Basic Networking Concepts

A network is any collection of independent computers that communicate with one another over a
shared network medium.
Need for Networking
Resource Sharing – Sharing hardware and software resources is made possible by networking
computers. Printer, scanner, and memory are three examples…

Communication – Information sharing between network nodes is facilitated by connecting

computers through a network. For instance, because the printer is linked to every network node,
any of the computer systems can send data to any of the three computer systems or to the printer.
Access to remote databases – A regular individual can easily access any remote database, such as
airline bookings, and book [Link] Hardware
Requirements of a network
At least two computers
Network Interface Cards (NIC) A connection medium, usually a wire or cable, although wireless
communication between networked computers and peripherals is also possible.
Network Operating system soft Novell NetWare, Unix and Linux
Network Terminologies
Nodes (Workstations) – Any network device that can receive and deliver data from one endpoint to
another using a connection point is known as node, such as a router, printer, or switch.
Server – The server is a computer that enables the exchange of data, software, and hardware
resources through a network. There are two types of Server –

Dedicated Server – These are generally used on big network installations where one computer is
reserved for the dedicated [Link] Science
Non – dedicated Server – A workstation can function as both a client and a server in small
networks.
Network Interface Unit – Each workstation and the server have a network interface unit attached to
them, which aids in establishing connection between the server and workstations.
Switching Techniques
In order to efficiently send data across the network, switching mechanisms are used. Circuit
switching and packet switching are the two switching methods now used to enable communication
between two computers on a network.

Circuit switching – Circuit switching is a style of network design in which a physical path is acquired
and allocated for the duration of a dedicated connection between two endpoints in the network.
Circuit switching is used in standard voice phone service. The duration of a call is when this
reserved circuit is [Link]
Packet switching – Small data packets are sent between different networks using packet switching.
These data “packets” or “chunks” enable quicker, more effective data transport. When a user
transfers a file over a network, it frequently travels in smaller data packets rather than all at once.
Data communication terminologies
Channel – The medium over which a message is transmitted from one location to another is known
as a communication channel. It is a channel that allows data to be transmitted between distant
devices, to put it simply. The complete physical medium, such as a phone line, optical fibre, coaxial
cable, or twisted pair wire, may be referred to as a communication [Link] Hardware
Bandwidth – The most data that can be sent through an internet connection in a specific amount of
time is known as Bandwidth. It is actually the amount of data that can be delivered across a
connection in a given amount of time, measured in megabits per second (Mbps). Modal.
The data transfer rate – The speed at which a device or network component can send and receive
data is referred to as a data transfer rate (DTR).
Network Types
On the basis of geographical span, the network can be broadly categorized as PAN, LAN, MAN,
and [Link] Science
Personal Area Network – A personal area network (PAN) is a type of computer network designed to
connect computers and other devices that are near to a single user. Personal computers, printers,
fax machines, telephones, PDAs, scanners are the example of Personal Area Network.
Local Area Network – When a network is established within a restricted geographic area, it is
referred to as a local network. Private networks with a radius of up to 1 km. They are typically
established on a campus or in a building. LANs function at speeds between 10 Mbps and 1 Gbps.
Metropolitan Area Network – A single organisation, a large group of people, or many different
people or organisations may own a metropolitan area network (MAN). These networks, which have
a radius of up to 50 km, are used to create connections within cities.
Wide Area Network – The WAN (wide area network) covers roughly 1000 km. They are useful for
linking isolated places and for long-distance communication. They create connections inside a
nation or continent.
Networking Concepts – II
A transmission medium is a channel of transmission used to send signals carrying data from one
node to another. The data is converted into an appropriate form for transmission on the medium via
a [Link]
Guided Medium – Physical conductors like twisted pairs, coaxial cable, and fibre optics are referred
to by this phrase. The signal travels as voltage and current in coaxial and twisted pair cable but as
light in optical fibre.
Unguided Medium – Electrons are used by the unguided medium instead of a physical conductor.
Microwave, radio waves, and infrared are a few examples of unguided media.
Network Topologies
Network topology refers to a network’s configuration of notes. Broadly speaking, there are two
different topologies: broadcast and point-to-point.
Broadcast Topology – Broadcasting information typically refers to sending it to numerous receivers.
In the same way that a radio station sends a signal to its many listeners, a TV provider broadcasts a
signal to digital TV customers.
Point – to – point Topology – The simplest topology is point to point, which uses a shared link to
directly connect two nodes. Transmission between such two nodes is limited to using the total
available bandwidth of the common [Link]
Bus Topology
Bus topology, often called line topology, is a type of network topology in which each device is
connected to the network by a single coaxial or RJ-45 network wire.
bus topologies
Ring Topology
In a ring topology, every device is connected via a wire that forms a ring. The intended recipient of
the message is reached by way of a one-way transmission of the intended message. Device
addition and deletion, as well as fault isolation and detection, are simple processes.
ring topologies
Star Topology
All of the devices in a star topology are linked to a central controller called a hub since
communication between any two devices occurs through the hub. Installation and configuration of
the Star network are simple. Furthermore, fault isolation and detection are [Link]
Hardware
star topologies
Mesh Topology
Every node in the network is connected to every other node thanks to mesh topology. The topology
offers secure data transport without any triffic issues because to dedicated point-to-point
connections between every feasible pair of nodes.
mesh topology
Tree Topology
A hybrid topology that combines bus and star topologies is called tree topology.
In a bus topology, backbone cable functions as the tree’s stem, while star networks (and even
individual nodes) are connected to the primary tree by star [Link] Science
tree topology
Network Devices
Creation of a network requires various network devices, each of which plays a specific role in the
network.
Repeater – A signal may weaken and degrade with increased distance. In order for the input signal
to return to its original form and cover a greater distance, a repeater is required.
Hub – A hub is a computer device’s connection point where data from various ways converge
before being delivered in various directions to the appropriate devices. By stopping specific data
packets from travelling to a destination, a hub can also function as a [Link]
Bridge – A bridge is a multiport network interface used to connect two or more LANs, sometimes at
differing speeds. Therefore, a bridge can be used to combine smaller LANs to create a larger LAN.
Switch – Switches are used to connect individual nodes in the network with one another, as
opposed to bridges, which join two or more LAN segments. Each node in the network is linked to a
different switch port.
Router – Switches are used to connect individual nodes in the network with one another, as
opposed to bridges, which join two or more LAN segments. Each node in the network is linked to a
different switch port.
Gateway – A gateway enables communication across networks based on various protocol systems.
Data from one network that uses one protocol is translated to the outgoing network’s protocol
before being forwarded. As a result, a gateway can be compared to a router that has software for
protocol conversion.
RJ-45 – RJ-45, the abbreviation for Registered Jack, is used to link computers on LANs, particularly
Ethernet LANs. RJ connectors resemble RJ equipment in appearance, however they are a little
[Link] Hardware
Wi-Fi Card – Wi-Fi cards are small and portable cards that allow your desktop or laptop computer to
connect to the internet through a wireless network.
Network Protocols
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – For communication via a network, TCP is a well-known
communication protocol. Any communication is split up into a number of packets that are
transferred from the source to the destination, where they are reassembled.
Internet Protocol (IP) – The process or technique used to transmit data from one computer to
another via the internet is known as Internet Protocol (IP). Every computer on the internet, referred
to as a host, has at least one IP address that distinguishes it from every other computer there.
Point-to-Point Protocol – One computer system is connected to another using the TCP/IP protocol
known as Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP). PPP is a protocol that computers use to communicate
across landlines and the Internet. When two systems are physically linked by a phone line, a PPP
connection is [Link] Science
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) – Resources are transferred across the internet between client
devices and servers via the HTTP protocol. Client devices ask servers for the resources required to
load a web page; the servers respond by sending the client devices the requested resources.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) – The file transfer protocol is a method for downloading, uploading,
and moving files between computer systems and across the internet. File transfers between
computers or via the cloud are made possible through FTP.
Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP) – Outgoing email can be sent and distributed via SMTP. The
SMTP protocol is dependable and simple to set up. Either messages reach their intended
destination or an error message notifying them of the situation.
Post office Protocol (POP) – Incoming emails can be received via POP3. A popular way of getting
email that receives and retains email for a person until they pick it up is known as Post Office
Protocol 3 (POP3).
Telnet – The primary internet protocol for connecting to distant machines is telnet. It enables
TCP/IP network connections to remote computers.
Internet Relay Chat (IRC) – IRC protocol is used for chatting. The message is passed between
clients via the IRC server.
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) – Instead of using a public switched telephone network, it
makes it possible to transport voice over a packet switched network. Phone calls can be made
utilizing a regular internet connection by using VOIP software. Today, there are three major types of
VoIP service that are frequently used – ATA, IP phones, [Link]
Web Architecture
Before a website is designed, developed, and launched, its technical, functional, and aesthetic
components are planned and designed as part of its website architecture. It is a tool that website
designers and developers use to create websites.
Types of web architectures
Client-server model
Clients and servers made up the first two tiers of the web’s architecture. The functions and services
that the system was designed to provide were shared by clients and servers. For instance, the
client might ask the server for a service, and the server would then respond by offering the
requested service.
Three-tier model
Three-tier architectures have an application logic that handles data processing and permits some
interaction between the client and the server. For instance, a database server is just used for data
storage, whereas an application server can process data. This allows for the dynamic loading and
saving of content. The client’s behavior is frequently dictated by the scripting language
[Link]
Service-oriented architectures (SOA)
The web is being utilized to connect internationally dispersed IT structures. The client-server model
is much simpler than the complexity of modern IT and online applications. Business processes can
be automated using SOAs by the systems involved talking with one another, sometimes without
human intervention, and carrying out specific duties. Online marketplaces, e-commerce, e-learning,
online banking, and business intelligence applications are a few examples.
MAC Address
Each device on a network has a unique identity known as a Media Access Control address (MAC
address). It is primarily assigned by the manufacturer. They are frequently located on the network
interface controller (NIC) card of a device.
IP Address
Every computer in a network has an additional distinctive identification code called an IP Address.
The four bytes (or 32 bits) that make up an IP address can range in value from 0 to 255. A typical IP
address appears as follows:
59.177.134.72Computer Science
Domain Name
Consequently, we may use a computer’s IP address whenever we need to speak with it online.
However, it is virtually difficult for anyone to keep track of all the computers’ IP addresses with
whom they might need to interact. As a result, a system that gives names to some computers (web
servers) and keeps a database of these names and associated IP addresses has been created.
Generic Domain Names:
·com – commercial business
·edu – Educational institutions
·gov – Government agencies
·mil – Military
·net – Network organizations
·org – Organizations (nonprofit)
Country Specific Domain Names:
.in – India
·au – Australia
·ca – Canada
.ch – China
.nz – New Zealand
.pk – Pakistan
.jp – Japan
.us – United States of AmericaEnterprise Technology
Domain Name Resolution
The process of translating domain names into IP addresses is known as domain resolution. The
DNS server is responsible for domain name resolution. Domain resolution is also referred to as
domain pointing, server configuration, reverse IP registration, and other similar terms.
Network Threats and Security Measures
Malwares
Malicious software (programmes) that are intended to harm the system or to gain unauthorised
access to it, interfere with regular system performance, or prevent authorised users from using
computing resources are referred to as malware. Malware includes viruses, worms, and Trojan
horses.
Virus – A virus is a piece of software code that can damage your computer by corrupting or
overwriting system data. A computer virus behaves similarly to viruses that impact human bodies
by replicating and harming cells.
Worm – A worm is frequently acquired via a network, and it floods the hard disc by automatically
producing several copies of itself there. It causes network congestion when a worm is received as
an email attachment and automatically forwarded to the [Link]
Trojan Horse – A Trojan Horse is a piece of code that makes the system seem desirable and useful
but actually does the opposite. A Trojan horse can integrate with a reliable programme. For
instance, it might be included with any game that you download from the Internet.
Eavesdropping – The act of secretly or covertly listening to another person’s private discussion or
communications without that person’s agreement is known as eavesdropping. Telephone lines, cell
phone networks, email, and instant messaging are all used for eavesdropping.
Denial of Service – A denial-of-service attack (DoS attack) is a cyber-attack in which the machine or
network resource becomes unavailable to its users by temporarily or indefinitely
disrupting services.
Phishing – The practice of stealing a user’s personal information through fraudulent mail is known
as phishing. These emails either include embedded forms that request personal information from
you or include links to web pages that might ask you for it. There may be attempts to steal
passwords, bank account numbers, debit/credit card numbers, and other sensitive
[Link] Hardware
Cyber Crime
Cybercrimes are the crimes related to the misuse of computers or the Internet such as theft, fraud,
and forgery. Some of these crimes are mentioned below
Sending spam mails to uninterested recipients.
Hacking someone’s account or system.
Stealing someone’s personal information through phishing
Hosting a site carrying lots of malwares or being a source for spreading them.
Harassing someone through mails, messages or social networking.
Posting offensive content on any site or sending it to anyone.
Defaming someone using the Internet.
Forging someone’s digital signatures
Indulging in fraudulent financial transaction
Providing misleading information to clients/ general public through use of Internet resources
Intellectual Property theft
Illegal downloads, plagiarism
Network Security Tools and Services
Firewalls – An enterprise, home, or individual’s internal network is protected by a firewall from
malicious traffic coming from other [Link] Resources
Antivirus – Antivirus software works to safeguard your computer from harmful and potentially
undesirable programmes. It is in charge of looking for and deleting these malicious programmes in
order to keep the system safe.
Password managers – A password manager is a piece of software that aids in organising and
storing passwords.
Protective Measures while accessing Internet
Never click on a suspicious link specified on a web page or send through a mail for which you are
not sure about its authenticity.
Make sure that passwords are strong and are changed frequently.
Never disclose personal information such as date of birth, home address, personal phone number,
account details, passwords, credit and debit card details, work history details.
Report phishing issues to the concerned authorities or at [Link]. In case of unsolicited
mails, mark them as spam mails.
Secure HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTPs) is a secure version used for communication between
client and host on the Internet.
Ensure that the web browser being used for accessing the web is updated and is secure.
Beware before spreading any kind of a rumor as it may be treated as a cybercrime.
If someone is harassing or threatening you, take a snapshot of it as a proof, and block the person.
Also, report the incident to the site administrator
Use updated antivirus and firewall, secure browsing, and password management techniques.
ISPs
Cyber Law
Cyber laws are the laws for systematic use of e-resources, for example, e-business, and serve as a
measure against illegal cyber-crime.
Cyber offenses under IT Act
Tampering with computer source documents – Section 65
Hacking -Section 66
Publishing of information which is obscene in electronic form -Section 67
Intellectual property rights (IPR) Issues
Intellectual property rights are the rights given to an individual over the invention of their own.
Patent – An invention is a product or a technique that, in general, offers a new way of doing
something or presents a new technical solution to a problem. A patent is an exclusive right awarded
for an invention. Technical details concerning the innovation must be made public in a patent
application in order to obtain [Link] Science
Trademark – A trademark is characterized as a name, a different sign, or a tool used to distinguish
a good or a service. A particular person or business produces or offers the goods or service.
Copyright – A written document is referred to as having copyright. The violation of copyrights may
result in legal action. The following type of work is eligible for copyright protection. written works any
accompanying words for musical works.