Solid Waste Management

(Course Notes)

Course Notes (LaTeX Transcription)

Contents

1 Lecture 1 – Introduction to Solid Waste Management 3

1.1 Contents Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 What is Solid Waste? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Indian Scenario of SWM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Overview of Various SWs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Industrial Solid Waste (ISW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 Bio-Medical Waste (BMW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.7 E-Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.8 Plastic Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2 Lecture 4 – ISWM, Laws & SWM Rules 2016 8

2.1 Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 Laws of SWM in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 (CPCB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3 Lecture 6 – Evolution of Solid Waste Management 13

3.1 Evolution of Solid Waste Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2 Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3 Classification of MSW Based on Type of Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

4 Lecture 7 & 8 – Physical & Chemical Properties of MSW 16

4.1 Physical Properties of MSW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.2 Chemical Properties of MSW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.3 Chemical Composition of Solid Waste as a Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.4 Calculation of Heating Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.5 Proximate & Ultimate Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

5 Lecture 9 – Disposal of MSW: Landfill 23

5.1 Disposal of MSW (Municipal Solid Waste) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.2 Leachate Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.3 Landfill Gas Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.4 Phases in the Lifecycle of a Landfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.5 Microbial Degradation Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.6 Environmental Effects of Landfills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

6 Lecture 11 – Composting 29
6.1 Composting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.2 Composting in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.3 Factors Affecting Composting Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.4 Criteria for Windrow Composting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.5 Greenhouse Gas Emission Avoidance Through Composting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

1
Solid Waste Management – Notes 2

7 Lecture 12 – Incineration 34
7.1 Incineration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
7.2 Pyrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
7.3 Gasification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

8 Lecture 13 – Biomethanation 38
8.1 Biomethanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
8.2 Operating Parameters for Biomethanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

9 RDF (Refuse Derived Fuel) 41

9.1 RDF (Refuse Derived Fuel) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

10 Lecture 14 – 3R’s of Waste Management 43

10.1 3R’s of Waste Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
10.2 Reuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
10.3 Recycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
10.4 Kitchen Waste Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Chapter 1

Lecture 1 – Introduction to Solid

Waste Management

1.1 Contents Overview

→ Types of SW

→ Municipal SW

→ Industrial SW

→ Hazardous SW

→ Bio-medical SW

→ E-waste

→ Evolution of SWM

→ ISWM

→ Operation of SWM

→ SWM Rules (as per CPCB)

1.2 What is Solid Waste?

→ Solid Waste can be considered as those materials of solid or semi-solid nature which are no-longer
required by an individual or household or institution or commercial establishment or industry.

→ Solid Waste is created in every city and municipal jurisdiction in the world, and if not properly
managed results in spreading diseases among humans & animals.

→ Most developed countries have implemented modern waste management systems and these sys-
tems require huge capital investment for annual operation and maintenance.

→ In United States, about 75% of solid waste goes to landfill whereas in India (2019) the SW going
to landfill is just 29%.

→ Solid Waste Management (SWM) is defined as a system associated with the control of generation,
storage, collection, transfer, processing, and disposal of SW.

→ It includes all administrative, financial, legal and engineering planning to ensure smooth func-
tioning of the process.

3
Solid Waste Management – Notes 4

1.3 Indian Scenario of SWM

→ In India, approx. 38% of population lives in cities (2011 Census).

→ As per CPCB, 1,43,449 Tonnes Per Day (TPD) of MSW was generated in 2014–15, with an
average of 0.46 kg/c/d. Only 22% (32,871 TPD) was processed or treated. (Note: figures are
projected/forecasted values.)

→ In India, SW is categorized into the following categories:

1. Municipal Solid Waste
2. Industrial SW
3. Hazardous SW
4. Bio-Medical SW
5. Plastic Waste
6. E-Waste (E-Electronic)

→ In India, cost of collection of MSW varies from Rs. 95/ton to Rs. 895/ton depending upon size
of city, location, terrain condition, etc.

1.4 Overview of Various SWs

1. Municipal Solid Waste
Domestic + Institute + Commercial + Public places.

→ Municipal Solid Waste is composed of wastes generated by domestic, institutional and commer-
cial activities. It also includes the wastes produced from public places and treatment plant sites
(e.g. screening, Grit Removal, etc).

MSW is categorized into 3 components

Garbages Rubbish Ashes

Garbages Rubbish Ashes

Biodegradable mat- Non-Biodegradable & Inor- Non-combustible matter

ter from kitchens, ganic waste, e.g. plastic, after burning (700–900
hotels, restaurants, rubber, metals, glass, etc. kg/m3 )
etc. (450–900 (50–400 kg/m3 )
3
kg/m )

Bulk Density of MSW

S.W

Random Sampling
from multiple pts.
Solid Waste Management – Notes 5

Ma + Mb + Mc . . .
ρbulk =
Va + Vb + Vc + . . .
M a + Mb + M c + · · ·
ρbulk =
M a Mb M c
+ + + ···
ρa ρb ρc

Example

Component Composition (% Density (kg/m3 )

mass)

A 30 960
B 45 X
C 25 1015

Given ρbulk = 1008 kg/m3 , find ρb = X.

30 + 45 + 25
= 1008 ⇒ X = 1038.64 kg/m3
30 45 25
+ +
960 X 1015

1.5 Industrial Solid Waste (ISW)

→ Industrial process wastes of solid and semi-solid nature are included in ISW.

→ Examples of materials which may be found are rubbish, organic waste from food and agro-based
industries, acids and bases, various chemical from pharmaceutical industries, metallic sludge
from metallurgical processes, etc.

→ The most important feature of industrial waste is that the handling rules are quite different than
MSW.

→ ISW can also contain Hazardous Waste in them.

Hazardous Waste
→ HW is a waste that has substantial or potential threat to public health or the environment.

→ It includes paints, solvents, motor oil, pesticides, mercury-containing waste, lead-containing

waste, etc.

→ The health hazards include:

1. Infections in skin & blood due to direct contact.
2. Chronic diseases such as cancer or lung diseases due to long exposure.
3. Accidents such as infected wound, poisonous chemicals, landfill gas explosion, etc.

1.6 Bio-Medical Waste (BMW)

→ Hospital Waste or BMW is generated during the diagnosis, treatment or immunization/vacci-
nation of human beings or animals or in research activities.

→ In India, approx. BMW generation is 500 TPD (2015, CPCB).

Solid Waste Management – Notes 6

→ BMW & IW should not be mixed with MSW.

→ BMW consists of Human Anatomical Waste like tissues, organs, used syringes, discarded medicines,
etc.

1.7 E-Waste
→ Electronic waste is the waste of electrical & electronic equipment (WEEE) such as computers,
TV-sets, fridge, cell phones, wires, etc.

→ E-Waste is a complex mixture of material & components which contains hazardous content and
if not properly manage it will cause major environmental and health problems.

→ According to a 2020 report by CPCB, India generated 1,014,961 tonnes E-waste in year 2019–20.

1.8 Plastic Waste

→ Plastic Products have become an integral part of our daily life a result of which the polymer
is produced at a massive scale worldwide – that is on an average about 150 million tonnes of
plastic/year globally.

→ Approx. 9.4 million Tonnes of plastic waste is generated in India (2016).

→ 60% of plastic waste in India is recycled.

→ Plastic waste is recyclable but recycled products are more harmful to the environment as –
(i) Recycling into another product again consumes energy.
(ii) Recycled products may not be further recyclable.
(iii) Recycled products may contain additives and colours.

→ Plastics are micro-molecules, formed by the process of polymerization. Polyethylene, Polyvinyl

chloride, Polystyrene are used in manufacturing plastic.

→ Once plastic is discarded after its utility is over, it is known as PLASTIC WASTE.

→ Plastic waste never degrades by itself and remains for 10–100 years.

→ 70% of plastics in packaging products are converted into waste within a month.

Types of Plastic
Total 7 types of plastic.
Solid Waste Management – Notes 7

Symbol Polymer Name Common use Recyclable?

➊ Polyethylene Plastic water & soft drink Yes

PET/PETE Terephthalate bottles
➋ HDPE High Density Cleaning chemicals, Yes
Polyethylene shampoo bottles & other
chemicals
➌ PVC Polyvinyl chloride Piping, flooring, cable in- No
sulation
➍ LDPE Low Density Plastic bags, food wrap- No
Polyethylene ping (bread, vegetable,
etc.)
➎ PP Polypropylene Bottle lids, furniture No
rope, automobile parts
➏ PS Polystyrene Takeaway container, plas- No
tic cutlery, etc.
➐ Others Other plastics Diverse use No

What is Polymerization?
Polymerization is a process through which a large number of monomer molecules react together to
form a polymer. The polymer is made up of repeating units of same type or different type.
Styrene
CH=CH2
Polymerize
n×

Monomer | {z }
n

Polymer

If same monomer type is used → Homopolymer. If different monomers → Copolymer.

Chapter 2

Lecture 4 – ISWM, Laws & SWM

Rules 2016

2.1 Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM)

→ ISWM is a contemporary & systematic approach of waste management.

→ ISWM is based on the waste management hierarchy, with an aim to reduce the amount of waste
being disposed while maximizing resource conservation & efficiency.

Waste Management Hierarchy

Most Preferred At source reduction

Reuse

Recycling

Compost

Waste to Energy

Least Preferred Landfills

→ At source reduction → The waste should be reduced at source itself. This will minimize a
person’s/organization’s expenses.

→ Reuse → The material is used again & again until it finally becomes a scrap.

→ Recycling → Processing non-biodegradable & inorganic waste to recover commercially valuable

materials, e.g. iron, paper, tin, some plastics, etc.

→ Composting → Processing biodegradable organic waste either aerobically or anaerobically to

decompose the BOM into other products.

→ Waste to Energy – Recovering energy before final disposal of waste (e.g. Refuse Derived Fuel
(RDF), Biomethanation, Pyrolysis, etc.).

8
Solid Waste Management – Notes 9

→ Landfills → Safe disposal of inert material into landfills under sanitary condition.

ISWM Process Steps

1. Waste Generation
2. Waste Storage
3. Waste Collection
4. Transportation & Transfer
5. Processing
6. Recover & Recycle
7. Disposal

Operation of ISWM in India by Municipalities

Solid Waste from:
→ Houses/flats Transportation
Community Bin
→ Hotels Using Vari- Disposals
collection system
→ Markets/Malls ous Vehicles
→ Slaughter House, etc

Treatment &
SAFAI Processing facility
KARMCHARI

2.2 Laws of SWM in India

Central Govt. Agency
Make Rules & Regulation
MoUD (Ministry of Urban Development)

State Govt.
Make Rule & Regulation
Urban Development Dept.

Municipal Corporations Apply the Rules & Regulation.

Wards

Duties of Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change (MoEF&CC)

→ Responsible for overall monitoring and implementation of these rules throughout the country.

→ Establishing a Central Monitoring Committee which should meet at least once in a year to
monitor the implementation of the rules.

→ This Ministry can appoint other experts, if needed.

→ This committee shall be renewed after every 3 years.

Duties of Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD)

This ministry shall coordinate with State Governments and Union Territories in order to:
Solid Waste Management – Notes 10

(1) Take periodic review of the measures taken by the states and local bodies for improving SWM
practices & execution of SWM Project.
(2) Formulate National Policy and Strategy on SWM including policy on “WASTE TO WEALTH”.
(3) Promote R&D in SWM sector and gather information of latest advancements globally.
(4) Undertaking training and capacity building of ULBs and other stakeholders (contractors,
franchisee, etc.)

Duties of Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)

1. Coordinate with the SPCBs for implementation of the rules.
2. Providing technical guidelines & expertise to SPCB.
Ministry EF&CC / UD CPCB SPCB
Technical, Managerial etc
3.
4. Formulate the standard for ground water, air, noise & soil.
5. Review the Environmental standard from time to time.
6. Providing guidance to states and UTs on inter-state movement of wastes.

Duties of State Pollution Control Board (SPCB)

1. Monitor the Environmental standard.
2. Examine areas of improvement.
3. Regulate inter-state movement of waste.
4. Every department in-charge of local Bodies shall constitute a state level advisory Body within
6 months from the date of notification of these rules.
5. Continuously ensure the enforcement of the State Rules (formed on the Basis of CPCB Rules).

2.3 Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 (CPCB)

Applicability
These rules apply to every Urban Local Body, area under the control of Indian Railways, Airports,
Military Airbases, Ports and Harbours, defense establishments, Special Economic Zones (SEZ),
State & Central Government Offices & Buildings, religious places, historical places, & place of
pilgrims.

Note: These rules are not applied to industrial waste, hazardous waste, biomedical waste,
e-waste, lead/acid batteries & radioactive wastes – these are covered under separate rules.
However, treated biomedical waste and non-hazardous industrial waste can be disposed off by
these rules.

Rules (Salient Rules)

1. The source segregation of waste has been made compulsory in order to facilitate the conversion
of “waste to wealth”.
2. Responsibilities of generators (people) have been introduced to segregate the waste into 3
parts:
(i) Wet waste (gila kachra) – Biodegradable – food waste, etc.
Solid Waste Management – Notes 11

(ii) Dry waste (sukha kachra) – Non-Biodegradable & Inorganic – metals, glass, plastic,
rubber, etc.
(iii) Domestic Hazardous Waste – sanitary napkin, diaper, empty containers of cleaning
agents, mosquito repellant, cockroach repellant containers, etc.
3. No person should throw, burn or bury the solid waste generated by him/her, on streets, public
places, drains or water bodies.
4. Generator should pay “USER FEE” to waste collector and should also pay “SPOT FINE” for
littering & non-segregation.
5. Hazardous waste should be wrapped securely in pouches provided by manufacturers or brand
owners of these products. If wrapping materials is not available, suitable wrapping material
should be arranged by the generator.
6. In Swachh Bharat Mission by Govt. of India, the concept of partnership is introduced. Bulk
and institutional generators, markets associations, event organizers and hotels and restaurants
have been made directly responsible for segregation of waste & handing over to ULBs.
7. The Biodegradable wastes produced during commercial activities (hotel, restaurant, big events,
etc.) should be processed, treated and disposed off through –
(a) Composting
(b) Bio-methanation
8. All RWA (Resident Welfare Association) and MA (Market Associations), Gated Communities
and institutions with an area more than 5000 m2 should segregate waste at source.
9. New townships & Group Housing societies have been made responsible to develop in-house
handling, and processing arrangement for Biodegradable waste.
10. Every street vendor should keep suitable containers for storage of waste generated during the
course of his activity.
11. The developers of SEZs, Industrial estates are to hold at least 5% of total area for recovery &
recycling facilities.
12. All manufacturers of disposable products (syringe, plastic, cutlery, etc.) shall provide financial
assistance to local authorities for the establishment of waste management system.
13. All such brand owners who sale or market their products in such packaging material which are
Non-Biodegradable should provide arrangement to collect back the packing waste generated
due to their production.
14. All industrial units using fuel & located within 100 km from a solid waste based RDF plant
should replace at least 5% of their fuel requirement by RDF.

Fuel RDF
≤ 100 km
Plant

Industry

15. Non-Recyclable wastes having calorific value of 1500 kcal/kg or more shall not be disposed on
landfill and shall be utilized for generating energy.
16. Construction and Demolition waste should be stored separately and disposed off as per Con-
struction & Demolition Waste Management Rules, 2016.
Solid Waste Management – Notes 12

17. Horticulture waste and garden waste generated from a premises should be disposed off as per
the directions of local authority.
18. An event organized of more than 100 persons at any place, should ensure segregation of waste
at source and handing over to the local authorities.
19. Bio-remediation or capping of old and abandoned dump sites should be done within 5 years.
20. The local bodies serving a population of more than 1,00,000 should set up solid waste pro-
cessing facilities within 2 years (up to 2018).
21. Special provision for management of solid waste should be done in hilly areas. Construction
of landfill on the hill shall be avoided. A transfer station at a suitable enclosed location shall
be setup to collect the waste. Suitable land shall be identified in the plain areas, within 25
km of the hilly area. If no such land is available nearby, regional sanitary landfill system shall
be setup.
Chapter 3

Lecture 6 – Evolution of Solid Waste

Management

3.1 Evolution of Solid Waste Management

→ SWM reportedly was first started being practiced in 1880s in United Kingdom.

→ Early methods were Dumping on Land, Dumping in water, Plowing into soil, feeding to Hogs,
and Incineration for different types of waste. (Plowing-mix) (Hogs = pigs)

→ Open dumping became a common practice which started creating environmental nuisance by
producing foul odour, attracting rats, insects, etc., thereby spreading fatal diseases.

→ Open dumping led the way for disease-free sanitary landfill.

→ The method of plowing into soil was used for the disposal of food wastes and street sweeping
but due to large land requirement, this method was not used later on.

→ Feeding to hogs was practiced until it was recognized that hogs were infected by a disease called
as TRICHINOSIS, which in turn infected humans who consumed hogs. Hence, this method
was discarded.

India’s Waste Management Evolution

→ India has been a late runner in the race of SWM.

→ The first Act which addressed this issue was the Water (Prevention & control of Pollution) Act,
1974.

→ Thereafter, Water (Prevention & control of Pollution) Cess Act came in (type of tax).

→ The other Acts and Rules came as follows:

→ Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
→ Ecomark Scheme, 1991
→ 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992
→ Policy Statement for Abatement of Pollution, 1992
→ National Conservation Strategy & Policy Statement on Environment & Development, 1992
→ National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995

13
Solid Waste Management – Notes 14

→ National Environment Appellate Authority Act, 1997

→ National Environment Policy, 2006
→ National Urban Sanitation Policy, 2008

3.2 Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM)

Factors Affecting MSWM System
1. Quantities & Characteristics of Waste – The quantities of waste generated and their
characteristics depend on the income level of a family, as higher income category tends to
generate large quantities of wastes, as compared to low income category.
2. Climate & Seasonal Variation – High temperature and humidity causes MSW to decom-
pose far more rapidly than they do in colder climate. The frequency of waste collection in
high temp. & humid areas should be higher than that in colder climates.
T↑, Humidity↑ Pathogenic M/O,
Waste generate
Decompose fast if present, they
(BOM,. . . ,etc)
will grow fast

disease outbreak chances

3. Physical Characteristics of an Urban Area – In urban layouts of streets, door to door

collection is possible when the streets are easily accessible by waste collecting vehicles. But,
if roads are narrow & their density is high, collection of MSW becomes challenging.
4. Financial and Foreign Exchange Constraints – MSWM system accounts for a sizeable
portion of the budget of Municipal Corporations. This is allocated for capital resources, which
go towards the purchase of equipments, vehicles, fuels and labour cost, etc. Typically, 20–40%
of the revenue of municipalities is allocated to MSWM system.
5. Cultural Constraints – In some regions, long-standing traditions are present due to which
they do not handle their waste themselves. They recruit labour force for handling of wastes.
There are certain other sections of society, which do not consent to place storage bins outside
their premises. Such mentality needs to be changed for effective MSWM system.
6. Management & Technical Resource – MSWM System to be successful, requires a wide
variety of workforce which can keep up with the current needs. The best system is the one
which makes full use of indigenous professionals and provides training programmes to its
workforces.

Environmentally Sound Technologies (EST) in MSWM

Small Equipments −→ Big Machines.
Hard EST (Man-made) – PYROLYSIS – Heating in absence of O2
EST
Soft EST (Natural) – COMPOSTING – fertilizer

EST: Broadly categorized as

(1) Hard EST → This includes processes, equipments, machines and other infrastructure which
is artificially made.
(2) Soft EST → These are nature based technologies such as composting, vermicomposting,
biomethanation, etc.
Solid Waste Management – Notes 15

Note: Hard & soft ESTs complement one another to achieve the MSWM Goals.

Classification of MSW on the Basis of Source (4 Categories)

CategoryName Type of Waste

1. Commercial and Food waste, Rubbish, ashes, construction and

Institutional demolition, special waste, occasionally hazardous
waste, etc.
2. Residential Food waste, Rubbish, Ashes, special waste, occa-
sionally hazardous waste, etc.
3. Open Areas Street sweepings, roadside litter, rubbish & other
special wastes, etc.
4. Treatment Plant Sludges, screened waste, grit waste, etc.
sites

3.3 Classification of MSW Based on Type of Waste

1. Food Waste/Garbage → Animal & vegetable wastes result from handling, sale, storage,
preparation & cooking. Contains rotting O/M which produces strong odour.
2. Ashes/Reside → Substances remaining from burning of combustible materials for cooking
and heating in houses and institutions.
3. Bulky wastes → Furniture, crates, vehicle parts, tyres, appliances such as washing machines,
refrigerator, etc.
4. Street waste → Paper, Plastic, Cardboard, food scraps, etc.
5. Construction & Demolition waste: Stones, Concrete, bricks, roofing, plumbing material,
electrical wiring, etc.
6. Special waste: Non-hazardous industrial waste, dead animal waste, septic tank plumbings
& its waste, contaminated food & beverages, etc.
7. Rubbish → Non-biodegradable & Inorganic waste such as plastics, metals, glass, etc.

Average Composition of MSW in India

Items
Metals (1%)

Other (4%)

Rag (5%)

Paper (8%)

Plastic & Rubber (9%)

INERT (25%)

Biodegradable Matter (48%)

(%)
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

(Source: MoUD → MSWM Manual, Table Part 2.)

Chapter 4

Lecture 7 & 8 – Physical & Chemical

Properties of MSW

4.1 Physical Properties of MSW

1. Density or Bulk Density

Ma + Mb + Mc + · · ·
ρa+b+c... = (from Ch. 1)
Ma Mb Mc
+ + + ···
ρa ρb ρc

→ MSW is heterogeneous and hence, to find bulk density, we take random samples from various
locations throughout the city.

→ Density of waste is a critical factor in the design of SWM system. For e.g. → an efficient
operation of a landfill demands compaction of wastes to optimum density.

→ As per GIOI Manual, the usual reduction in volume should be about 75% during compaction.

X kg → 400 m3 (initial vol.), X kg → 100 m3 (final vol.) ⇒ Density = 4×

Compaction mein mass change nahi hota. Compaction mein air expulsion hota hai.

→ There is an upper limit to the density which can be targeted during compaction, i.e. 600 kg/m3 .

2. Moisture Content

OVEN DRYING METHOD MSW

Temp: 104–105◦ C
Water easily evaporate

a = Mass of MSW before oven drying (solid + water)

b = Mass of dried MSW after oven drying (solid)
 
a−b
Moisture Content = × 100
a

16
Solid Waste Management – Notes 17

→ As per GIOI Manual, a typical range of moisture is about 20–40% in India. However, in some
cases, moisture content can be greater than 40%.

→ Moisture increases the weight of solid wastes and thereby increases the cost of collection and
transportation.

→ In addition, moisture content is a critical determinant in the economic feasibility of waste disposal
by incineration. Because wet waste consumes energy for evaporation of water thereby increasing
cost.

3. Field Capacity or Water Holding Capacity

maxm moisture
retaining capacity

More the Field Capacity → more moisture it can retain → more wet:
→ Incineration & pyrolysis will be less effective.
→ More transportation & collection cost.

Leachate in land determination – impure water enters the soil through the SW. Compaction
at a landfill site ⇒ leachate formation will be more.

→ The field capacity of MSW is the total amount of moisture which can be retained in a waste
sample subjected to gravity pull. It is a critical measure because leachate formation during
compaction in landfills is directly proportional to Field Capacity.

4. Permeability of Compacted MSW

→ Permeability or Hydraulic Conductivity → It is the rate with which water can pass/flow through
a medium (MSW). Represented by coefficient of permeability – K. Its determination is impor-
tant because the water, if falling over a landfill having high permeability, will generate leachate
faster. Therefore, permeability will generate leachate faster.

5. Porosity of MSW (n)

It is the ratio of vol. of voids w.r.t vol. of sample.

Volume = V

MSW
Vv
n=
Vol. of void Vv V

→ Porosity helps in determining how much water can be held by MSW. The more the porosity, it
can retain more volume of water and the problems associated will also be more.

Vv
Note: Void ratio (e) = , where Vs → vol. of solid.
Vs
e
n & e are related: n =
1+e
Solid Waste Management – Notes 18

→ There is no comparison between Field Capacity & porosity. FC is a moisture content calculated
on the basis of mass or weight. But n is calculated on the basis of volume. However, if porosity
is more, FC may also be more.

→ Typical MSW porosity in India varies between 0.4 to 0.67.

6. Compressibility of MSW
Total ability of MSW to get compressed.

∆Htotal = ∆Hi + ∆Hp + ∆Hs

→ ∆Hi : Initial settlement due to compaction. Happens in very less time i.e. during com-
paction.
→ ∆Hp : Primary Consolidation or Compression – Over a long period of time, expulsion
of moisture takes place due to which it settles.
→ ∆Hs : Secondary Consolidation or Compression – After primary consolidation, there is
still some settlement due to readjustment of particles.

7. Particle Size Distribution

→ It is important to understand the average sizes of various components of MSW sample.

→ If the sizes are high, then we need to reduce their sizes by physical action, shredding, or grinding.

→ A particle size distribution curve can be made to understand the size better.
Size (mm)

Out of total particles, 30% of

the particles are finer than 0.4mm.
0.4mm

(%) finer
(30%)

→ Shredding is also called as PULVERIZATION. It is done by devices called MACERATORS.

→ Grinding is done by devices called as COMMINUTORS.

4.2 Chemical Properties of MSW

→ Knowledge of classification of chemical compounds and their characteristics is essential for the
proper understanding of the behaviour of waste, as it moves through the waste management
system.

→ The products of decomposition and the heating values are two important chemical characteris-
tics.

→ Chemical properties are important for:

1. Improving leachate properties and reduce groundwater contamination.
2. Evaluating solid waste processing and recovery system.
3. Information about trace element composition (e.g. Radium, Cyanide, etc.).
Solid Waste Management – Notes 19

4. Assessing the feasibility of MSW combustion directly or indirectly.

Solid Waste as a Fuel

If solid wastes are to be used as a fuel, we must know their following chemical characteristics:
1. Lipids
2. Carbohydrates
3. Proteins
4. Natural fibers
5. Non-combustibles
6. Synthetic Organic Material

4.3 Chemical Composition of Solid Waste as a Fuel

1. Lipids
This class of compounds include fats, oil & grease. The principle sources of lipids are garbages,
cooking oil & fats. Lipids have high heating values – about 38,000 kJ/kg. Thus, lipids are good
source of energy recovery. The rate of biodegradation is relatively slow than other biodegradables
(general nature) because they are complex compounds.

2. Carbohydrates
Chemical formula: (CH2 O)n , with n = 6 ⇒ C6 H12 O6 = Glucose. (Readily biodegradable, simple
compound.)
They are found primarily in food waste & yard/gardening waste which encompass sugars and
polymers of sugars (e.g. glucose, starch, cellulose, etc). They have general formula (CH2 O)n . They
are readily biodegradable to products such as CO2 , H2 O, & CH4 gas.

3. Proteins
Proteins are compounds containing C, H, O and N. They are mainly found in food waste & yard/-
garden waste. The partial decomposition of these compounds can release ammonia gas which can
attract vectors. Thus complete decomposition of protein is recommended.

4. Natural Fibers
These are found in paper products, yard waste, and food, and include the natural compounds
cellulose and lignin. These are resistant to biodegradation.

Note: Paper is almost 100% cellulose, cotton is over 95% cellulose & other wood products are
above 40% cellulose.

Because they are highly combustible, having a high proportion of such material, is suitable in
incineration.

Note: Calorific value of dried product is in the range of 12,000–18,000 kJ/kg.

Note: Cellulose is a complex carbohydrate having different properties than regular carbohy-
drates. It is made up of more than 3000 glucose molecules.
Solid Waste Management – Notes 20

5. Non-Combustibles
These include glass, ceramics, metals, dust particles, ashes, etc. These usually account for 12–12%
mass of the mass of dry solid waste.

6. Synthetic Organic Materials

These are predominantly plastic which are man-made accounting for up to 10% of the mass of dried
SW. They are highly resistant to biodegradation and therefore objectionable in SWM.
They have a high heating value of about 32,000 kJ/kg which makes them highly suitable for heating.

Note: A common plastic called PVC, when burnt, produces toxic Dioxin Gas along with acidic
gases. Thus, it becomes more harmful during heating as compared to other types of plastics.

4.4 Calculation of Heating Value

→ SW as discarded / SW as delivered → It means that the waste has original composition as
when it was discarded (as it is).

→ There are various ways through which heating value can be calculated:
1. Direct Computation
2. Dulong’s formula
3. Modified Dulong’s formula
4. Khan Equation

→ The heating value is commonly expressed in kJ/kg or kCal/kg.

→ Experimentally, heating value is computed by a device called as “BOMB CALORIMETER”

in which the heat generated is collected & measured.

1. Direct Computation
Example: What is the energy production on as-discarded basis for 100 kg MSW?

Component Mass % Energy value (as

discarded)

Food waste 40% 4500 kJ/kg

Paper 10% 16500 kJ/kg
Plastics 5% 37500 kJ/kg
Tin Cans 5% 800 kJ/kg
Wood 40% 18500 kJ/kg

Energy from food waste = 4500 × 40 = 180000 kJ

Energy from paper = 10 × 16500 = 165000 kJ
Energy from plastic = 5 × 37500 = 187500 kJ
Energy from tin cans = 5 × 800 = 4000 kJ
Energy from wood = 40 × 18500 = 740000 kJ
Total = 1276500 kJ
Solid Waste Management – Notes 21

Example: 100 kg food waste, moisture content = 40%, calorific value on dry basis = 30000 kJ/kg.
Find the heating value of food waste on as-discarded basis.

→ Solid present in food waste = 60 kg. (Agar waste ko sukha doge, toh vo 60 kg ka mass ho jayega)

→ Energy – dry basis = 30000 kJ/kg × 60 kg = 1800000 kJ

→ Har 1 kg mein aapke paas energy banane wala 0.6 kg hi hai ⇒ 100 kg mein energy banane wala
60 kg hi hai.

2. Dulong’s Formula

 
O
Heat Value (kJ/kg) = 33801[C] + 144158 H − + 9413[S] − 0.125[O] × 144158
8

C, H, S, O → composition on dry basis.

3. Modified Dulong’s Formula

HV (kJ/kg) = 337(C) + 1419 [H2 − 0.125 O2 ] + 93(S) + 23(N )

where C, H2 , O2 , S&N are % by weight.

4. Khan’s Equation

HV (MJ/kg) = 0.051[F + 3.6(CP )] + 0.352(P LR)

→ F = % weight of food waste in SW.

→ CP = % weight of Cardboard & Paper.
→ P LR = % weight of Plastic, Leather & Rubber.

4.5 Proximate & Ultimate Analysis

Proximate Analysis
This is important in evaluating the combustion properties of wastes. The fractions of interest are:
1. Moisture Content, which adds weight to the waste without increasing its heating value.
2. Ashes, which adds weight without generating heating value.
3. Volatile Matter i.e. that portion of the waste that is converted to gases even before com-
bustion and also, during combustion.
4. Fixed Carbon, which represents the carbon remaining in the waste after heating.

F C(%) + V M (%) + A(%) + M C(%) = 100%

Ultimate Analysis
→ This refers to an analysis of waste to determine the proportion of C, H, O, N and S. This analysis
is done to compute the exact quantity of Heat that can be generated from a given SW sample.
The sample is sent to dedicated laboratories to find exactly, what is present and how much is
present.
Solid Waste Management – Notes 22

→ In the ultimate analysis, presence of toxic metals (such as Cadmium, Chromium, Lead, Mercury,
etc.) is also found out.
Chapter 5

Lecture 9 – Disposal of MSW: Landfill

5.1 Disposal of MSW (Municipal Solid Waste)

→ Disposal is the final and most important MSWM. It is the ultimate fate of all solid wastes,
whether they are residential, commercial, industrial or any other Hazardous waste:
1. Uncontrolled Dumping or Non-Engineered Disposal
2. Sanitary Landfilling
3. Composting
4. Incineration & Pyrolysis
5. Gasification
6. Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF)

1. Uncontrolled or Open Dumping (Non-Engineered Disposal)

In this method, wastes are dumped by local communities in a common area & then, dumpers carry
the waste to designated site for openly dumping without any environmental control.

→ The wastes tend to remain in the site for a long time, posing health risks and causing environ-
mental degradation.

→ Due to adverse health and environmental impacts, the non-engineered disposal is considered as
an unsafe option.

2. Sanitary Landfill
Schematic Diagram
Methane Gas Recovery system

Observation well to
monitor ground water Cell Leachate Leachate
level Collection treatment

Landfill liner
Leachate Collection pipe system
∇ GWT

→ The term landfill generally refers to an engineered deposit of wastes either in pits/trenches or on
the surfaces. A sanitary landfill is a landfill where proper mechanisms are available to control

23
Solid Waste Management – Notes 24

the environmental risk associated with the disposal of wastes and to make available the land,
subsequent to disposal, for other purposes.

→ The purpose of landfilling is to bury or alter the chemical composition of the waste such that it
doesn’t pose any threat to public or environment.

→ Landfills are not homogeneous and are made up of cells in which a certain volume of waste
is dumped, compacted and covered thereafter. The covering is made with the help of locally
available clay or silt matter, geosynthetics, etc.

GIOI Manual Criteria for Site Selection

→ The landfill site should be large enough to last for at least 20–25 years.

→ The landfill cells should be properly covered & the leachate should be recovered.

→ The landfill site should be at least 100 m away from river, 200 m away from pond/lake, 200 m
away from highways, 200 m away from habitation and 20 km away from Airports & Airbases.

→ The landfill site should have a buffer zone of no development around it.
No development

Landfill site

→ The landfill sites should make use of nearby waste processing facilities. E.g. → Leachate
produced should be mixed with sewage & can be sent to STP.

GIOI Manual Criteria for Operation of Landfill

→ Waste should be heavily compacted.

→ The landfill cell shall be covered at the end of each working day with minimum soil thickness of
20 cm around it. It can also be made up of inert debris or construction material (construction
& demolition waste).

→ Prior to commencement of monsoon season, an intermediate cover of 40–65 cm thickness of soil

shall be placed on the landfill with proper compaction to prevent infiltration.

→ The final cover shall meet the following specs:

(1) The final cover should be at least comprising of 60 cm of clay or amended soil with perme-
ability coefficient less than 10−7 cm/s.
(2) On the top, a drainage layer of 15 cm should be provided.
(3) There should be preferably, a vegetative layer to support the natural plant growth and to
minimize erosion.

final cover

GIOI Manual Criteria for Pollution Prevention

→ Highest level of water table shall be at least 2 m below the base of landfill liner.
Solid Waste Management – Notes 25

liner

landfill site

≥ 2m

∇ GWT

→ Leachate shall not be released into open environment.

→ For landfills receiving wastes from hazardous industries such as aerosols, bleaches, polishes,
batteries, motor oil, pesticides, etc., they shall have a barrier made up of HDPE membrane
having a permeability coefficient less than 10−7 cm/s.

GIOI Manual Criteria for Water Control Monitoring

Water within 50 m (ground water) is periodically checked for the following:

Parameter Upper limit

Parameter Upper limit
Lead 0.05
Arsenic 0.01 mg/l
Chloride 250
Cadmium 0.01 mg/l
Nitrate 45
Chromium 0.05 mg/l
Zinc 5
Copper 0.05 mg/l
pH 6.5–8.5
Cyanide 0.05 mg/l
Iron 0.3
Nickel 0
Mercury 0.01
TDS 500 mg/l
Sulphate 200

Criteria for Ambient Air Quality Monitoring

→ The concentration of methane gas generated at landfill site should not exceed 25% of LEL (Lower
Explosive Limit).

Upper Explosion Limit (chances of explosion are high)

×××

e.g. → 100 ppm

Lower Explosion Limit (chances of explosion are low)
×××
×
Landfill = 25 ppm (max)

→ Ambient Air Quality shall meet the standards prescribed by CPCB for industrial areas.

→ Landfill gas collection system should be regularly checked for any errors or maintenance.

5.2 Leachate Formation

→ Leachate can pollute both groundwater & surface water supplies. Once groundwater is contam-
inated, it is very costly to clean.

→ Landfills should therefore, undergo design and construction procedures that control leachate
pollution.
Solid Waste Management – Notes 26

→ Common toxic components in leachate are ammonia and toxic metals which can be hazardous
even at low levels.

→ Leachate’s composition varies with time and locations.

Control of Leachate Movements

(1) Natural liners
(2) Synthetic (geo-membrane) liners
(Lining → covering of surface)
1. Natural liners → These refer to compacted clay, bitumen, asphalt, soil sealants (rubber,
wax, etc.) and are very less permeable & resistant to chemical attacks. They do not act as
true barriers because sometimes, leachate propagates through them.
2. Synthetic liners → These are made up of high or medium density polyethylene and are easy
to install, practically impermeable, strong and have good deformation properties. However,
due to temp. change, they may expand or shrink.

Leachate Treatment
Physico-
Biological
Leachate Chemical Treated Leachate
Treatment
Treatment

→ Biological treatment removes BOM, ammonia & suspended solid; leachate can be readily de-
graded by biological means, due to high content of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) and other organic
matter. The methods of treatment can be Trickling Filter, ASP, oxidation ditch, etc.

→ After Biological treatment, effluent still contains a lot of turbidity which is removed by physico-
chemical treatment. It includes use of coagulants, mixing (flocculation) & subsequent sedimen-
tation. However, disinfection is to be done prior to disposal.

5.3 Landfill Gas Emission

A typical composition of landfill gas includes the following:
(1) Methane (CH4 ): It is a colourless, odourless & flammable gas with density lighter than air.
It makes up about 50–60% of the landfill gas.
(2) Carbon Dioxide (CO2 ): It is a colourless, odourless & non-flammable gas that is denser
than air. It makes up about 30–40% of the landfill gas.
(3) Nitrogen (N2 ): It is inert and has little effect in the landfill and is released in the range of
1–2%.

→ It is difficult to convert the amount of gas measured to the maximum landfill gas production
value because gas is withdrawn from a certain part of the landfill only. This part is referred as
Zone of Influence.
◦ → pipe for
gas collection

◦ ◦ ◦
Top view

Zone of influence
Solid Waste Management – Notes 27

Hazards Associated with Landfill Gas

Some of the major hazards are:
(1) Explosion and fire due to methane.
(2) Presence of toxic gases such as alkanes and alkenes in traces, which when present above a
concentration, can result in fatalities.
(3) Global Warming increase due to large quantity of methane and carbon dioxide which are
Greenhouse Gases.

→ Greenhouse Gases are those which can entrap a lot of heat thereby increasing the ambient temp.

E.g. – CH4 , CO2 , NO, NO2 , SO2 , Hydrocarbons – 99.9% GHGs on earth.

(4) Landfill appears inaesthetic.

(5) Gas released can lead to explosion, odour problems (NH3 , H2 S, etc.), health problems to the
workers & damage to vegetation.
(6) Polluted leachate may cause groundwater pollution.

Control of Gas Emission

Gas Emission can be controlled by:
(1) Limiting the waste input (if possible).
(2) Processing the waste before landfill.
(3) Migrate the gases produced away from the site.
(4) Using vents to constantly remove gases for further heat/energy production.

5.4 Phases in the Lifecycle of a Landfill

Planning Construction Operation Completed Final storage
Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase

→ Planning Phase involves preliminary geotechnical site investigation which forms the basis of
actual designs.

→ Construction phase involves earthwork, road & facility construction & preparation of the fill
area.

→ Operation phase involves filling, operation of environmental installations (construction of well –

groundwater check), etc.

→ Completed phase involves termination of fillings & removal of structures as landfill will no longer
be operated.

→ Final storage phase is the phase in which landfill is integrated into the surrounding. Vegetation
is cultivated & land is left for a few years.
Solid Waste Management – Notes 28

5.5 Microbial Degradation Process

H2 , CO2 ,
CH3 COOH
➊ ➌

BOM Biogas

[Link] [Link]
Bacteria ➊ Bacteria
➌
Propionic Acid ➋ H2 , CO2 ,
Alcohols,
CH3 COOH
Butyric Acid, etc
[Link]
Bacteria

5.6 Environmental Effects of Landfills

(1) Wind blown litter and dust can cause nuisance in the neighbourhood.
(2) Movement of waste collection vehicles, emptying wastes, compactors, earthmoving equipments
produce a lot of noise pollution.
(3) Birds, insects, flies, mosquitoes, etc. are attracted to the landfill for feeding & breeding.
(4) Surface runoff which comes in contact with landfill waste may enter surface streams, especially
in high rainfall areas.
(5) Landfill appears inaesthetic.
(6) Gas released can lead to explosion, odour problems (NH3 , H2 S, etc.), health problems to the
workers & damage to vegetation.
(7) Polluted leachate may cause groundwater pollution.
Chapter 6

Lecture 11 – Composting

6.1 Composting
→ Composting is the controlled biological degradation of organic matter.

→ The presence of moisture and oxygen is essential to assist the composting process aerobically
and results in evolution of CO2 and the generation of compost as an end product.

→ Composting can also be done in the absence of free oxygen and called as anaerobic composting.

→ Compost can be tilled into the soil to assist the growth of plants as it carries beneficial nutrients.

→ The use of compost can encompass both commercial agriculture and domestic gardens, as well
as public parks, golf estates, etc.

→ Composting of MSW is done to convert the waste into organic soil improvers (fertilizers).

Aerobic Composting
CO2 water Heat

Organic Manure/
Aerobic Composting
Waste compost

Oxygen & water

Aerobic Composting – Details

→ Aerobic Composting is the biological decomposition of organic wastes using air & micro-organisms
under controlled aerobic conditions.

→ It involves the actions of 2 types of micro-organisms (depending on temp.):

(a) Mesophilic Organisms – Act when the temp. is in medium range (approx. 20–40◦ C).
(b) Thermophilic Organisms – Act when the temp. is in high range (approx. 40–60◦ C).

→ The aerobic composting equation can be easily written as:

C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 −→ 6CO2 + 6H2 O

→ The compost so formed retains the nutrients and is used in the soil as manure.

29
Solid Waste Management – Notes 30

Anaerobic Composting
small
CO2 CH4quantity
Heat, H2 O

Organic Manure/
Anaerobic Composting
Waste compost

water

→ Anaerobic composting is breakdown of organic waste in the absence of oxygen under controlled
conditions.

→ The carbon content in the waste is converted to CO2 & CH4 gas.

→ The sulphur content in the waste is converted to H2 S.

→ The anaerobic composting equation can be easily written as:

C6 H12 O6 −→ 3CO2 + 3CH4

6.2 Composting in India

Indore Process Aerobic

Bangalore Process Anaerobic

→ In India, the Indore Method & Bangalore method are used for aerobic & anaerobic treatment
of BOM, respectively.

→ In the Indore method, alternate layers of compostable waste and night soil are piled up into
heaps or “WINDROWS” and exposed to the atmosphere for decomposition. The heaps are
turned regularly for 2–3 months and then left unturned for the next 1–1.5 months and in this
process, the resulting mass becomes the compost.

Night soil WIND

↓ BLOWER
Animal
& BOM
Human Night soil
excreta

→ In the Bangalore Method, the compostable waste & night soil are piled up in alternate layers
in an underground earthen trench. The trench is covered with 15 cm thick layer of soil & left
for decomposition. The increase in the biological activities & temp. convert the waste into dark
brown coloured powdery mass, called “HUMUS”. The entire process takes 4–5 months.

→ In Bangalore Method, Methane generated can be collected & used as fuel. However, the collection
system is very costly.

→ Another method of composting in India is “VERMICOMPOSTING” – Waste (BOM) is decom-

posed with the help of earthworms.

Maturity Index in Composting

→ The quality of compost or vermicompost is assessed on the basis of its maturity index.
Solid Waste Management – Notes 31

→ Good compost has the texture of moist loose soil, homogeneous & aesthetically good. The NH4 -
N/NO3 -N ratio, water soluble carbon, C/N Ratio, CO2 evolution, organic carbon content and
humus content are used to find maturity index.

→ The values are found by chemical laboratories.

→ Higher the Maturity Index, better the composting.

Bulking Agents in Composting

The objective of Bulking agents are:
(1) To increase the pH.
(2) To control the odour.
(3) To increase the volume of compost.
(4) To reduce the moisture content.
The bulking agents used are lime, sawdust, rice husk, horticulture waste, coal, etc.

6.3 Factors Affecting Composting Process

(1) C/N Ratio of the waste.
(2) Moisture content in the waste.
(3) Oxygen content in the waste pile (aerobic composting).
(4) Temp. inside the waste pile.
(5) Amount of surface area exposed to atmosphere (aerobic composting).
(6) pH of the waste.

1. C/N Ratio
30 C
Optimum = =
1 N
M/O M/O
BOM M/O M/O + Energy
M/O M/O

C → Source of Energy
C, N
N → Sources of protein

→ Carbon & Nitrogen are the 2 key elements in composting process.

→ The M/O use carbon as energy source & use Nitrogen as protein synthesis source.

→ C/N optimum ratio is 30:1, however if C/N is between 30–50 is also considered good.
C C ↑↑↑ energy ↑↑↑
↑↑→ too high → → → wastage of energy in the form of CO2
N N ↓↓↓ new cell ↓↓

C C ↓↓↓
↓↓→ too less → → Energy production is low, No advantage of excess N.
N N ↑↑↑

→ Leaves are good sources of carbon: (C↑↑↑ N↓↓↓)

→ Cow Dung is good source of Nitrogen: (C↓↓ N↑↑↑)

Solid Waste Management – Notes 32

2. Moisture Content in the Waste

lack of air (aerobic
decomposition)
lack of water Optimum

60% 80%

→ The M/O can decompose the BOM only when they have sufficient water in it.

→ If moisture content exceeds above 80%, aeration gets slowed down causing reduction in microbial
action.

→ If moisture is below 60%, activities of microbes get slowed down.

3. Oxygen Content in the Composting Process (aerobic)

→ To increase the oxygen content, regular turning of the waste is to be done.

→ Providing a ventilation system can help. However, it is costly.

Windrow

Heap of waste O2
Air

4. Temp. (already discussed)

5. Amount of Surface Area exposed to atmosphere
More the SA exposure, greater the rate of decomposition (aerobic composting).

6. pH of the waste
Optimum pH for composting: 6.5–8.5

6.4 Criteria for Windrow Composting

(1) The windrow area shall be provided with impermeable base.
(2) The base shall be made of concrete or dense clay throughly compacted.
(3) The base width should be at least 50 cm.
(4) The coefficient of permeability of the base should be less than 10−7 cm/s.
(5) The base should be surrounded by drains on all sides to collect leachate.
(6) The base shall have 1–2% slope.

GE
A INA
DR
1–3m

50 cm

6.5 Greenhouse Gas Emission Avoidance Through Composting

→ MSW contains large fractions of BOM, which is a potential source of CH4 & other GHGs.
Methane is a highly polluting GHG with a global warming potential 21 times more than CO2 .
Solid Waste Management – Notes 33

→ Composting under aerobic conditions, transform a range of organic substances into stable com-
post.

→ Thus, GHG emission gets reduced.

→ As per UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change), composting

is one of the emission reduction methodologies in MSWM. However, cost-benefit analysis is
required before doing it.
Chapter 7

Lecture 12 – Incineration

7.1 Incineration
→ Incineration is a thermal treatment process by which the waste is burnt into ashes in the presence
of excess oxygen, to reduce the toxicity & quantity of the waste.

→ The reduction in volume & weight of the waste achieved can be as high as 90%.

→ Incineration can also be defined as a controlled combustion process for reducing solids, liquids,
& sludges in CO2 and other gases, that are non-combustible (further combustion is not possible
after this).

→ Air Pollution remains a major problem in the implementation of incineration.

→ Also, the economy of investments has to be taken care of, as it is a very costly process.

Key Criteria for MSW Incineration

→ Incineration is specially relevant for the dry bin content in a 2-bin system. If the waste is
unsegregated, segregation becomes necessary before incineration.

→ The LCV (Lower Calorific Value) of the waste must be at least 1450 kcal/kg (6 MJ/kg) through-
out all seasons. The annual average LCV must not be less than 1700 kcal/kg (7 MJ/kg).

→ The incinerator must be designed inline with best available technologies to ensure stable and
continuous operation and complete burnout of the waste and flue gases. Preferably, “GRATE
INCINERATOR” should be used.

→ The supply of waste should be stable and amount to at least 500 TPD of segregated waste.

→ Produced electricity or steam can be sold on a sustainable basis.

→ Since the capital investment is very high, the planning framework should have a horizon of 25
years or more.

Chimney/stack
flue tube like

Key Consideration for Incinerations

→ Minimum temp. to be provided for incineration is 850◦ C.

34
Solid Waste Management – Notes 35

→ Minimum Detention Time of flue gas is 2 seconds (Because sufficient time is required for its
oxidation).
atmosphere
NH3 release +O2 → NO3 (Oxidized)
O2 O2 H2 S release +O2 → SO3

O2

→ Optimum oxygen content should be maintained to minimize corrosion of incinerator & to ensure
complete combustion.

→ The CO content of the flue gas is a key indicator of the quality of combustion:
→ CO↑ – insufficient combustion.
→ CO↓, CO2 ↑ – sufficient combustion.

→ Fly Ash acts as a catalyst for synthesis of toxic compounds Dioxins & Furans. Thus, fly ash
should be reduced or completely removed during incineration.

→ The flue gas produced can be further processed by a systematic procedure to generate electricity.
atmosphere Heat

Incinerator Incinerator Processing or byproducts

Siting of Incineration Plant

→ The location of MSW incineration Plant should always be determined w.r.t. both economic &
environment issues.

→ MSW Incineration Plant should be located in land zones dedicated to medium & heavy indus-
tries.

→ MSW Incineration Plant should be at least 300 m away from residential zones.

→ A controlled & well operated landfill must be available nearby for disposal of residues.

Key Technical Parameters for Selecting an Incinerator

1. Volume Reduction
2. Stabilization of waste
3. Recovery of Energy from waste
4. Sterilization of waste

→ Depending on the composition of the waste, incinerator should decrease the volume of the waste
by about at least 85%.

→ During incineration, the environmental liabilities should also be checked as per CPCB emission
norms.

→ Incineration output should be inert (non-reactive) as it should have oxidized the waste.

→ It should be able to efficiently recover the energy in the forms of gases or steam.
Solid Waste Management – Notes 36

→ It should be able to kill all the M/O present in the waste. Especially preferable for biomedical
waste.

7.2 Pyrolysis
→ Pyrolysis involves an irreversible chemical change brought about by the action of heat in an
atmosphere devoid of oxygen. Synonymous term as Thermal Decomposition, Destructive Dis-
tillation & Carbonization.

→ Pyrolysis is an endothermic process and heat must be continuously applied to the waste.

→ Pyrolysis is carried out at 500–1000◦ C and produces 3 by-products:

Gas
Waste Pyrolysis Liquid
Char

(1) Gas – It is mixture of combustible gases such as CH4 , CO2 , H2 , CO and some other gases.
(2) Liquid – It consists of tar, pitch, oil and low boiling organic chemicals like acetic acid, acetone,
methanol, ethanol, etc.
(3) Char – It consists of elemental carbon along with other inert material.

→ Gas, liquid & char are useful because of their high calorific value. Part of the heat obtained by
combustion is often used as the process heat for the endothermic pyrolytic reaction.

→ It is usually observed that after utilizing the heat in pyrolysis itself, a large amount of extra
heat still remains which can be further utilized.

→ The gas produced is referred as syngas.

→ Syngas is a mixture of carbon monoxide CO, H2 , CH4 , and a broad range of other volatile organic
compound (e.g. phenol). Syngas is further refined to remove Particulate Matter, Hydrocarbons,
and other matter and is then combusted to generate electricity. The syngas typically has a NCV
(Net Calorific Value) of 2800–4800 kcal/m3 or 10–20 MJ/m3 .

NCV = Energy output − Energy Input

Other
Gas
by product
Process
CH4 (mainly)
Pyrolysis (output
waste
Chamber

char
input Liquid Net output → NCV

7.3 Gasification
→ Gasification is a partial oxidation process in which most of the carbon is converted into syngas.
This is done by partial combustion of a portion of the fuel in the reactor with pure oxygen
enriched air or by reaction with steam.

→ This process is exothermic but it requires some heat to initialize and sustain the gasification
process.
Solid Waste Management – Notes 37

→ Typically, the syngas has NCV of 4–10 MJ/m3 . The main gaseous products are CO2 , CH4 and
H2 .

→ The other main product is a solid residue after partial combustion.

Conversion Primary Secondary Product

Technology Product

Char Activated Carbon

Pyrolysis Liquid Ethanol, Methanol
Gas Electricity

Gasification – Residue (Partially decomposed)

→ Further treatment

Incineration Heat Electricity

Chapter 8

Lecture 13 – Biomethanation

8.1 Biomethanation
→ Biomethanation is the anaerobic (in the absence of free oxygen) decomposition of BOM in an
enclosed space under controlled condition of temp., moisture & pH.

→ The waste mass undergoes decomposition due to microbial activity, thereby generating biogas
comprising mainly of Methane and CO2 . It also produces the digested sludge which is almost
stabilized but may contain pathogens.

→ Due to anaerobic environment, H2 S gas is generated along with traces of NH3 . The production
of H2 S will be dependent on the sulphur content in the waste.

→ Like composting, biomethanation is one of the most technically viable option for Indian MSW
due to presence of high organic & moisture content.

Note: Simple small scale systems have been developed in India, specially for cattle manure –
these plants are called as GOBAR GAS PLANTS.

Merits of Biomethanation Process

(1) Energy Generation → The produced biogas can be used for cooking or for the production
of electricity or heat.
Biogas is cleaned by removing CO2 & H2 S. The resulting methane enriched biogas contains
more than 90% CH4 and is somewhat like CNG (Compressed Natural Gas). However, CNG
contains less than 5% CO2 & H2 S and Methane percentage is 95% or more. Use of such fuel
is highly beneficial for the environment than using petroleum based fuels.
(2) Like composting, biomethanation also leads to reduced landfill requirement and thus, extend-
ing the life of existing landfills.
(3) Biomethanation of BOM results in stabilized sludge which can be used as fertilizer or soil
improver.
(4) Although the total system of biomethanation is more cost intensive than composting, biometha-
nation leads to less or negligible odour & less bird & insect menace. It also requires much less
land as compared to a composting facility of same capacity.

General Process Involved in Biomethanation

This process can be divided into 4 stages:

38
Solid Waste Management – Notes 39

(a) Pre-treatment
(b) Anaerobic digestion/fermentation
(c) Collection of bio-gas
(d) Residue treatment
A. Pre-treatment – Most digestion systems require pre-treatment of waste to obtain a homoge-
neous feedstock. Pre-processing involves separation of non-digestible material either through source
segregation or through mechanical sorting at the biogas plant facility. The waste is shredded before
it is fed into the digester for better decomposition.
B. Anaerobic Digestion – Anaerobic digestion happens in multiple steps brought about by
different groups of M/O (as discussed before).
C. Collection of Bio-gas – The bio-gas obtained may be scrubbed to ensure high quantity of
CH4 which can be used as automotive fuel. SCRUBBING → It is a process in which gases are
separated from a group of gases by various instruments/apparatus/units.
D. Residue Treatment – The digested sludge (solid + moisture) from the digester is dewatered
and the liquid obtained during dewatering (called as supernatant), is recycled for use in increasing
the moisture in the incoming feed. The biosolids are dewatered with the help of belt press usually
and it is finally converted to a compost after drying. Drying is usually done in open beds in India
and are called as SLUDGE DRYING BEDS.

CH4 →fuel

CO2
GASES SCRUBBING
H2 S

MSW SEGREGATION BIODEGRADABLE ORGANIC MATTER BIOGAS PLANT

SUPERNATANT

Non-Biodegradable Matter RESIDUE DEWATERING

LANDFILL SLUDGE DRYING BED

FERTILIZER

8.2 Operating Parameters for Biomethanation

1. Temperature
Temperature affects bacterial growth and hence the amount of biogas produced. Treatment of waste
in anaerobic reactors is carried out within either of the two temp. ranges:
(i) Mesophilic Range – (20–40◦ C) – (ideally 35–37◦ C)
(ii) Thermophilic Range – (40–60◦ C) – (ideally 55–60◦ C)
At higher temperature:
(i) Rate of digestion is faster.
(ii) Shorter Detention Time.
(iii) Higher efficiency of decomposition.
(iv) Destruction of pathogens is more efficient.
Solid Waste Management – Notes 40

2. pH
The anaerobic digestion process is limited to a relatively narrow pH range from 6 to 8.5. The
optimum pH is always around neutral value i.e., pH = 7.

3. Carbon to Nitrogen Ratio

Optimum C/N ratio is between 20–30.

4. Retention/Detention Time
The retention time for a waste treated in mesophilic range varies from 20–30 days. Lower retention
times are required in digesters operating in thermophilic range and have a retention time of about
12–14 days.

Usability of Biogas
Biogas can be used for the following purposes:
(i) Cooking fuel or Heating fuel.
(ii) Automotive Power.
(iii) Electrical Power.
(iv) As CBG (Compressed Biogas) which has similar properties as CNG but after removing CO2
& H2 S as much as possible.
Chapter 9

RDF (Refuse Derived Fuel)

9.1 RDF (Refuse Derived Fuel)

→ The SWM Rules, 2016 define RDF as fuel derived from combustible waste fraction of SW like
plastic, wood, pulp, organic waste, in the form of pellets or fluff produced by drying, shredding,
dehydrating & compacting the SW.

→ It is used as a fuel for either steam or electricity generation or as alternate fuel in industrial
furnaces or boilers.

→ It can be used conveniently in cement plants, steel plants, power generation, etc.

→ RDF is made from a process called as PELLETISATION.

Pelletisation
In pelletisation, the SW is converted into pellets, which can be utilized for combustion resulting in
heat production.

Use of Pellets
End use of RDF pellets include the following:
(a) Replacing wood/coal fuel for tandoors in dhabas/hotels/restaurants.
(b) Kitchen in village areas.
(c) Community kitchens like hostels in schools/colleges, etc.
(d) Industrial Boilers
(e) Brick Industry.
(f) Paper Industry.
(g) Cement Industry.
(h) Power Plants.
(i) Sugar mills.

Properties of Pellets or Fluffs

→ Pellet – cylindrical shape.

→ Fluffs – irregular shape.

41
Solid Waste Management – Notes 42

→ RDF pellets or fluffs are of high quality with less smoke production & high burning efficiency.

→ They do not form ashes.

→ They are clean to handle & can be easily packaged.

→ They are produced in just 20–30 minutes from start of the process to end of the process.

→ Transportation is extremely easy.

Flow Diagram of Pelletisation Process

Untreated Air Drying Segregation
Grinding
MSW of MSW of MSW

Metals Glass, stone, etc

Incombustible matter Binding with
Binder Material

RDF
Final Product
Pellets

Note: For Indian MSW, calorific value is usually between 3000–4000 kcal/kg of RDF pel-
let/fluffs.
Binders used are usually protein or starch compounds.
Chapter 10

Lecture 14 – 3R’s of Waste

Management

10.1 3R’s of Waste Management

Reduce → Reuse → Recycle
Reduce
Reuse symbol
Recycle

→ Reduce – Buy only what you need because a better way to reduce waste is by not creating it
in the first place.

→ Reuse – If you have acquired goods, try getting used ones or obtaining substitutes.

→ Recycle – When discarding your waste, find ways to recycle it instead of letting it go for
disposal.

Reduce
→ Reducing the amount you buy is the most significant of all options to manage waste.

→ The key is to only purchase goods that we need and in the right amount.

→ If we never generate products in the first place, we do not have to extract raw resources, manu-
facture goods from scratch, or come up with shipping materials.

43
Solid Waste Management – Notes 44

Environmental Protection Act, 2013 – Time taken to Decompose

Item Time to decompose

Paper Towel 2–4 weeks

Plywood 1–3 years
Plastic Bag 10–20 years
Plastic Bottle 70–80 years (water, Bisleri, Kinley, etc.)
Plastic PET Bottles 450 years
Disposable Diapers 450 years
Thermocol/Styrofoam products 50–80 years
Rubber 50–80 years
Wool 1–5 years

As per EPA, things to do to Reduce

4 step Agenda has been proposed:
(1) Choose the items that you need, not want.
(2) Shop for high quality items only.
(3) Use minimum packaging.
(4) Buy local.

10.2 Reuse
→ Reuse is the action or practice of using an item, whether for its original purpose or to fulfil a
different purpose. E.g. water bottle, plastic bag reuse.

→ There are 2 types of Reuse:

(1) Conventional Reuse – It is the reuse in which an item is used for the same purpose for
which it was obtained at the first place.
(2) Creative Reuse or Repurposing → It is the reuse in which an original item is reused
creatively for a different purpose.

EPA Recommendations for Reuse

(1) Containers can be reused at home or in academic projects.
(2) Reuse wrapping paper, plastic bags & boxes.
(3) Give outgrown clothing to friends or charity.
(4) Buy Beverages in returnable containers.
(5) Offer furniture & household items to people in need, friends, charity, etc.
(6) Sheets of paper that have been used on only one side can be used for note taking or rough
drafts.

10.3 Recycle
→ Recycling is the process of converting waste materials into new materials & objects.
Solid Waste Management – Notes 45

→ The recyclability of a material depends on its ability to require the properties it had in its
original state.

→ It can save material & help lower the GHG emissions.

→ Benefits are:
– Recycling generates jobs.
– It is a cost effective disposal option.
– Reduces GHG emission.
– Conserves valuable resources of Earth.

Recycling Benefits of Various Materials

(1) Aluminium → High Market Value; Recycled easily by Melting; Recycled indefinitely as it
doesn’t deteriorate with time (given proper storage conditions); Requires significantly less
energy than extracting new aluminium ore from earth.
(2) Batteries → Recovery of valuable metals like Lithium, cobalt, etc.; Protects the environment
from heavy metals such as lead, cadmium & mercury.
(3) Glass → Moderate market value; Melted and transformed into any product; Recycling glass
saves energy as compared to process with raw materials; It can be recycled indefinitely.
(4) Paper & Cardboard → Easily recyclable; Paper from recycled paper requires less energy
during production & helps protect the forest.
(5) PET → Can be easily recycled & converted to different products.
(6) Other Plastics → Polyethylene or Polyvinyl Chloride, can be recycled but have less value
in the market as compared to PET. The value depends on recycling & manufacturing options
available.
(7) Electronic & Electrical Waste (E-waste) → Contain high value metals – copper, steel,
cobalt, nickel, titanium, gold, etc. They can be easily dismantled & their components can be
recycled.
(8) Metals (steel, copper, nickel, zinc, silver, etc.) → Scrap metal has a high market value
especially steel, copper & silver. They can be recycled indefinitely.
(9) Thermocol or Styrofoam → Can be processed to recover fuel & other by-products; Can be
converted into new thermocol product easily; Can be powdered and made into sheets which
can be used in construction industry.

Note: Thermocol is made from polystyrene (organic compound).

10.4 Kitchen Waste Management

Most common types of kitchen wastes that are generated are as follows:
(1) Food Wastes
(2) Plastics
(3) Glass
(4) Cardboard from packaging
(5) Knives & other Dangerous Items
Solid Waste Management – Notes 46

(6) Chemical Waste

(7) Liquid Waste
(8) Catering waste
(9) Bakery Waste

Rules
(1) Separate the waste into 2 dustbins – one for wet & one for dry waste.
(2) Keep glass/plastic containers rinsed of food matter.
(3) Store & send dry waste out of the home regularly – at least once in 7 days.
(4) Store & send wet waste on a daily basis.
(5) Use cloth bags instead of plastic bags.