Ø Electrical, valves,
Ø pumps
Ø Condenser, heat exchanger
Ø piping,
Ø valves
Ø Tin bronze Sn,
Ø Bearings, bushing,
Ø piston rings, gears

Aluminum
· Aluminum is a light metal & easily machinable; has wide variety of surface finishes; good
electrical and thermal conductivities; highly reflective to heat and light.
· Versatile metal - can be cast, rolled, stamped, drawn, spun, roll-formed, hammered, extruded
and forged into many shapes.
· Aluminum can be riveted, welded, brazed, or resin bonded.
· Corrosion resistant - no protective coating needed, however it is often anodized to improve
surface finish, appearance.
· Al and its alloys - high strength-to-weight ratio (high specific strength) owing to low density.
· Such materials are widely used in aerospace and automotive applications where weight
savings are needed for better fuel efficiency and performance.
· Al-Li alloys are lightest among all Al alloys and find wide applications in the aerospace
industry.

Application of some Al Alloys

Ø Food/chemical handling

Ø equipment, heat exchangers

Ø light reflectors

Ø Utensils, pressure vessels and

Ø piping

Ø Strain-hardn.

Ø Bellows, clutch disk,

Ø diaphragm, fuse clips, springs

Ø Heat treated

Ø Aircraft structure, rivets, truck

Ø wheels, screw

Ø Trucks, canoes, railroad cars,

Ø furniture, pipelines

Ø Peak-aged

Ø Aircraft structures and other

Ø highly loaded applications

Ø Aircraft pump parts,

Ø automotive transmission

Ø cases, cylinder blocks

Brasses & Bronzes

Brass is an alloy made of copper and zinc; the proportions of zinc and copper can be varied to
create a range of brasses with varying properties. Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of
copper, usually with tin as the main additive. It is hard and tough, and it was so significant in
antiquity that the Bronze Age was named after the metal.

Admiralty brass contains 30% zinc, with 1% tin to inhibit dezincification in many environments.
Alpha brasses with less than 35% zinc, are malleable, can be worked cold, and are used in
pressing, forging, or similar applications. They contain only one phase, with face-centered cubic
crystal structure. Alpha-beta brass (Muntz metal), also called duplex brass, is 35–45% zinc and is
suited for hot working. It contains both α and β' phase; the β'-phase is body-centered cubic and is
harder and stronger than α. Alpha-beta brasses are usually worked hot. Aluminium brass contains
aluminium, which improves its corrosion resistance. Red brass is both an American term for the
copper-zinc-tin alloy known as gunmetal, and an alloy which is considered both a brass and a
bronze. It typically contains 85% copper, 5% tin, 5% lead, and 5% zinc.

Aluminium Bronze
A type of BRONZE in which aluminium is the main alloying metal added to copper. Small
amounts of other elements such as iron, manganese, nickel and silicon are added to impart
various properties such as corrosion resistance or malubility. It fairs well in the marine
enviroment.
Typical compostion:
Copper 80%
Aluminium 10%
Nickel 5%
Iron 5%

Silicon Bronze
Has small amounts of silicon to allow it to be wrought or cold worked into a stronger alloy such
as by rolling. It is also resistant to corrosion and therefore good for use in the marine enviroment.
Typical compostion:
Copper 96%
Silicon 3%
Manganase 1%

Phosphor bronze
Well this one is different! Rather than Phosphor being the main alloy metal, it is used during
manufacture to purify the melt and create a purer stronger type of bronze. Usually not more than
0.2% of the Phosphur is left in the metal. It is very corrosion resistant and therefore good in the
marine environment.
Typical compostion:
Copper 94.8%
Tin 5%
Phosphorus 0.2%

Leaded Bronze
Leaded Gunmetal (LG2) Is a type of copper alloy that has a small amount of lead, tin and zinc
added in similar quantities. It is not considered to be brass due to the amount of zinc being small.
It has widespread use as a valve and through hull fitting material due to it's good seawater
resistance. It does not de-zincify in seawater despite having a zinc content. It is good for use in
the marine environment.
Typical composition:
Copper 85%
Lead 5%
Tin 5%
Zinc 5%

Bronze was especially suitable for use in boat and ship fittings prior to the wide employment of
stainless steel owing to its combination of toughness and resistance to salt water corrosion.
Bronze is still commonly used in ship propellers and submerged bearings.

In the 20th century, silicon was introduced as the primary alloying element, creating an alloy
with wide application in industry and the major form used in contemporary statuary. Sculptors
may prefer silicon bronze because of the ready availability of silicon bronze brazing rod, which
allows color-matched repair of defects in castings. Aluminium is also used for the structural
metal aluminium bronze.

It is also widely used for cast bronze sculpture. Many common bronze alloys have the unusual
and very desirable property of expanding slightly just before they set, thus filling in the finest
details of a mold. Bronze parts are tough and typically used forbearings, clips, electrical
connectors and springs.

Bronze also has very low metal-on-metal friction, which made it invaluable for the building of
cannon where iron cannonballs would otherwise stick in the barrel. It is still widely used today
for springs, bearings, bushings, automobile transmission pilot bearings, and similar fittings, and
is particularly common in the bearings of small electric motors. Phosphor bronze is particularly
suited to precision-grade bearings and springs. It is also used in guitar and piano strings.

Unlike steel, bronze struck against a hard surface will not generate sparks, so it (along with
beryllium copper) is used to make hammers, mallets, wrenches and other durable tools to be used
in explosive atmospheres or in the presence of flammable vapors.

Bronze is used to make bronze wool for woodworking applications where steel wool would
discolor oak.
UNIT-V:
 UNIT-V

Ceramics (Applications and Processing)

Ceramics encompass such a vast array of materials that a concise definition is almost impossible.
However, one workable definition is: Ceramics can be defined as inorganic, nonmetallic
materials. They are typically crystalline in nature and are compounds formed between metallic
and nonmetallic elements such as aluminum and oxygen (alumina-Al2O3), calcium and oxygen
(calcia - CaO), and silicon and nitrogen (silicon nitride-Si3N4).

Ceramics is a refractory, inorganic, and nonmetallic material. Ceramics can be divided into two
classes: traditional and advanced. Traditional ceramics include clay products, silicate glass and
cement; while advanced ceramics consist of carbides (SiC), pure oxides (Al2O3), nitrides (Si3N4),
non-silicate glasses and many others. Ceramics offer many advantages compared to other
materials. They are harder and stiffer than steel; more heat and corrosion resistant than metals or
polymers; less dense than most metals and their alloys; and their raw materials are both plentiful
and inexpensive. Ceramic materials display a wide range of properties which facilitate their use
in many different product areas.

In general, most ceramics are:

Ø hard,
Ø wear-resistant,
Ø brittle,
Ø refractory,
Ø thermal insulators,
Ø electrical insulators,
Ø nonmagnetic,
Ø oxidation resistant,
 Ø prone to thermal shock, and
Ø Chemically stable.

Of course there are many exceptions to these generalizations. For example, borosilicate glasses
(glasses that contain silica and boron as major ingredients) and certain glass ceramics (glasses
that contain a crystalline phase) and NZP ceramics are very resistant to thermal shock and are
used in applications such as ovenware, stove tops and kiln furniture respectively. Also, some
ceramics are excellent electrical conductors and an entire commercial market is based on the fact
that certain ceramics (ferrites) are magnetic.

Types and applications of ceramics:

Ceramics offer a high temperature range. However, ceramics are not very strong. To compensate
for their lack of strength ceramics are usually combined with some other material to form a
ceramic composite.

1) Glasses and glass ceramics- The glasses are a familiar group of ceramics; containers,
windows, lenses and fiberglass represent typical applications. The properties of standard vitrified
products are insufficient for architectural applications and structural building components,
insulation or other specialized applications. Yet there is an effective way to improve these
properties without major alterations to the process itself - the introduction of a controlled
crystallization process through a subsequent heat treatment, i.e. by forming a glass-ceramic.

Production of Glass-Ceramics
Glass-ceramic articles may be produced by three routes:
· The heat treatment of solid glass (the traditional route)
· The controlled cooling of a molten glass, known as the petrurgic method
· The sintering and crystallisation of glass powders.

In the latter case, the powders are densified at relatively low temperatures by exploiting a viscous
flow sintering mechanism. After densification, the material is subjected to a crystallisation heat-
treatment to obtain the required glass-ceramic microstructure. Alternatively, both densification
and crystallisation may take place during a single sintering step. Along with the economic
advantage of using relatively low processing temperatures, the powder technology route is
suitable for the production of a range of advanced materials, including glass-ceramics with
specified porosities and glass-ceramic matrix composites.

Using the petrurgic method, the slow cooling from the molten state causes nucleation and growth
of certain crystalline phases. Therefore, the final microstructure, and hence the properties,
depends mainly on the composition and the cooling rate.

Glass-Ceramics Based on Coal Ash

The very high iron oxide content of coal ash, table 1, indicates the potential for developing
magnetic phases using appropriate processing - this was the aim of our work. We calcined the as-
received ash at 800°C for two hours to remove any volatile Material compounds, including sulfur
and carbon. The powder and petrurgic methods were explored, and gave us products with
different phases and microstructures. For the sintering experiments, we mixed calcined ash
powder with various amounts (10-50wt%) of borosilicate (Pyrex) glass. The powder mixtures
were uniaxial cold pressed to a cylindrical shape and sintered in air at temperatures in the range
of 1,000-1,500°C for periods of up to 15 hours. Using the petrurgic method, coal ash was mixed
with sodalime glass powder. The mixture was melted at 1,500°C and cooled to room temperature
at rates of between 1-10°C per minute.

Glass-Ceramic Composites

Work to date has largely concentrated on composites with a matrix of the slag-based Silceram
glass-ceramic (a glass-ceramic for floor and wall tiles and wear components). We have
investigated both particulate- (SiC and TiC) and fibre-reinforcement (SiC). Properties measured
include the fundamental mechanical properties but also more complex properties such as thermal
shock resistance and erosion resistance. As mentioned previously, the thermal shock resistance
of glass-ceramics is superior to the parent glasses, and the shock resistance is further improved
by particulate reinforcement. For example, monolithic Silceram has a thermal shock critical
temperature of 180°C, whereas a 20wt%SiC composite has a value of 270°C. Erosion resistance
may also be improved by particulate reinforcement, e.g., for TiC reinforced Silceram - the larger
the reinforcement particle size and the greater the volume fraction, the lower the erosion rate.
Results indicate a way for transforming vitrified silicate residues into useful products with broad
application potential. The glass-ceramics obtained are candidate materials for applications in
floors of industrial buildings and in construction, and for outside and inside facing walls. We are
currently addressing issues associated with the effect of environmental influences on the
chemical durability and toxic potential of the materials, which may be compromised by the
presence of heavy metals incorporated in the glass or crystalline phases. Public acceptance of the
use and exploitation of glass-ceramic-based materials in such applications will strongly depend
on a satisfactory consideration of these issues.
2) Refractories -Refractories are materials needed for handling high temperature liquids, gases
and solids, e.g., for industrial processing. Applications include solar furnaces, casting molds for
molten materials, heat exchangers, and aerobraking heat shields. Industrial refractory needs can
be satisfied by sintered calcia (CaO), silica (SiO2), magnesia (MgO), alumina (Al2O3) and titania
(TiO2), with the desired porosity. Of course, these stable materials are commonly used on Earth
for the same purposes, due to their great resistance to heat, oxidation (they are already fully
oxidized), corrosion and abrasion. Minerals such as olivine [(MgFe)2SiO4] and anorthite
(CaAl2Si2O8) are also useful for making refractory bricks and ceramics. Some refractories and
their ceramics have low expansion due to heat and are attractive for space environments where a
wide range of temperatures are experienced.
One particular application of refractories is in transportation for returning cargoes to low Earth
orbit by aerobraking with the upper atmosphere, and perhaps slowing down some incoming
asteroid payloads by aerobraking. Of course, this is the method used by spacecraft to return to
Earth, including the reusable Space Shuttle. The Space Shuttle's tiles are made from silica (SiO2)
(with a thin borosilicate coating to provide a smooth, aerodynamic surface for a smooth landing).
Aerobraking tiles are produced from amorphous silica fibers which are pressed and sintered, with
the resulting tile having as much as 93% porosity (i.e., very lightweight) and low thermal
expansion, low thermal conductivity, and good thermal shock properties. This process can be
readily performed in space when we can produce silica of the required purity. Cheaper materials
besides silica fibers can be used. Silica fibers are used on the Space Shuttle in order to keep its
weight down, thereby increasing cargo weight capacity. For resources already in space, we don't
have this economic need. A number of other materials can be used for heat shields, e.g., alumina
(Al2O3) or anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8).
3) Abrasives- Abrasive cements are used to wear, grind or cut away other material, which
necessarily is softer. Therefor, the prime requisite for this group of materials is hardness or wear
resistancr; in addition, a hig degree of toughness is essential to ensure that the abrasive particles
do not easily fracture. Furthermore, high temperatures may be produced from abrasive frictional
forces, so some refractoriness is also desirable. Diamonds, both natural and synthetic, are utilized
as abrasives; however, they are relatively expensive. The more common ceramic abrasives
include silicon carbide, tungsten carbide(WC), aluminium oxide and silica sand. Abrasives are
used in several forms-bonded to grinding wheels, as coated abrasives and as loose grains. Coated
abrasives are those in which an abrasive powder is coated on some type of paper or cloth
material; sandpaper is probably the mostly familiar example. Wood, metals, ceramics and
plastics are all frequently ground and polished using this form of abrasive. Grinding, lapping and
polishing wheels often employ loose abrasive grains that are delivered in some type of oil or
water based vehicle. Diamonds, corundum, silicon carbide and rouge are used in loose form over
a variety of grain size ranges.

4) Cements: Several familiar ceramic materials are classified as inorganic cements:cements,

plaster of paris, and lime, which as a group are produced in extremely large quantities. The
characteristic feature of these materials is that when mixed with water, they form a paste that
subsequently sets and hardens. This trait is especially useful in that solid and rigid structures
having just about any shape may be expeditiously formed.

Portland Cement
Portland cement is a closely controlled chemical combination of calcium, silicon, aluminum, iron
and small amounts of other compounds, to which gypsum is added in the final grinding process
to regulate the setting time of the concrete. Some of the raw materials used to manufacture
cement are limestone, shells, and chalk or marl, combined with shale, clay, slate or blast furnace
slag, silica sand, and iron ore. Lime and silica make up approximately 85 percent of the mass
The term "Portland" in Portland cement originated in 1824 when an English mason obtained a
patent for his product, which he named Portland Cement. This was because his cement blend
produced concrete that resembled the color of the natural limestone quarried on the Isle of
Portland in the English Channel. Different types of Portland cement are manufactured to meet
different physical and chemical requirements for specific purposes.
Common Examples
Structural clay products Brick, sewer pipe, roofing tile, clay floor and wall tile (i.e., quarry
tile), flue linings
Whitewares Dinnerware, floor and wall tile, sanitaryware, electrical porcelain, decorative
ceramics
Refractories Brick and monolithic products are used in iron and steel, non-ferrous metals, glass,
cements, ceramics, energy conversion, petroleum, and chemicals industries
Glasses Flat glass (windows), container glass (bottles), pressed and blown glass
(dinnerware), glass fibers (home insulation), and advanced/specialty glass (optical fibers)
Abrasives Natural (garnet, diamond, etc.) and synthetic (silicon carbide, diamond, fused
alumina, etc.) abrasives are used for grinding, cutting, polishing, lapping, or pressure blasting of
materials
Cements Used to produce concrete roads, bridges, buildings, dams, and the like

Fabrication and processing of ceramics

Ceramic Synthesis
Our expertise and capabilities in synthesizing ceramics are based onchemical solution
techniques. Chemical solution or sol-gel approaches have beendeveloped to fabricate powders,
films, and porous bodies. Materials of interest range from silica to complex, multicomponent
electronic ceramics. The complexity inherent in fabricating materials with structured
nanoporosity or complex chemistries requires a fundamental understanding of these chemical
solution approaches. Fabrication of unique precursors for complex oxides is being done with
novel metal alkoxide chemistry to produce powders and thin-film materials with carefully
controlled properties. Our ability to synthesize materials with complex structures, chemistries, or
both, is at the heart of numerous research and development efforts at Sandia.

Ceramic Processing
Sandia's fabrication of ceramic components and devices is based on a strong ceramic-processing
capability. We recently have demonstrated the ability to characterize and model the powder-
compaction process in detail, and to address and control density gradients in powder compacts
that cause shape distortion and differential shrinkage. Proprietary 3D, finite-element code
packing and compaction models, and process-control tools are now available to improve the
production of ceramic components. Sandia has capabilities in the areas of hydrostatic and triaxial
compaction testing to characterize materials properties, and x-ray radiography, ultrasound, and
computed tomography for density characterization. In addition, expertise in slurry processing has
enabled the development of direct-fabrication processes. Furthermore, we are developing
phenomenological sintering models to enhance both ceramic component design and
manufacturing capability.

Applications and Processing of Polymers/ Plastics

Plastic covers a range of synthetic or semisynthetic polymerization products. They are composed
of organic condensation or addition polymers and may contain other substances to improve
performance or economics. There are few natural polymers generally considered to be "plastics".
Plastics can be formed into objects or films or fibers. Their name is derived from the fact that
many are malleable, having the property of plasticity. Plastic can be classified in many ways but
most commonly by their polymer backbone (polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene, acrylic, silicone,
urethane, etc.). Other classifications include thermoplastic vs. thermoset, elastomer, engineering
plastic, addition or condensation, and Glass transition temperature or Tg.
A lot of plastics are partially crystalline and partially amorphous in molecular structure, giving
them both a melting point (the temperature at which the attractive intermolecular forces are
overcome) and one or more glass transitions (temperatures at which the degree of cross-linking is
substantially reduced).

Plastics are polymers: long chains of atoms bonded to one another. These chains are made up of
many repeating molecular units, or "monomers". The vast majority of plastics are composed of
polymers of carbon alone or with oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine or sulfur in the backbone. (Some of
commercial interest are silicon based.) The backbone is that part of the chain on the main "path"
linking the multitude of monomer units together. To customize the properties of a plastic,
different molecular groups "hang" from the backbone (usually they are "hung" as part of the
monomers before linking monomers together to form the polymer chain).

Polymerization
The synthesis of the large molecular weight polymers is termed polymerization; it is simply the
process by which monomer units are joined over, to generate each of the constituent giant
molecules. The reactions by which polymerization occurs are grouped into two general
classification- addition and condensation, according to the reaction mechanisms.

Addition polymerization is a process by which bifuncational monomer units are attached one at
a time in chainlike fashion to form a linear macromolecules; the composition of the resultant
products molecule is an exact multiple for that of the original reactant monomer. Three distinct
stages- initiation, propagation and termination are involved in addition polymerization.
Condensation polymerization is the formation of polymers by stepwise intermolecular
chemical reactions that normally involve more than one monomer species; there is usually a
small molecular weight by producer such as water, which is eliminated. No reactant species has
the chemical formula of the mer repeat unit, and the intermolecular reaction occurs every time a
mer repeat unit is formed

Types of Polymers/plastics:

Thermosetting plastics (thermosets) are polymer materials that cure, through the addition of
energy, to a stronger form. The energy may be in the form of heat (generally above 200 degrees
Celsius), through a chemical reaction (two-part epoxy, for example), or irradiation.

Thermoset materials are usually liquid, powder, or malleable prior to curing, and designed to be
molded into their final form, or used as adhesives.

The curing process transforms the resin into a plastic or rubber by a cross-linking process.
Energy and/or catalysts are added that cause the molecular chains to react at chemically active
sites (unsaturated or epoxy sites, for example), linking into a rigid, 3-D structure. The cross-
linking process forms a molecule with a larger molecular weight, resulting in a material with a
higher melting point. During the reaction, when the molecular weight has increased to a point so
that the melting point is higher than the surrounding ambient temperature, the material forms into
a solid material. Subsequent uncontrolled reheating of the material results in reaching the
decomposition temperature before the melting point is obtained. A thermoset material cannot be
melted and re-shaped after it is cured.
Thermoset materials are generally stronger than thermoplastic materials due to this 3-D network
of bonds, and are also better suited to high-temperature applications up to the decomposition
temperature of the material. They do not lend themselves to recycling like thermoplastics
Bakelite, a Phenol Formaldehyde Resin (used in electrical insulators and plastic wear)

Urea-formaldehyde foam (used in plywood, particleboard and medium-density fibreboard)

Melamine (used on worktop surfaces)

Polyester Resin (used in glass-reinforced plastics/fibreglass (GRP))

Epoxy Resin (used as an adhesive and in fibre reinforced plastics such as glass reinforced plastic
and graphite-reinforced plastic)

A thermoplastic is a material that is plastic or deformable, melts to a liquid when heated and
freezes to a brittle, glassy state when cooled sufficiently. Most thermoplastics are high molecular
weight polymers whose chains associate through weak van der Waals forces (polyethylene);
stronger dipole-dipole interactions and hydrogen bonding (nylon); or even stacking of aromatic
rings (polystyrene). Thermoplastic polymers differ from thermosetting polymers (Bakelite;
vulcanized rubber) which once formed and cured, can never be remelted and remolded. Many
thermoplastic materials are addition polymers; e.g., vinyl chain-growth polymers such as
polyethylene and polypropylene.

Thermoplastics are elastic and flexible above a glass transition temperature Tg, specific for each
one — the midpoint of a temperature range in contrast to the sharp freezing point of a pure
crystalline substance like water. Below a second, higher melting temperature, Tm, also the
midpoint of a range, most thermoplastics have crystalline regions alternating with amorphous
regions in which the chains approximate random coils. The amorphous regions contribute
elasticity and the crystalline regions contribute strength and rigidity, as is also the case for non-
thermoplastic fibrous proteins such as silk. (Elasticity does not mean they are particularly
stretchy; e.g., nylon rope and fishing line.) Above Tm all crystalline structure disappears and the
chains become randomly interdispersed. As the temperature increases above Tm, viscosity
gradually decreases without any distinct phase change.
Thermoplastics can go through melting/freezing cycles repeatedly and the fact that they can be
reshaped upon reheating gives them their name. Animal horn, made of the protein α-keratin,
softens on heating, is somewhat reshapable, and may be regarded as a natural, quasi-
thermoplastic material.

Thermoplastics are useful between Tg and Tm, a temperature range in which most are neither
brittle nor liquid. If a plastic with otherwise desirable properties has too high a Tg, it can often be
lowered by adding a low-molecular-weight plasticizer to the melt before forming (Plastics
extrusion; molding) and cooling. A similar result can sometimes be achieved by adding non-
reactive side chains to the monomers before polymerization. Both methods make the polymer
chains stand off a bit from one another. Before the introduction of plasticizers, plastic automobile
parts often cracked in cold winter weather. Another method of lowering Tg (or raising Tm) is to
incorporate the original plastic into a copolymer, as with graft copolymers of polystyrene, or into
a composite material.

Although modestly vulcanized natural and synthetic rubbers are stretchy, they are elastomeric
thermosets, not thermoplastics. Each has its own Tg, and will crack and shatter when cold
enough so that the cross linked polymer chains can no longer move relative to one another. But
they have no Tm and will decompose at high temperatures rather than melt. Recently,
thermoplastic elastomers have become available.

Common plastics and their typical uses

Polyethylene (PE)
wide range of uses, very inexpensive
Polypropylene (PP)
food containers, appliances
Polystyrene (PS)
packaging foam, food containers, disposable cups, plates and cutlery
Polyethylene terephthalate (PETE)
beverage containers
Polyamide (PA) (Nylon)
fibers, toothbrush bristles, fishing line
Polyester (PES)
fibres, textiles
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
plumbing pipes, flooring, shower curtains, erotic clothing
Polycarbonate (PC)
compact discs, eyeglasses
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)
electronic equipment cases (e.g., computer monitors, printers, keyboards)
Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) (Saran)
food packaging
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) (Teflon)
heat resistant, low-friction coatings, used in things like frying pans and water slides
Plastarch Material
biodegradable and heat resistant, thermoplastic composed of modified corn starch.
Polyurethane
insulation foam, upholstery foam
Bakelite
insulating parts in electrical fixtures (it is a thermosetting plastic, a.k.a. phenol
formaldehyde or phenolic resin, that can be moulded by heat and pressure when mixed
with a filler-like wood flour or can be cast in its unfilled liquid form.)
Polylactic acid
a biodegradable, thermoplastic, aliphatic polyester derived from lactic acid which in turn
can be made by fermentation of various agricultural products such as corn starch.

Mechanical behavior of polymers

The description of stress-strain behavior is similar to that of metals, but a very important
consideration for polymers is that the mechanical properties depend on the strain rate,
temperature, and environmental conditions. The stress-strain behavior can be brittle, plastic and
highly elastic (elastomeric or rubberlike). Tensile modulus (modulus) and tensile strengths are
orders of magnitude smaller than those of metals, but elongation can be up to 1000 % in some
cases. The tensile strength is defined at the fracture point and can be lower than the yield
strength. Mechanical properties change dramatically with temperature, going from glass-like
brittle behavior at low temperatures (like in the liquid-nitrogen demonstration) to a rubber-like
behavior at high temperatures .In general, decreasing the strain rate has the same influence on the
strain-strength characteristics as increasing the temperature: the material becomes softer and
more ductile.

Deformation of Polymers
Many semicrystalline polymers have the spherulitic structure and deform in the following steps :
· elongation of amorphous tie chains
· tilting of lamellar chain folds towards the tensile direction
· separation of crystalline block segments
· orientation of segments and tie chains in the tensile direction

The macroscopic deformation involves an upper and lower yield point and necking. Unlike the
case of metals, the neck gets stronger since the deformation aligns the chains so increasing the
tensile stress leads to the growth of the neck.

Factors that Influence the Mechanical Properties of Polymers

The tensile modulus decreases with increasing temperature or diminishing strain rate. Obstacles
to the steps mentioned in strengthen the polymer. Examples are cross-linking (aligned chains
have more van der Waals inter-chain bonds) and a large mass (longer molecules have more inter-
chain bonds). Crystallinity increases strength as the secondary bonding is enhanced when the
molecular chains are closely packed and parallel. Predeformation by drawing, analogous to strain
hardening in metals, increases strength by orienting the molecular chains. For undrawn
polymers, heating increases the tensile modulus and yield strength, and reduces the ductility -
opposite of what happens in metals.

Crystallization, Melting, and Glass Transition Phenomena

Crystallization rates are governed by the same type of S-curves we saw in the case of metals
Nucleation becomes slower at higher temperatures. The melting behavior of semicrystalline
polymers is intermediate between that of crystalline materials (sharp density change at a melting
temperature) and that of a pure amorphous material (slight change in slope of density at the
glass-transition temperature).
The glass transition temperature is between 0.5 and 0.8 of the melting temperature. The melting
temperature increases with the rate of heating, thickness of the lamellae, and depends on the
temperature at which the polymer was crystallized. Melting involves breaking of the inter-chain
bonds, so the glass and melting temperatures depend on:
· chain stiffness (e.g., single vs. double bonds)
· size, shape of side groups
· size of molecule
· side branches, defects
· cross-linking
Rigid chains have higher melting temperatures.

Processing of Plastics

Injection moulding (United States Injection Molding) is a manufacturing technique for making
parts from thermoplastic material. Molten plastic is injected at high pressure into a mold, which
is the inverse of the desired shape. The mold is made by a moldmaker (or toolmaker) from metal,
usually either steel or aluminium, and precision-machined to form the features of the desired
part. Injection moulding is very widely used for manufacturing a variety of parts, from the
smallest component to entire body panels of cars. It is the most common method of production,
with some commonly made items including bottle caps and outdoor furniture. The most
commonly used thermoplastic materials are polystyrene (low-cost, lacking the strength and
longevity of other materials), ABS or acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (a co-polymer or mixture of
compounds used for everything from Lego parts to electronics housings), nylon (chemically
resistant, heat-resistant, tough and flexible - used for combs), polypropylene (tough and flexible -
used for containers), polyethylene, and polyvinyl chloride or PVC (more common in extrusions
as used for pipes, window frames, or as the insulation on wiring where it is rendered flexible by
the inclusion of a high proportion of plasticiser).

Compression molding is a method of molding in which the molding material, generally

preheated, is first placed in an open, heated mold cavity. The mold is closed with a top force or
plug member, pressure is applied to force the material into contact with all mold areas, and heat
and pressure are maintained until the molding material has cured. The process employs
thermosetting resins in a partially cured stage, either in the form of granules, putty-like masses,
or preforms. Compression molding is a high-volume, high-pressure method suitable for molding
complex, high-strength fiberglass reinforcements. Advanced composite thermoplastics can also
be compression molded with unidirectional tapes, woven fabrics, randomly orientated fiber mat
or chopped strand. The advantage of compression molding is its ability to mold large, fairly
intricate parts. Compression molding produces fewer knit lines and less fiber-length degradation
than injection molding.

Extrusion moulding is a manufacturing process used to make pipes, hoses, drinking straws,
curtain tracks, rods, and [Link] machine used to extrude materials is very similar to an
injection moulding machine. A motor turns a screw which feeds granules of plastic through a
heater. The granules melt into a liquid which is forced through a die, forming a long 'tube like'
shape. The shape of the die determines the shape of the tube. The extrusion is then cooled and
forms a solid shape. The tube may be printed upon, and cut at equal intervals. The pieces may be
rolled for storage or packed together. Shapes that can result from extrusion include T-sections,
U-sections, square sections, I-sections, L-sections and circular sections. One of the most famous
products of extrusion moulding is the fiber optic.

Blow molding or blow moulding is a manufacturing process by which hollow plastic parts are
formed. In general, there are three main types of blow molding; Extrusion Blow Molding,
Injection Blow Molding, and Stretch Blow Molding.

Extrusion blow molding In Extrusion Blow Molding (EBM), plastic is melted and extruded into
a hollow tube (a parison). This parison is then captured by closing it into a cooled metal mold.
Air is then blown into the parison, inflating it into the shape of the hollow bottle, container or
part. After the plastic has cooled sufficiently, the mold is opened and the part is ejected.

Injection blow molding The process of Injection Blow Molding (IBM) is used for the production
of hollow glass and plastic objects in large quantities. In the IBM process, the polymer is
injection molded onto a core pin; then the core pin is rotated to a blow molding station to be
inflated and cooled. This is the least-used of the three blow molding processes, and is typically
used to make small medical and single serve bottles. The process is divided into three steps:
injection, blowing and ejection.

The injection blow molding machine is based on an extruder barrel and screw assembly which
melts the polymer. The molten polymer is fed into a manifold where it is injected through
nozzles into a hollow, heated preform mould. The preform mold forms the external shape and is
clamped around a mandrel (the core rod) which forms the internal shape of the preform. The
preform consists of a fully formed bottle/jar neck with a thick tube of polymer attached, which
will form the body.

The preform mold opens and the core rod is rotated and clamped into the hollow, chilled blow
mold. The core rod opens and allows compressed air into the preform, which inflates it to the
finished article shape.

After a cooling period the blow mold opens and the core rod is rotated to the ejection position.
The finished article is stripped off the core rod and leak-tested prior to packing. The preform and
blow mold can have many cavities, typically three to sixteen depending on the article size and
the required output. There are three sets of core rods, which allow concurrent preform injection,
blow molding and ejection.

Another application of injection blow molding is in the production of soft elastic gelatin capsules
for pharmaceutical applications. Two strips of gelatin are pressed together in a rotary die which
cuts out the desired shape of capsule while the fill liquid is injected. Afterwards, they are cooled
and dried to yield a firm, strong capsule.

Stretch blow molding In the Stretch Blow Molding (SBM) process, the plastic is first molded
into a "preform" using the Injection Molded Process. These preforms are produced with the
necks of the bottles, including threads (the "finish") on one end. These preforms are packaged,
and fed later (after cooling) into an EBM blow molding machine. In the SBM process, the
preforms are heated (typically using infrared heaters) above their glass transition temperature,
then blown using high pressure air into bottles using metal blow molds. Usually the preform is
stretched with a core rod as part of the process. The stretching of some polymers, such as PET
(Polyethylene Terephthalate) results in strain hardening of the resin, allowing the bottles to resist
deforming under the pressures formed by carbonated beverages, which typically approach 60 psi.

The main applications are bottles, jars and other containers. The Injection blow molding process
produces bottles of superior visual and dimensional quality compared to extrusion blow molding.
The process is ideal for both narrow and wide-mouthed containers and produces them fully
finished with no flash. A sign of injection blow molding is the seam where the two halves of the
mold meet.

This picture shows what happens inside the blow mold. The preform is first stretched
mechanically with a stretch rod. As the rod travels down low-pressure air of 5 to 25 bar (70 to
350 psi) is introduced blowing a 'bubble'. Once the stretch rod is fully extended, high-pressure air
of up to 40 bar (580 psi) blows the expanded bubble into the shape of the blow mold.

COMPOSITES

Particle-reinforced composites
These are the cheapest and most widely used. They fall in two categories depending onthe size of
the particles:
· large-particle composites, which act by restraining the movement of the matrix, if well
bonded.
· dispersion-strengthened composites, containing 10-100 nm particles, similar to what was
discussed under precipitation hardening. The matrix bears the major portion of the
applied load and the small particles hinder dislocation motion, limiting plastic
deformation.

Large-Particle Composites
Properties are a combination of those of the components. The rule of mixtures predicts that an
upper limit of the elastic modulus of the composite is given in terms of the elastic moduli of the
matrix (Em) and the particulate (Ep) phases by:
 Ec = EmVm + EpVp

where Vm and Vp are the volume fraction of the two phases. A lower bound is given by:

Ec = EmEp / (EpVm + EmVp)

Concrete
The most common large-particle composite is concrete, made of a cement matrix that bonds
particles of different size (gravel and sand.) Cement was already known to the Egyptians and the
Greek. Romans made cement by mixing lime (CaO) with volcanic ice. In its general from,
cement is a fine mixture of lime, alumina, silica, and water. Portland cement is a fine powder of
chalk, clay and lime-bearing minerals fired to 1500o C (calcinated). It forms a paste when
dissolved in water. It sets into a solid in minutes and hardens slowly (takes 4 months for full
strength). Properties depend on how well it is mixed, and the amount of water: too little -
incomplete bonding, too much – excessive porosity.

The advantage of cement is that it can be poured in place, it hardens at room temperature and
even under water, and it is very cheap. The disadvantages are that it is weak and brittle, and that
water in the pores can produce crack when it freezes in cold weather. Concrete is cement
strengthened by adding particulates. The use of different size (stone and sand) allows better
packing factor than when using particles of similar size.

Concrete is improved by making the pores smaller (using finer powder, adding polymeric
lubricants, and applying pressure during hardening. Reinforced concrete is obtained by adding
steel rods, wires, mesh. Steel has the advantage of a similar thermal expansion coefficient, so
there is reduced danger of cracking due to thermal stresses. Pre-stressed concrete is obtained by
applying tensile stress to the steel rods while the cement is setting and hardening. When the
tensile stress is removed, the concrete is left under compressive stress, enabling it to sustain
tensile loads without fracturing. Pre-stressed concrete shapes are usually prefabricated. A
common use is in railroad or highway bridges.
Cermets are composites of ceramic particles (strong, brittle) in a metal matrix (soft, ductile) that
enhances toughness. For instance, tungsten carbide or titanium carbide ceramics in Co or Ni.
They are used for cutting tools for hardened steels.

Reinforced rubber is obtained by strengthening with 20-50 nm carbon-black particles. Used in

auto tires.

Dispersion-Strengthened Composites

Use of very hard, small particles to strengthen metals and metal alloys. The effect is like
precipitation hardening but not so strong. Particles like oxides do not react so the strengthening
action is retained at high temperatures.

Fiber-reinforced composites
In many applications, like in aircraft parts, there is a need for high strength per unit weight
(specific strength). This can be achieved by composites consisting of a lowdensity (and soft)
matrix reinforced with stiff fibers.
The strength depends on the fiber length and its orientation with respect to the stress direction.
The efficiency of load transfer between matrix and fiber depends on the interfacial bond.

Structural Composites
Largest and most diverse use of composites due to ease of fabrication, low cost and good
properties.
Glass-fiber reinforced composites (GFRC) are strong, corrosion resistant and lightweight, but not
very stiff and cannot be used at high temperatures. Applications include auto and boat bodies,
aircraft components.
Carbon-fiber reinforced composites (CFRC) use carbon fibers, which have the highest specific
module (module divided by weight). CFRC are strong, inert, allow high temperature use.
Applications include fishing rods, golf clubs, aircraft components. Kevlar, and aremid-fiber
composite can be used as textile fibers. Applications include bullet-proof vests, tires, brake and
clutch linings.
Fibers or particles embedded in matrix of another material are the best example of modern-day
composite materials, which are mostly structural.

Laminates are composite material where different layers of materials give them the specific
character of a composite material having a specific function to perform. Fabrics have no matrix
to fall back on, but in them, fibers of different compositions combine to give them a specific
character. Reinforcing materials generally withstand maximum load and serve the desirable
properties.

Further, though composite types are often distinguishable from one another, no clear
determination can be really made. To facilitate definition, the accent is often shifted to the levels
at which differentiation take place viz., microscopic or macroscopic.

In matrix-based structural composites, the matrix serves two paramount purposes viz., binding
the reinforcement phases in place and deforming to distribute the stresses among the
constituent reinforcement materials under an applied force.

The demands on matrices are many. They may need to temperature variations, be conductors or
resistors of electricity, have moisture sensitivity etc. This may offer weight advantages, ease of
handling and other merits which may also become applicable depending on the purpose for
which matrices are chosen.

Solids that accommodate stress to incorporate other constituents provide strong bonds for the
reinforcing phase are potential matrix materials. A few inorganic materials, polymers and
metals have found applications as matrix materials in the designing of structural composites,
with commendable success. These materials remain elastic till failure occurs and show decreased
failure strain, when loaded in tension and compression.

Composites cannot be made from constituents with divergent linear expansion characteristics.
The interface is the area of contact between the reinforcement and the matrix materials. In some
cases, the region is a distinct added phase. Whenever there is interphase, there has to be two
interphases between each side of the interphase and its adjoint constituent. Some composites
provide interphases when surfaces dissimilar constituents interact with each other. Choice of
fabrication method depends on matrix properties and the effect of matrix on properties of
reinforcements. One of the prime considerations in the selection and fabrication of composites is
that the constituents should be chemically inert non-reactive. Figure M1.1.1 (f) helps to classify
matrices.
 Figure: Classification of Matrix Materials

Basic Definitions and Classifications of Composites

Classification of Composites

Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels:

• The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix constituent. The
major composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix
Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The term organic matrix
composite is generally assumed to include two classes of composites, namely Polymer
Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as carbon-
carbon composites.
• The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form - fibre reinforced
composites, laminar composites and particulate composites. Fibre Reinforced composites
(FRP) can be further divided into those containing discontinuous or continuous fibres.
• Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix material. Such a
composite is considered to be a discontinuous fibre or short fibre composite if its properties
vary with fibre length. On the other hand, when the length of the fibre is such that any further
increase in length does not further increase, the elastic modulus of the composite, the
composite is considered to be continuous fibre reinforced. Fibres are small in diameter and
when pushed axially, they bend easily although they have very good tensile properties. These
fibres must be supported to keep individual fibres from bending and buckling.
• Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matrix.
Sandwich structures fall under this category.
• Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matrix body.
The particles may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood particle boards are
examples of this category.

Organic Matrix Composites

 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)/Carbon Matrix Composites or Carbon-Carbon
Composites

Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight, and
desirable mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high temperature resins are
extensively used in aeronautical applications.

Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets have qualities
such as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after curing. They decompose
instead of melting on hardening. Merely changing the basic composition of the resin is enough to
alter the conditions suitably for curing and determine its other characteristics. They can be
retained in a partially cured condition too over prolonged periods of time, rendering Thermosets
very flexible. Thus, they are most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced
composites. Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber composites form
particularly when a premixed or moulding compound with fibers of specific quality and aspect
ratio happens to be starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide resins.

Thermoplastics have one- or two-dimensional molecular structure and they tend to at an elevated
temperature and show exaggerated melting point. Another advantage is that the process of
softening at elevated temperatures can reversed to regain its properties during cooling,
facilitating applications of conventional compress techniques to mould the compounds.

Resins reinforced with thermoplastics now comprised an emerging group of composites. The
theme of most experiments in this area to improve the base properties of the resins and extract
the greatest functional advantages from them in new avenues, including attempts to replace
metals in die-casting processes. In crystalline thermoplastics, the reinforcement affects the
morphology to a considerable extent, prompting the reinforcement to empower nucleation.
Whenever crystalline or amorphous, these resins possess the facility to alter their creep over an
extensive range of temperature. But this range includes the point at which the usage of resins is
constrained, and the reinforcement in such systems can increase the failure load as well as creep
resistance. Figure M1.2.1 shows kinds of thermoplastics.

Figure Thermoplastics

A small quantum of shrinkage and the tendency of the shape to retain its original form are also to
be accounted for. But reinforcements can change this condition too. The advantage of
thermoplastics systems over thermosets are that there are no chemical reactions involved, which
often result in the release of gases or heat. Manufacturing is limited by the time required for
heating, shaping and cooling the structures.

Thermoplastics resins are sold as moulding compounds. Fiber reinforcement is apt for these
resins. Since the fibers are randomly dispersed, the reinforcement will be almost isotropic.
However, when subjected to moulding processes, they can be aligned directionally.

There are a few options to increase heat resistance in thermoplastics. Addition of fillers raises the
heat resistance. But all thermoplastic composites tend loose their strength at elevated
temperatures. However, their redeeming qualities like rigidity, toughness and ability to
repudiate creep, place thermoplastics in the important composite materials bracket. They are
used in automotive control panels, electronic products encasement etc.

Newer developments augur the broadening of the scope of applications of thermoplastics. Huge
sheets of reinforced thermoplastics are now available and they only require sampling and heating
to be moulded into the required shapes. This has facilitated easy fabrication of bulky
components, doing away with the more cumbersome moulding compounds.

Thermosets are the most popular of the fiber composite matrices without which, research and
development in structural engineering field could get truncated. Aerospace components,
automobile parts, defense systems etc., use a great deal of this type of fiber composites. Epoxy
matrix materials are used in printed circuit boards and similar areas. Figure M1.2.2 shows some
kinds of thermosets.

Figure : Thermoset Materials

Direct condensation polymerization followed by rearrangement reactions to form heterocyclic

entities is the method generally used to produce thermoset resins. Water, a product of the
reaction, in both methods, hinders production of void-free composites. These voids have a
negative effect on properties of the composites in terms of strength and dielectric properties.
Polyesters phenolic and Epoxies are the two important classes of thermoset resins.

Epoxy resins are widely used in filament-wound composites and are suitable for moulding
prepress. They are reasonably stable to chemical attacks and are excellent adherents having
slow shrinkage during curing and no emission of volatile gases. These advantages, however,
make the use of epoxies rather expensive. Also, they cannot be expected beyond a temperature of
140ºC. Their use in high technology areas where service temperatures are higher, as a result, is
ruled out.
Polyester resins on the other hand are quite easily accessible, cheap and find use in a wide range
of fields. Liquid polyesters are stored at room temperature for months, sometimes for years and
the mere addition of a catalyst can cure the matrix material within a short time. They are used in
automobile and structural applications.

The cured polyester is usually rigid or flexible as the case may be and transparent. Polyesters
withstand the variations of environment and stable against chemicals. Depending on the
formulation of the resin or service requirement of application, they can be used up to about 75ºC
or higher. Other advantages of polyesters include easy compatibility with few glass fibers and
can be used with verify of reinforced plastic accoutrey.

Aromatic Polyamides are the most sought after candidates as the matrices of advanced fiber
composites for structural applications demanding long duration exposure for continuous service
at around 200-250ºC .

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)

Metal matrix composites, at present though generating a wide interest in research fraternity, are
not as widely in use as their plastic counterparts. High strength, fracture toughness and
stiffness are offered by metal matrices than those offered by their polymer counterparts. They
can withstand elevated temperature in corrosive environment than polymer composites. Most
metals and alloys could be used as matrices and they require reinforcement materials which need
to be stable over a range of temperature and non-reactive too. However the guiding aspect for the
choice depends essentially on the matrix material. Light metals form the matrix for temperature
application and the reinforcements in addition to the aforementioned reasons are characterized by
high moduli.

Most metals and alloys make good matrices. However, practically, the choices for low
temperature applications are not many. Only light metals are responsive, with their low density
proving an advantage. Titanium, Aluminium and magnesium are the popular matrix metals
currently in vogue, which are particularly useful for aircraft applications. If metallic matrix
materials have to offer high strength, they require high modulus reinforcements. The strength-to-
weight ratios of resulting composites can be higher than most alloys.

The melting point, physical and mechanical properties of the composite at various temperatures
determine the service temperature of composites. Most metals, ceramics and compounds can be
used with matrices of low melting point alloys. The choice of reinforcements becomes more
stunted with increase in the melting temperature of matrix materials.

Ceramic Matrix Materials (CMM)

Ceramics can be described as solid materials which exhibit very strong ionic bonding in general
and in few cases covalent bonding. High melting points, good corrosion resistance, stability at
elevated temperatures and high compressive strength, render ceramic-based matrix materials a
favourite for applications requiring a structural material that doesn’t give way at temperatures
above 1500ºC. Naturally, ceramic matrices are the obvious choice for high temperature
applications.

High modulus of elasticity and low tensile strain, which most ceramics posses, have combined
to cause the failure of attempts to add reinforcements to obtain strength improvement. This is
because at the stress levels at which ceramics rupture, there is insufficient elongation of the
matrix which keeps composite from transferring an effective quantum of load to the
reinforcement and the composite may fail unless the percentage of fiber volume is high enough.
A material is reinforcement to utilize the higher tensile strength of the fiber, to produce an
increase in load bearing capacity of the matrix. Addition of high-strength fiber to a weaker
ceramic has not always been successful and often the resultant composite has proved to be
weaker.

The use of reinforcement with high modulus of elasticity may take care of the problem to some
extent and presents pre-stressing of the fiber in the ceramic matrix is being increasingly resorted
to as an option.

When ceramics have a higher thermal expansion coefficient than reinforcement materials, the
resultant composite is unlikely to have a superior level of strength. In that case, the composite
will develop strength within ceramic at the time of cooling resulting in microcracks extending
from fiber to fiber within the matrix. Microcracking can result in a composite with tensile
strength lower than that of the matrix.

Classification Based on Reinforcements

Introduction to Reinforcements

Reinforcements for the composites can be fibers, fabrics particles or whiskers.

Fibers are essentially characterized by one very long axis with other two axes either often
circular or near circular. Particles have no preferred orientation and so does their
shape. Whiskers have a preferred shape but are small both in diameter and length as
compared to fibers. Figure shows types of reinforcements in composites.
 Figure: Reinforcements

Reinforcing constituents in composites, as the word indicates, provide the strength that makes
the composite what it is. But they also serve certain additional purposes of heat resistance or
conduction, resistance to corrosion and provide rigidity. Reinforcement can be made to perform
all or one of these functions as per the requirements.

A reinforcement that embellishes the matrix strength must be stronger and stiffer than the matrix
and capable of changing failure mechanism to the advantage of the composite. This means that
the ductility should be minimal or even nil the composite must behave as brittle as possible.

Fiber Reinforced Composites/Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites

Fibers are the important class of reinforcements, as they satisfy the desired conditions and
transfer strength to the matrix constituent influencing and enhancing their properties as desired.

Glass fibers are the earliest known fibers used to reinforce materials. Ceramic and metal fibers
were subsequently found out and put to extensive use, to render composites stiffer more resistant
to heat.

Fibers fall short of ideal performance due to several factors. The performance of a fiber
composite is judged by its length, shape, orientation, and composition of the fibers and the
mechanical properties of the matrix.

The orientation of the fiber in the matrix is an indication of the strength of the composite and the
strength is greatest along the longitudinal directional of fiber. This doesn’t mean the longitudinal
fibers can take the same quantum of load irrespective of the direction in which it is applied.
Optimum performance from longitudinal fibers can be obtained if the load is applied along its
direction. The slightest shift in the angle of loading may drastically reduce the strength of the
composite.
Unidirectional loading is found in few structures and hence it is prudent to give a mix of
orientations for fibers in composites particularly where the load is expected to be the heaviest.

Monolayer tapes consisting of continuous or discontinuous fibers can be oriented unidirectional

stacked into plies containing layers of filaments also oriented in the same direction. More
complicated orientations are possible too and nowadays, computers are used to make projections
of such variations to suit specific needs. In short, in planar composites, strength can be changed
from unidirectional fiber oriented composites that result in composites with nearly isotropic
properties.

Properties of angle-plied composites which are not quasi-isotropic may vary with the number
of plies and their orientations. Composite variables in such composites are assumed to have a
constant ratio and the matrices are considered relatively weaker than the fibers. The strength of
the fiber in any one of the three axes would, therefore be one-third the unidirectional fiber
composite, assuming that the volume percentage is equal in all three axes.

However, orientation of short fibers by different methods is also possible like random
orientations by sprinkling on to given plane or addition of matrix in liquid or solid state before or
after the fiber deposition. Even three-dimensional orientations can achieve in this way.

There are several methods of random fiber orientations, which in a two-dimensional one, yield
composites with one-third the strength of a unidirectional fiber-stressed composite, in the
direction of fibers. In a 3-dimension, it would result in a composite with a comparable ratio,
about less than one-fifth.

In very strong matrices, moduli and strengths have not been observed. Application of the
strength of the composites with such matrices and several orientations is also possible. The
longitudinal strength can be calculated on the basis of the assumption that fibers have been
reduced to their effective strength on approximation value in composites with strong matrices
and non-longitudinally orientated fibers.

It goes without saying that fiber composites may be constructed with either continuous or short
fibers. Experience has shown that continuous fibers (or filaments) exhibit better orientation,
although it does not reflect in their performance. Fibers have a high aspect ratio, i.e., their
lengths being several times greater than their effective diameters. This is the reason why
filaments are manufactured using continuous process. This finished filaments.

Mass production of filaments is well known and they match with several matrices in different
ways like winding, twisting, weaving and knitting, which exhibit the characteristics of a fabric.

Since they have low densities and high strengths, the fiber lengths in filaments or other fibers
yield considerable influence on the mechanical properties as well as the response of composites
to processing and procedures. Shorter fibers with proper orientation composites that use glass,
ceramic or multi-purpose fibers can be endowed with considerably higher strength than those
that use continuous fibers. Short fibers are also known to their theoretical strength. The
continuous fiber constituent of a composite is often joined by the filament winding process in
which the matrix impregnated fiber wrapped around a mandrel shaped like the part over which
the composite is to be placed, and equitable load distribution and favorable orientation of the
fiber is possible in the finished product. However, winding is mostly confined to fabrication of
bodies of revolution and the occasional irregular, flat surface.

Short-length fibers incorporated by the open- or close-mould process are found to be less
efficient, although the input costs are considerably lower than filament winding.

Most fibers in use currently are solids which are easy to produce and handle, having a circular
cross-section, although a few non-conventional shaped and hollow fibers show signs of
capabilities that can improve the mechanical qualities of the composites.

Given the fact that the vast difference in length and effective diameter of the fiber are assets to a
fiber composite, it follows that greater strength in the fiber can be achieved by smaller diameters
due to minimization or total elimination of surface of surface defects.

After flat-thin filaments came into vogue, fibers rectangular cross sections have provided new
options for applications in high strength structures. Owing to their shapes, these fibers provide
perfect packing, while hollow fibers show better structural efficiency in composites that are
desired for their stiffness and compressive strengths. In hollow fibers, the transverse
compressive strength is lower than that of a solid fiber composite whenever the hollow portion
is more than half the total fiber diameter. However, they are not easy to handle and fabricate.

Laminar Composites

Laminar composites are found in as many combinations as the number of materials. They can
be described as materials comprising of layers of materials bonded together. These may be of
several layers of two or more metal materials occurring alternately or in a determined order more
than once, and in as many numbers as required for a specific purpose.

Clad and sandwich laminates have many areas as it ought to be, although they are known to
follow the rule of mixtures from the modulus and strength point of view. Other intrinsic values
pertaining to metal-matrix, metal-reinforced composites are also fairly well known.

Powder metallurgical processes like roll bonding, hot pressing, diffusion bonding, brazing and
so on can be employed for the fabrication of different alloys of sheet, foil, powder or sprayed
materials. It is not possible to achieve high strength materials unlike the fiber version. But sheets
and foils can be made isotropic in two dimensions more easily than fibers. Foils and sheets are
also made to exhibit high percentages of which they are put. For instance, a strong sheet may use
over 92% in laminar structure, while it is difficult to make fibers of such compositions. Fiber
laminates cannot over 75% strong fibers.

The main functional types of metal-metal laminates that do not posses high strength or stiffness
are single layered ones that endow the composites with special properties, apart from being cost-
effective. They are usually made by pre-coating or cladding methods.
Pre-coated metals are formed by forming by forming a layer on a substrate, in the form of a thin
continuous film. This is achieved by hot dipping and occasionally by chemical plating and
electroplating. Clad metals are found to be suitable for more intensive environments where
denser faces are required.

There are many combinations of sheet and foil which function as adhesives at low temperatures.
Such materials, plastics or metals, may be clubbed together with a third constituent. Pre-painted
or pre-finished metal whose primary advantage is elimination of final finishing by the user is the
best known metal-organic laminate. Several combinations of metal-plastic, vinyl-metal
laminates, organic films and metals, account for upto 95% of metal-plastic laminates known.
They are made by adhesive bonding processes.

Particulate Reinforced Composites (PRC)

Microstructures of metal and ceramics composites, which show particles of one phase strewn in
the other, are known as particle reinforced composites. Square, triangular and round shapes of
reinforcement are known, but the dimensions of all their sides are observed to be more or less
equal. The size and volume concentration of the dispersoid distinguishes it from dispersion
hardened materials.

The dispersed size in particulate composites is of the order of a few microns and volume
concentration is greater than 28%. The difference between particulate composite and dispersion
strengthened ones is, thus, oblivious. The mechanism used to strengthen each of them is also
different. The dispersed in the dispersion-strengthen materials reinforces the matrix alloy by
arresting motion of dislocations and needs large forces to fracture the restriction created by
dispersion.

In particulate composites, the particles strengthen the system by the hydrostatic coercion of
fillers in matrices and by their hardness relative to the matrix.

Three-dimensional reinforcement in composites offers isotropic properties, because of the three

systematical orthogonal planes. Since it is not homogeneous, the material properties acquire
sensitivity to the constituent properties, as well as the interfacial properties and geometric
shapes of the array. The composite’s strength usually depends on the diameter of the particles,
the inter-particle spacing, and the volume fraction of the reinforcement. The matrix properties
influence the behaviour of particulate composite too.
 QUESTION BANK
UNIT -1

PART-A: SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

Blooms Course
Taxonomy Outcome
[Link] QUESTION Level
1 Define and explain burgers vector 1 1

2 What is twinning? How does it differ from slip? 2 1

3 What is Gibbs phase rule? 1 1

4 Explain Bauchinger effect 1 1

5 Differentiate between Recovery and Recrystallisation 2 1

PART-B: LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS

Blooms Course
Taxonomy Outcome
[Link] QUESTION Level
1 What is critical resolved shear stress? Calculate the critical 3 1
resolved shear stress for slip.
2 Explain the following: 2 1
(i) Edge dislocation (ii) screw dislocation

3 Discuss various engineering material properties. 3 1

4 1. What are the metallurgical advantages of Hot working over Cold 4 1

working?
5 2. Differentiate between Ductile and Brittle Fracture with neat 4 1
Sketches
UNIT –II

PART-A: SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

Blooms Course
Taxonomy Outcome
[Link] QUESTION Level
1 State and explain fick’s IInd law of diffusion 1 2

2 Define fatigue. Explain the factors effecting fatigue 2 2

3 Differentiate between creep curve and stress rupture curve 2 2

4 Draw the structure of a fatigue fracture specimen and show the 1 2

various regions on it
5 Give at least three applications of diffusion in mechanical 1 2
engineering

PART-B: LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS

Blooms Course
Taxonomy Outcome
[Link] QUESTION Level
1 Discuss Griffiths theory of brittle fracture 3 2

2 How do you draw a creep curve by conducting suitable creep 3 2

test? Explain different stages of a creep curve.

3 Explain the different modes of fracture with the help of neat 4 2

sketches.

4 Explain the experimental determination of fatigue strength with 4 2

the help of a neat sketch

5 What is low cycle fatigue? Explain the method to estimate the 2 2

fatigue damage in metals
6 Draw the typical S-N diagram for mild steel and aluminium with 4 2
explanation.

UNIT –III

PART-A: SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

Blooms Course
Taxonomy Outcome
[Link] QUESTION Level
1 Draw the cooling curve for pure iron and show the different 2 3
allotropic form of iron on it.

2 What is eutectoid reaction, Define cementite 1 3

3 1. Give the importance of Fe-Fe3c diagram. 2 3

4 2. Distinguish between Solid Solution, Mixture and Compound 2 3

with Examples.
5 3. What is Recrystallization Temperature? 1 3

PART-B: LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS

Blooms Course
Taxonomy Outcome
[Link] QUESTION Level
1 Draw Iron-iron carbide equilibrium diagram and label all fields. 4 3
Using this diagram explains the solidification of hyper eutectoid
steels and hypo eutectic cast irons.
2 Draw and explain the cooling curves for i) pure metal ii) alloy 4 3
solid solution
3 What are the different types of cast irons? Discuss the 3 3
manufacture of malleable CI.
4 What are plain carbon steels and explain its classification? 3 3

5 1. What are the different types of cast iron? Discuss the 4 3

manufacture of malleable C.I
UNIT –IV

PART-A: SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

Blooms Course
Taxonomy Outcome
[Link] QUESTION Level
1 What do you understand by the word called ‘age hardening’? 2 4

2 Differentiate between Austempering and Martempering. 1 4

3 Give the applications and properties of high chromium steel. 1 4

4 What are the different microstructures observed in TTT 2 4

diagram?

5 Define the heat treatment? Explain the purpose of heat treatment 3 4

PART-B: LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS

1 Write procedure for construction of TTT curve and with an 4 4
example interpret the curve

2 Draw the TTT diagram for 0.8% carbon steel and label the 4 4
phases.

3 Distinguish between Carburizing and Nitriding. 3 4

4 Differentiate between Annealing and Normalizing. 3 4

5 Explain the need of tempering hardened steel. Describe the 2 4

process of tempering.

UNIT –V

PART-A: SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

Blooms Course
Taxonomy Outcome
[Link] QUESTION Level
1 Explain the specialty of Ti alloy (Ti-6Al-4V) and list its 2 5
properties and applications.

2 What is the composition of the following: 2 5

(a) High speed steel (b) Dual phase steel (c) Maraging
steel (d) Had-field steel
3 What are different composite materials? 1 5

4 Discuss various alloys of copper and their applications. 2 5

5 Name some applications of Composites. 1 5

PART-B: LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS

1 What is ceramics? What are the properties and applications of 3 5
ceramics?
2 What are free cutting steels? Give the composition. 2 5

3 Write short notes on the following: 2 5

(a) Flame hardening (b) Martensite (c) Bainite (d) Duralumin
(e) Muntz metal.

4 What is composites? What are the properties and applications of 3 5

composites?
5 Give the classification of polymers and applications of polymers 3 5
PREVIOUS UNIVERSITY QUESTION PAPERS
(Attach image of 05 old University Question Papers)
 ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
ASSIGNMENT-1 Sub: MMS

PART-A

1. Define and explain burgers vector [CO1] [L1]

2. State and explain fick’s IInd law of diffusion [CO1] [L1]
3. Define fatigue. Explain the factors effecting fatigue [CO2] [L2]
4. Differentiate between creep curve and stress rupture curve [CO2] [L1]
5. What is Gibbs phase rule? [CO3] [L1]
6. Draw the cooling curve for pure iron [CO3] [L1]

PART-B

1. What is critical resolved shear stress? Calculate the critical resolved shear stress for
slip. [CO1][L3]
2. Distinguish between Edge dislocation and screw dislocation [CO1][L2]
3. How do you draw a creep curve by conducting suitable creep test? Explain different
stages of a creep curve. [CO2][L2]
4. Explain the experimental determination of fatigue strength with the help of a neat
sketch
[CO2][L3]

5. Draw Iron-iron carbide equilibrium diagram and label all fields. Using this diagram
explains the solidification of hyper eutectoid steels and hypo eutectic cast irons.
[CO3][L3]
6. What are plain carbon steels? Explain different types of plain carbon steels
[CO3][L3]

ASSIGNMENT-2 Sub: MMS

PART-A

1. What do you understand by the word called ‘age hardening’? [CO4] [L1]
2. Define the heat treatment? Explain the purpose of heat treatment. [CO4] [L2]
3. What are free cutting steels? Give the composition. [CO5] [L1]
4. Give the applications and properties of high chromium steel. [CO5] [L1]

PART-B

1. Write procedure for construction of TTT curve and with an example interpret the
curve
[CO4][L2]
2. Differentiate between Annealing and Normalizing [CO4][L3]
 3. What are the different types of cast irons? Discuss the manufacture of malleable CI.
[CO3][L4]
4. What are plain carbon steels and explain its classification? [CO3][L3]
5. Write procedure for construction of TTT curve and with an example interpret the
curve [CO4][L3]

INTERNAL QUESTION PAPERS

SCHEME OF EVALUATION

Academic Year :
Programme: UG (B.E.) Internal : I / II Date : 25.02.2021
2019-20

Branch: Mechanical Year : II Sem : I Max. Marks: 20

Subject : Metallurgy & Material Subject Code :

Name of Faculty: P. Naveen Kishore
Science PC221ME
PART-A

Answer ALL Questions (2 Marks X 3 Questions = 06)

1. What is the composition of the following: [CO 3; L 2]
(a) High speed steel (b) Had-field steel
Each definition carries 1 Mark
2. List the surface hardening methods [CO 4; L 2]
Atleast 4 methods each carry ½ marks
3. Define a) Muntz Metal b) Naval Brass [CO 5; L 1]
Each definition carries 1 Mark

PART-B

Answer Any TWO Questions (7 Marks X 2 Questions = 14)

1. What are the different types of cast irons? Discuss the manufacture of malleable CI[CO3; L3]
Diagram of each structure 1/2 mark, Description 5 marks
2. Explain the need of tempering hardened steel. Describe the process of tempering [CO4; L4]
Diagram 2 marks, need of tempering hardened steel 2 marks, and process of tempering
3 marks
3. Explain about Glass-fiber Reinforced polymer composites [CO5;L4]
Description 3 marks, properties 2 marks, Applications 2marks

INTERNAL EXAMINATION KEY

Programme: UG (B.E.) Academic Year :2020-21 Internal : II Date : 25.02.2021

Branch: Mechanical Year : II Sem : I Max. Marks: 20

Subject : MMS Subject Code : PC 221 ME Name of Faculty: [Link] KISHORE

 PART-A
Answer ALL Questions (2 Marks X 3 Questions = 06)

1. What is the composition of the following: [CO 3; L 2]

(a) High speed steel
A common type of high-speed steel contains 18% tungsten, 4% chromium, 1% vanadium,
and only 0.5–0.8% carbon. See also heat treating, stainless steel.
(b) Had-field steel
Mangalloy, also called manganese steel or Hadfield steel, is an alloy steel containing an
average of around 13% manganese. Mangalloy is known for its high impact strength and
resistance to abrasion once in its work-hardened state.
2. List the surface hardening methods [CO 4; L 2]
 Flame or induction hardening.
 Carburizing.
 Nitriding.
 Cyaniding.
 Carbonitriding.

3. Define a) Muntz Metal [CO 5; L 1]

Muntz metal is a form of alpha-beta brass with about 60% copper, 40% zinc and a trace of
iron. It also Known as Yellow Metal. The alloy must be worked hot and is used today for
corrosion resistant machine parts.
b) Naval Brass
Naval Brass refers to a copper alloy of around 59% Copper 40% Zinc and 1% Tin with a trace
amount of Lead. This alloy falls into the subfamily for Brasses known as Alpha Beta or
Duplex Brasses. ... As its name implies, Naval Brass was originally developed for sea water
service applications.

PART-B
Answer Any TWO Questions (7 Marks X 2 Questions = 14)
4. What are the different types of cast irons? Discuss the manufacture of malleable CI
[CO3; L3]
Types of cast iron
White cast iron
When the white cast iron is fractured, white coloured cracks are seen throughout because
of the presence of carbide impurities. White cast iron is hard but brittle. It has lower
silicon content and low melting point. The carbon present in the white cast iron
precipitates and forms large particles that increase the hardness of the cast iron. It is
abrasive resistant as well as cost-effective making them useful in various applications like
lifter bars and shell liners in grinding mills, wear surfaces of pumps, balls and rings of
coal pulverisers, etc.
Grey cast iron
Grey is the most versatile and widely used cast iron. The presence of carbon leads to
formation of graphite flakes that does not allow cracks to pass through, when the material
breaks. Instead, as the material breaks the graphite initiates numerous new cracks. The
fractured cast iron is greyish in colour, which also gives it the name. The graphite flakes
make the grey cast iron exhibit low shock resistance. They also lack elasticity and have
low tensile strength.
 However, the graphite fakes gives the cast iron excellent machinability, damping features
as well as good lubricating properties making them useful in many industrial applications.
The graphite microstructure of the cast iron has a matrix that consists of ferrite, pearlite or
a combination of two. The molten grey iron has greater fluidity and they expand well
during the solidification or freezing of cast iron. This has made them useful in industries
like agriculture, automobile, textile mills, etc.
Malleable cast iron
Malleable cast iron is basically white iron that undergoes heat treatment to convert the
carbide into graphite. The resultant cast iron has properties that vary from both grey and
white cast iron. In case of malleable cast iron, the graphite structure is formed into
irregularly shaped spheroidal particles rather than flakes that are usually present in gray
cast iron. This make the malleable cast iron behave like low-carbon steel. There is
considerable shrinkage that results in reduced production of cast iron as well increased
costs. Malleable cast iron can be identified easily by the blunt boundaries.
Ductile cast iron
Ductile cast iron is yet another type of ferrous alloy that is used as an engineering
material in many applications. To produce ductile iron, small amount of magnesium is
added to the molten iron, which alters the graphite structure that is formed. The
magnesium reacts with oxygen and sulphur in the molten iron leading to nodule shaped
graphite that has earned them the name-nodular cast iron. Like malleable iron, ductile iron
is flexible and exhibits a linear stress strain relation. It can be casted in varied sizes and
into varying thickness.
Malleable iron is cast as white iron, the structure being a metastable carbide in a pearlitic
matrix. Through an annealing heat treatment, the brittle structure as first cast is
transformed into the malleable form. Carbon agglomerates into small roughly spherical
aggregates of graphite leaving a matrix of ferrite or pearlite according to the exact heat
treatment used. Three basic types of malleable iron are recognized within the casting
industry: blackheart malleable iron, white heart malleable iron and pearlitic malleable
iron.
5. Explain the need of tempering hardened steel. Describe the process of tempering
[CO4; L4]
Tempering is a process of heat treating, which is used to increase the toughness of iron-
based alloys. Tempering is usually performed after hardening, to reduce some of the
excess hardness, and is done by heating the metal to some temperature below the critical
point for a certain period of time, then allowing it to cool in still air.
Tempering is a heat treatment technique applied to ferrous alloys, such as steel or cast
iron, to achieve greater toughness by decreasing the hardness of the alloy. The reduction
in hardness is usually accompanied by an increase in ductility, thereby decreasing
the brittleness of the metal. Tempering is usually performed after quenching, which is
rapid cooling of the metal to put it in its hardest state. Tempering is accomplished by
controlled heating of the quenched work-piece to a temperature below its "lower critical
temperature". This is also called the lower transformation temperature or lower arrest
(A1) temperature; the temperature at which the crystalline phases of the alloy,
called ferrite and cementite, begin combining to form a single-phase solid
solution referred to as austenite. Heating above this temperature is avoided, so as not to
destroy the very-hard, quenched microstructure, called martensite.
The exact temperature determines the amount of hardness removed, and depends on both
the specific composition of the alloy and on the desired properties in the finished product.
For instance, very hard tools are often tempered at low temperatures, while springs are
tempered at much higher temperatures.
 6. Explain about Glass-fiber Reinforced polymer composites [CO5;L4]
Glass wool, which is one product called "fiberglass" today, was invented in 1932–
1933 by Games Slayter of Owens-Illinois, as a material to be used as thermal building
insulation.[1] It is marketed under the trade name Fiberglas, which has become
a genericized trademark. Glass fiber when used as a thermal insulating material, is
specially manufactured with a bonding agent to trap many small air cells, resulting in the
characteristically air-filled low-density "glass wool" family of products.
Glass fiber has roughly comparable mechanical properties to other fibers such as
polymers and carbon fiber. Although not as rigid as carbon fiber, it is much cheaper and
significantly less brittle when used in composites. Glass fibers are therefore used as a
reinforcing agent for many polymer products; to form a very strong and relatively
lightweight fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composite material called glass-reinforced
plastic (GRP), also popularly known as "fiberglass". Unlike glass wool, GRP contains
little or no air or gas, is more dense, and thus is a poor thermal insulator compared to
glass wool; it is instead used structurally due to its strength and relatively low weight.
"Fibreglass reinforced plastics" or FRPs (commonly referred to simply as fibreglass) use
textile grade glass fibres. These textile fibres are different from other forms of glass fibres
used to deliberately trap air, for insulating applications (see glass wool). Textile glass
fibres begin as varying combinations of SiO2, Al2O3, B2O3, CaO, or MgO in powder
form. These mixtures are then heated through direct melting to temperatures around 1300
degrees Celsius, after which dies are used to extrude filaments of glass fibre in diameter
ranging from 9 to 17 µm. These filaments are then wound into larger threads and spun
onto bobbins for transportation and further processing. Glass fibre is by far the most
popular means to reinforce plastic and thus enjoys a wealth of production processes, some
of which are applicable to aramid and carbon fibres as well owing to their shared fibrous
qualities.
Roving is a process where filaments are spun into larger diameter threads. These threads
are then commonly used for woven reinforcing glass fabrics and mats, and in spray
applications.
Fibre fabrics are web-form fabric reinforcing material that has both warp and weft
directions. Fibre mats are web-form non-woven mats of glass fibres. Mats are
manufactured in cut dimensions with chopped fibres, or in continuous mats using
continuous fibres. Chopped fibre glass is used in processes where lengths of glass threads
are cut between 3 and 26 mm, threads are then used in plastics most commonly intended
for moulding processes. Glass fibre short strands are short 0.2–0.3 mm strands of glass
fibres that are used to reinforce thermoplastics most commonly for injection moulding.

INTERNAL EXAMINATION

Programme: UG (B.E.) Academic Year :2020-21 Internal : I Date : 28.10.2020

Branch: Mechanical Year : II Sem : I Max. Marks: 20

Subject : MMS Subject Code : PC 221 ME Name of Faculty: [Link] KISHORE

PART-A
Answer ALL Questions (2 Marks X 3 Questions = 06)

1) Define Burgers Vector? [CO1; L1]

2) Differentiate between Recovery and Recrystallization? [CO1; L3]
 3) Define Fatigue Strength? [CO2; L1]

PART-B
Answer the Questions (7 Marks X 2 Questions = 14)

4) Explain the following: (i) Edge dislocation (ii) screw dislocation [CO1] [L3]
5) What is critical resolved shear stress? Calculate the critical resolved shear stress for
slip [CO1] [L2]
6) How do you draw a creep curve by conducting suitable creep test? Explain different
stages of a creep curve. [CO2] [L4]
 CONTENT BEYOND SYLLABUS
[Link]. TOPIC Mode of Relevance with POs and
Teaching PSOs
1 Extraction of pig iron ppt 1,3
2 Extraction of cast iron ppt 1,2,3
3 Diffusion ppt 1,3,5

TOPIC Description:

1. Extraction of pig iron from iron ores.

2. Extraction of cast iron from pig iron and its applications.
3. Laws of Diffusion and applications of diffusion.

METHODOLOGY USED TO IDENTIFY WEAK AND BRIGHT

STUDENTS:

 Performance in internal examinations and slip-test.

 Performance in the previous semesters

a. SUPPORT TO WEAK STUDENTS:

 By giving more questions in each unit

 By taking extra classes

b. EFFORTS TO ENGAGE BRIGHT STUDENTS:

 By giving more assignment questions
 Encouraging by unsolved problems.

END