ENERGY ENGINEERING MIE 4314

Unit 3 Hydro–electric plant

Syllabus: Hydrographs, flow duration and mass curves, unit hydrograph and numericals, storage and
pondage, pumped storage plants, low, medium and high head plants, penstock, water hammer, surge
tanks, gates and valves, general layout of hydel power plants.

3.1 Hydrograph
⎯ Hydrograph is defined as a graph showing discharge (runoff) of flowing water with respect to
time for a specified time.
⎯ Discharge graphs are known as flood or run-off graphs. Each hydrograph has a reference to a
particular river site.
⎯ The time period for discharge hydrograph may be hour, day, week or month.
⎯ Hydrograph of stream of river will depend on the characteristics of the catchment and
precipitation over the catchment.
⎯ Hydrograph will access the flood flow of rivers hence it is essential that anticipated hydrograph
could be drawn for river for a given storm.
⎯ Hydrograph indicates the power available from the stream at different times of day, week or
year. Typical hydrographs are shown in Fig.

Fig. (b: wrt time) Typical hydrograph.

Fig. (a: wrt month) Typical hydrograph.

3.2 Flow Duration Curve

⎯ Flow duration curve is another useful form to represent the run-off data for the given time.
⎯ This curve is plotted between flow available during a period versus the fraction of time.
⎯ If the magnitude on the ordinate is the potential power contained in the stream flow, then the
curve is known as “power duration curve”.
⎯ This curve is a very useful tool in the analysis for the development of water power.

1
ENERGY ENGINEERING MIE 4314

⎯ The flow duration curve is drawn with the help of a hydrograph from the available run-off data
and, here it is necessary to find out the length of time duration which certain flows are available.
⎯ This information either from run-off data or from hydrograph is tabulated.
⎯ Now the flow duration curve taking 100 per cent time on X-axis and runoff on Y-axis can be
drawn.
⎯ The area under the flow duration curve (Fig.) gives the total quantity of run-off during that
period as the flow duration curve is representation of graph with its flows arranged in order of
descending magnitude.

Fig. Flow duration curve.

If the head of discharge is known, the possible power developed from water in kW can be determined
from the following equation:
𝑤𝑄𝐻
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑘𝑊) = × 𝜂0
1000
where,
Q = Discharge, m3/sec.,
H = Head available, m,
w = Weight density of water, N/m3, and
𝜂0 = Overall efficiency.
Thus the flow duration curve can be converted to a power duration with some other scale on the same
graph.
Flow duration curves are most useful in the following cases:
(i) For preliminary studies
(ii) For comparison between streams.

2
ENERGY ENGINEERING MIE 4314

Uses of Flow Duration Curve (FDC)

1. Assessing Low Flows
The FDC helps in analyzing how often low flows occur in a river or stream.
2. Water Resources Planning
It is very useful in planning and designing water-related projects, especially hydroelectric
power plants.
o For run-of-the-river plants (without storage), the minimum reliable power (called firm
power or primary power) is based on flow available 90–97% of the time.
o Any extra power generated using additional water is called secondary power.
3. Sediment Transport Estimation
If data on sediment concentration is available, the FDC can help estimate total sediment
movement. This is done by multiplying each flow value by its sediment transport rate. The area
under the resulting curve gives the total sediment transported.
4. Drainage and Flood Control Design
FDCs are also useful in designing drainage systems and studying flood behavior.
5. Understanding Runoff Characteristicz
When plotted on log-log paper, the shape of the FDC gives insights into the nature of the river
flow:
o A steep slope means high variation in flow (mainly from surface runoff).
o A flat slope means more consistent flow, often from both surface and groundwater.
o A flat lower end suggests steady groundwater contribution.
o A flat upper end indicates influence from large storage bodies like lakes or snowmelt.
6. Record Extension
The shape of the FDC can change depending on how long the data record is. This can help in
estimating flow patterns even from short-term data.

Shortcomings/Defects of Flow Duration Curve

1. It does not present the flows in natural source of occurrence.
2. It is also not possible to tell from flow duration curve whether the lowest flows occurred in
consecutive periods or were scattered throughout the considered period.

3
ENERGY ENGINEERING MIE 4314

3.3 Mass Curve

A ‘mass curve’ is the graph of the cumulative values of water quantity (run-off) against time. A mass
curve (Fig.) is an integral curve of the hydrograph which expresses the area under the hydrograph from
one time to another.

Fig. Mass curve.

⎯ It is a convenient device to determine storage requirement that is needed to produce a certain
dependable flow from fluctuating discharge of a river by a reservoir.
⎯ Mass curve can also be used to solve the reserve problem of determining the maximum demand
rate that can be maintained by a given storage volume.
⎯ However, it is a trial and error procedure.
⎯ The mass curve will always have a positive shape but of a greater or less degree depending
upon the variations in the quantity of inflow water available.
⎯ The negative inclination of mass curve would show that the amount of water flowing in the
reservoir was less than the loss due to evaporation and seepage.

3.4 Storage and Pondage

In hydropower systems, the flow of water in rivers or streams varies greatly throughout the year—high
during the rainy season and low during dry periods. However, the demand for electricity often remains
steady and does not match these natural fluctuations. To ensure a reliable power supply, water flow
must be regulated using storage and pondage systems.
Storage
• Definition: Storage refers to collecting and storing large volumes of excess water during the
rainy or high-flow seasons for use during dry periods when natural flow is low.

4
ENERGY ENGINEERING MIE 4314

• How it works: This is done by building a dam across the stream, creating a storage reservoir
upstream.
• Purpose: It helps maintain a continuous water supply over a long period, ranging from 6
months to 2 years, ensuring power generation even during extended dry spells.

Pondage
• Definition: Pondage is a smaller reservoir or pond located near the power plant that helps
manage short-term fluctuations in water flow.
• Purpose: It balances sudden changes in water demand or supply over a short duration,
typically from a few hours to a week.
• Uses:
o To manage sudden load changes on the turbine.
o To handle unexpected changes in inflow (e.g., due to a channel breach).
o To temporarily supply more water when the power demand exceeds the average.
• Effect: Pondage allows the plant to meet peak power demand more effectively by releasing
stored water during high-load periods.

Comparison
Aspect Storage Pondage
Size Large Relatively small
Location Upstream of the dam Near the power plant
Duration Long-term (6 months to 2 years) Short-term (hours to a week)
Purpose Seasonal flow regulation Daily or weekly flow regulation

3.5 Pumped Storage Plants

Pumped Storage Plants – Pointwise Explanation
Working Principle
1. Pumped storage plants are used where natural water availability is insufficient for continuous
power generation.
2. Water discharged from turbines is collected in a tailrace pond.
3. During low-demand (off-peak) periods, this water is pumped back to the head reservoir
using surplus electrical energy.
4. The stored water is again used to generate electricity during peak load periods.

5
ENERGY ENGINEERING MIE 4314

5. Pumping may be done daily or seasonally, based on site conditions and load variation.
6. These plants are often interconnected with steam or diesel power plants to utilize excess off-
peak capacity for pumping operations.
7. The energy recovered from the pumped water is less than the energy used for pumping, due
to system losses.
8. Power output during pumped operation is also slightly reduced because of losses in turbines
and pumps.

Advantages of Pumped Storage Plants

1. Enhances peak load capacity at a relatively low capital cost.
2. High operating efficiency is achieved due to near-rated load operation.
3. Improves the load factor of the overall power system.
4. Despite energy losses in pumping, more energy is available during peak demand, leading to
a net gain.
5. Load on the hydro plant remains uniform, improving system stability.
6. Makes the hydroelectric plant less dependent on natural stream flow.

Efficiency and Equipment

1. About 70% of the energy used for pumping can be recovered during power generation.
2. Reversible Turbine-Pump Units are commonly used:
o Act as a turbine during power generation.
o Function as a pump during water return to storage.
o The generator works as a motor during reverse operation.
3. These reversible units offer:
o High efficiency in both modes.
o Cost savings, as separate pump and motor units are not required.
o Better economy and operational flexibility for the plant.

6
ENERGY ENGINEERING MIE 4314

Fig. Pumped storage plant

3.6 High Head Power Plants

Fig. High head power plant layout.

These types of plants work under heads 100 m and above. Water is usually stored up in lakes on high
mountains during the rainy season or during the reason when the snow melts. The rate of flow should
be such that water can last throughout the year. Fig. shows high head power plant layout. Surplus water
discharged by the spillway cannot endanger the stability of the main dam by erosion because they are
separated. The tunnel through the mountain has a surge chamber excavated near the exit. Flow is
controlled by head gates at the tunnel intake, butterfly valves at the top of the penstocks, and gate
valves at the turbines. This type of site might also be suitable for an underground station. The Pelton
wheel is the common prime mover used in high head power plants.

3.7 Medium Head Power Plants

When the operating head of water lies between 30 to 100 metres, the power plant is known as medium
head power plant. This type of plant commonly uses Francis turbines. The forebay provided at the
beginning of the penstock serves as water reservoir. In such plants, the water is generally carried in

7
ENERGY ENGINEERING MIE 4314

open canals from main reservoir to the forebay and then to the powerhouse through the penstock. The
forebay itself works as a surge tank in this plant.

Fig. Medium head power plant layout.

3.8 Low Head Power Plants

These plants usually consist of a dam across a river. A sideway stream diverges from the river at the
dam. Over this stream the power house is constructed. Later this channel joins the river further
downstream. This type of plant uses vertical shaft Francis turbine or Kaplan turbine.

Fig. Low head power plant layout.

3.9 Surge Tanks
A surge tank is a small reservoir or tank in which the water level rises or falls to reduce the pressure
swings so that they are not transmitted in full to a closed circuit. In general, a surge tank serves the
following purposes:
1. To reduce the distance between the free water surface and turbine thereby reducing the water-
hammer effect (the water hammer is defined as the change in pressure rapidly above or below normal
pressure caused by sudden changes in the rate of water flow through the pipe according to the demand
of prime mover) on penstock and also protect upstream tunnel from high pressure rises.

8
ENERGY ENGINEERING MIE 4314

2. To serve as a supply tank to the turbine when the water in the pipe is accelerating during increased
load conditions and as a storage tank when the water is decelerating during reduced load conditions.
Types of surge tanks
The different types of surge tanks in use are:
1. Simple surge tank
2. Inclined surge tank
3. The expansion chamber and gallery type surge tank
4. Restricted orifice surge tank
5. Differential surge tank.

1. Simple surge tank.

A simple surge tank is a vertical pipe connected to the penstock, as shown in Fig. Its main purpose is
to control water pressure changes in the penstock. If water is allowed to overflow from the tank, sudden
pressure rise can be avoided. However, overflow-type surge tanks are rarely used because they are not
economical or efficient.
Usually, surge tanks are built tall enough so that water does not overflow, even when there is a sudden
full-load change in the turbine. Ideally, the surge tank should be located on the ground surface, just
above the penstock line, at the point where the penstock drops steeply towards the powerhouse (see
Fig. 6.11). If a suitable ground location is not available, the surge tank can be raised to the required
height by constructing it on supporting structures.

Fig. Simple surge tank on ground level

2. Inclined surge tank.

An inclined surge tank (Fig.) is placed at an angle to the horizontal. Because of its inclination, the
effective water surface area becomes larger. This means that:
• For the same diameter, the required height of the tank is less if it is inclined.

9
ENERGY ENGINEERING MIE 4314

• For the same height, a smaller diameter tank is sufficient.

However, inclined surge tanks are more expensive than simple vertical tanks because their construction
is more difficult. For this reason, they are rarely used and are adopted only when the topographical
conditions make them suitable.

Fig. Inclined surge tank

3. Expansion chamber surge tank.
This type of surge tank has an expansion chamber at the top and an expansion gallery at the bottom.
These expansions help to reduce extreme pressure surges.
• The upper expansion chamber should always be kept above the maximum reservoir water
level.
• The bottom expansion gallery should be placed below the lowest steady operating water level
in the surge tank.
• The connecting shaft between these expansions should have a uniform and stable minimum
diameter.

Fig. The expansion chamber surge tank

4. Restricted orifice surge tank.

A restricted orifice surge tank, also called a throttled surge tank, has a narrow opening (throttle) at
its base. The purpose of this throttle is to create extra resistance (friction loss) when water flows into
or out of the tank.

10
ENERGY ENGINEERING MIE 4314

• When the turbine load suddenly decreases, the extra water flows into the surge tank through
the throttle.
• Because of the throttle, a retarding head (back pressure) is developed in the penstock or
conduit, which helps to reduce sudden pressure changes.
• The size of the throttle is designed so that the initial retarding head is equal to the rise in water
level in the surge tank when the turbine rejects full load (such as when the gate valve closes
suddenly).

Fig. Restricted orifice surge tank.

Advantage
Storage function of the tank can be separated from accelerating and retarding functions.

Disadvantage
Considerable portion of water hammer pressure is transmitted directly into the low pressure conduit.
In comparison to other types of surge tanks these are less popular.

5. Differential surge tank.

A differential surge tank consists of a vertical riser pipe with a small opening (orifice) at its lower
end, through which water flows in and out. The behavior of the surge tank mainly depends on the size
of this opening. A smaller hole provides more resistance to flow, while a larger hole allows water to
move more freely.

Fig. Differential surge tank

11
ENERGY ENGINEERING MIE 4314

3.10 Penstock
A penstock is a closed pipe or conduit that carries water under pressure from the reservoir (or surge
tank) to the turbine in a hydroelectric power plant. It is designed to withstand high water pressure and
regulate the controlled flow of water for power generation.

(i) penstock thickness calculation

The thickness of steel penstock which depends on the water head hoop/circumferential stress allowed
in the material can be calculated by using the following relation:
𝑝𝑑
𝑡=
2𝑓𝜂
Where,
t = Thickness of the penstock,
p = Pressure due to water including water hammer = wH, w and H being specific weight of water and
head of water respectively,
d = Diameter (internal) of the penstock,
f = Permissible hoop/circumferential stress, and
η = Joint efficiency.

(ii) Number of penstocks to be used

To supply water to a number of turbines penstocks needed may be decided from the following
alternatives:
1. To provide one penstock for each turbine separately. In such a case water is supplied independently
to each turbine from a separate penstock.
2. To use a single penstock for the entire plant. In this case the penstock should have as many branches
as the number of hydraulic turbines.
3. To provide multiple penstocks but each penstock should supply water to atleast two hydraulic
turbines.

Factors Influencing Choice:

(a) Operational safety: As far as possible a single penstock should not be used for supplying to
different
turbines for generating power because any damage to this penstock would mean shut down of the
entire set of turbines.

12
ENERGY ENGINEERING MIE 4314

(b) Economy: From view point of economy, if the length of penstock required is short then one
penstock each may be provided to the turbines, however for longer penstocks a single penstock or as
few penstocks as possible may be used.
(c) Transportation facilities: The penstock size should be so selected that it is easily transported from
one place to another.

(iii) Penstock Materials and Their Suitability

• Reinforced Concrete Penstocks
Suitable for water heads up to about 18 m. At higher heads, concrete may crack or deteriorate,
especially in cold regions where frost damage can occur.

• Wood-Stave Penstocks
Can be used for heads up to about 75 m. These are made of treated wooden planks arranged
in a circle to form a pipe, held tightly by steel hoops. As the head (pressure) increases, the
hoops must be placed closer together and made stronger.

• Steel Penstocks
Suitable for any head. The thickness of steel depends on both water pressure (head) and pipe
diameter.
o For heads up to about 45 m, thinner steel plates are sufficient.
o For low heads, wood or concrete pipes may be more economical than steel.
The strength of a penstock depends on the product of head and discharge (flow rate), which also
determines the maximum stress on the pipe walls.

• High-Pressure Applications
For very high heads, penstocks are made in 6–8 m sections (easier to transport in hilly areas).
Manholes are provided for inspection and repair. Welded joints are preferred because they
cause less friction loss than riveted joints. Steel penstocks are usually coated for protection
both before and after installation.

• Support and Installation

o Penstocks are often supported on concrete piers or cradles, but they can also be laid
directly on the ground or buried.
o To cross valleys, bridges or trestles are used.
13
ENERGY ENGINEERING MIE 4314

o On steep slopes, anchors are provided to support the weight and resist the pressure
force.

• Buried vs. Exposed Penstocks

o Buried pipes may be cheaper for small diameters. Covering or burying also helps:
▪ Protect from rockfalls or snow slides,
▪ Prevent freezing,
▪ Reduce the need for expansion joints.
o However, buried steel penstocks can corrode over time. This can be reduced using
cathodic protection, which prevents electrochemical damage.
o Exposed penstocks usually last longer and are easier to inspect and maintain.

3.11 Water Hammer

Water hammer, also known as hydraulic shock, is a critical phenomenon in hydro-electric power
plants that occurs when there is a sudden change in the flow rate of water inside the penstock or
water-conveying pipeline. This abrupt change leads to a transient pressure surge, which can severely
damage pipelines, turbines, and associated equipment if not properly controlled.

How Water Hammer Occurs in Hydroelectric Systems

In a hydro-electric power plant, water flows from a reservoir through a penstock to the turbine under
high pressure. When the turbine wicket gates or valves are closed suddenly, the flowing water
column, which possesses high momentum, is forced to stop abruptly. This sudden stoppage generates
a shock wave that travels back up the penstock, causing a rapid increase in pressure near the turbine
and a decrease in pressure toward the reservoir. This pressure fluctuation continues in the form of
oscillatory waves until the system stabilizes.

Causes of Water Hammer

1. Sudden closure of turbine guide vanes or inlet valves
2. Emergency shutdowns of turbines
3. Failure or tripping of generators or power systems
4. Rapid load changes affecting turbine operation
5. Pump or motor shutdown (in pumped storage plants)

14
ENERGY ENGINEERING MIE 4314

Effects of Water Hammer:

Water hammer can have serious mechanical and operational impacts, such as:
• Sudden pressure surges exceeding design limits
• Damage to penstocks, valves, joints, and supports
• Fatigue and cracking of pipeline material
• Cavitation and vacuum conditions in pipelines
• Vibration and noise in the system
• Risk of shutdown or collapse of the hydraulic system

Methods of Controlling Water Hammer in Hydro Plants

To protect the system, several design and operational strategies are employed:
1. Surge Tank
• A surge tank is an open or closed reservoir located near the turbine inlet.
• It absorbs excess pressure during sudden valve closure and supplies water during sudden
demand.
• Helps maintain pressure balance and reduces wave propagation.
2. Air Chambers / Air Vessels
• Installed at high points in the penstock to absorb pressure changes using compressible air.
3. Slow-Closing Gates or Valves
• Automate the gradual opening/closing of turbine guide vanes and control valves to minimize
sudden pressure drops.
4. Bypass Valves
• Redirect excess water flow temporarily to reduce pressure load on the penstock.
5. Relief Valves
• Open automatically when internal pressure exceeds safe limits, releasing water to the
atmosphere or tailrace.
6. Control Logic & Monitoring Systems
• Modern plants use real-time pressure and flow sensors with automatic controls to manage valve
and turbine operation proactively.

3.12 General layout of hydel power plants

A hydro-electric power plant converts the potential energy of stored water into mechanical energy
(by a turbine) and then into electrical energy (by a generator). The layout consists of several
components arranged to ensure efficient flow and conversion of water energy.
15
ENERGY ENGINEERING MIE 4314

Major Components in the Layout

1. Reservoir
• Stores water at a height (potential energy).
• Formed by building a dam across a river.
2. Dam
• A barrier to create the reservoir.
• Increases the water head by raising the water level.
• Ensures controlled flow of water to downstream components.
3. Intake Structure
• Located at the base or side of the dam.
• Controls water entry into the penstock using gates or screens.
• Filters debris to prevent turbine damage.
4. Penstock
• A large pressure pipe that carries water from the reservoir to the turbine.
• Converts potential energy into kinetic energy.
• Must withstand high-pressure water flow.
5. Surge Tank (in high-head plants)
• A small chamber connected to the penstock near the powerhouse.
• Absorbs water hammer effects (sudden pressure changes).
• Stabilizes pressure and flow rate.
6. Turbine
• Converts kinetic energy of flowing water into mechanical energy.
• Common types: Francis, Pelton, and Kaplan turbines (depending on head and flow).
7. Generator
• Coupled to the turbine shaft.
• Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
8. Powerhouse
• A structure housing the turbine, generator, and control equipment.
• Often built at the base of the dam or downstream.
9. Draft Tube
• Attached to the turbine outlet.
• Slows down the water and recovers kinetic energy.
• Discharges water to the tailrace.
10. Tailrace
16
ENERGY ENGINEERING MIE 4314

• A channel that carries water from the draft tube back to the river.
11. Transformer and Switchyard
• Voltage of generated power is stepped up using a transformer.
• Power is transmitted to the grid via transmission lines.

Fig. General layout of hydel power plants

Unit Hydrograph
1. A Unit Hydrograph (UH) of a catchment is the direct runoff hydrograph (DRH) produced by 1
cm of effective rainfall that is uniformly distributed over the catchment and occurs at a constant
rate during a specific duration (D hours).
2. Depending on the chosen duration (D), we can have different unit hydrographs, such as a 6-
hour Unit Hydrograph, 12-hour Unit Hydrograph, etc.
3. For example, in a 6-hour Unit Hydrograph, the effective rainfall depth of 1 cm is spread
uniformly over 6 hours. Hence, the rainfall intensity will be 1/6 cm per hour.

17
ENERGY ENGINEERING MIE 4314

Hydrograph (Runoff Volume & Depth)

1. A catchment of area A = 500 km² has 6-hour discharges (m³/s): 60, 80, 120, 200, 320, 400, 360, 280,
200, 140, 100, 70. Assume constant baseflow = 50 m³/s.
Compute (i) direct-runoff volume (m³) and (ii) runoff depth (mm) over the catchment.
Solution:
Given (6-hr intervals):
Catchment area A=500 km2
Discharge Q (m³/s): 60, 80, 120, 200, 320, 400, 360, 280, 200, 140, 100, 70
baseflow = 50 m³/s (constant).
Excess flows 𝑄𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑄 − 50):10, 30, 70, 150, 270, 350, 310, 230, 150, 90, 50, 20 m3/s
Sum of excess flow ∑ 𝑄𝑒 = 1730 m3/s

(i) direct-runoff volume (m³)

𝑉 = (∑ 𝑄𝑒 ) ∆𝑡 = 1730 × 21,600 = 37,368,000 𝑚3

(ii) runoff depth (mm) over the catchment

𝑉 37368 × 103
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ = = = 0.074736 𝑚 ≈ 74.7 𝑚𝑚
𝐴 500 × 106

Problem 2: 3-hr Unit Hydrograph (Derive & Use)

A storm produced effective rainfall = 2 cm uniformly over 3 hr. The observed direct-runoff hydrograph
(DRH) (m³/s at 3-hr steps) is: 0, 50, 150, 300, 250, 150, 80, 30, 0.
Derive the 3-hr Unit Hydrograph (m³/s per cm).
Solution: A unit hydrograph is the hydrograph produced by 1 cm (or 1 unit) of effective rainfall.
If the observed DRH is produced by 2.0 cm, the UH = DRH ÷ 2.0 (divide every ordinate by 2).

18
ENERGY ENGINEERING MIE 4314

Problem 3 – Flow Duration Curve (FDC)

Given daily flows (m³/s): 5, 7, 12, 20, 15, 10, 9, 30, 25, 18, 14, 8.
(a) Construct the FDC (flow vs percent time exceeded).
(b) Find Q90 (flow equaled/exceeded 90% of the time).
Solution:
Daily flows (m³/s):
5, 7, 12, 20, 15, 10, 9, 30, 25, 18, 14, 8
Number of observations n=12.
• Sort the flows in descending order
Put the largest first (this is how an FDC is made):

Compute the exceedance probability P

Use the common plotting formula

where m is the rank (1 to 12) and n+1=13

So

Compute a few values (you can do the rest similarly):

19
ENERGY ENGINEERING MIE 4314

Plot the Flow Duration Curve (FDC)

• X-axis: Percent of time flow is exceeded (%) — use the P values (7.69, 15.38, …, 92.31).
• Y-axis: Flow Q (m³/s) — use the sorted flows (30, 25, …, 5).
• Plot the (P, Q) points and connect them smoothly (usually a descending curve).
That curve is the FDC. It tells you, for any reliability (say 90%), what flow is available.

Find Q90 (flow exceeded 90% of time)

90% falls between the ranks where PPP just below and just above 90%:
From the table:

90% lies between 84.615% and 92.308%, so interpolate linearly between Q11 and Q12.
Interpolation formula:

So Q90 ≈ 5.6 m³/s.

Q90 is the flow that the river will meet or exceed 90% of the days (i.e., reliable flow with 90%
probability). Engineers use it to estimate “firm” or dependable water available for water supply,
small hydropower, etc.

20
ENERGY ENGINEERING MIE 4314

Solution:
Given data
Monthly mean discharges (m³/s):

.
Hydrograph
1. X-axis: months in chronological order (Jan → Dec).
2. Y-axis: discharge Q in m³/s.
3. Plot each monthly mean Q as a point and join them with a line.
What it shows
• Peak month: April = 2400 m³/s.
• Low month: January = 200 m³/s.
• Seasonal pattern: sharp rise into April, then fluctuating high flows through mid/late year.

21
ENERGY ENGINEERING MIE 4314

2) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)

Step A — Sort discharges (descending)
Sorted Q: 2400, 2000, 1800, 1600, 1200, 1200, 1200, 800, 600, 400, 400, 200

Step B — Compute exceedance probability (standard plotting position)

where m is the rank (1 to 12) and n+1=13

Plot P (x-axis) vs Q (y-axis)

Finding Q₉₀ (flow exceeded 90% of time) — interpolation
90% lies between ranks 11 and 12:

22
ENERGY ENGINEERING MIE 4314

Q90 is the flow that the river will meet or exceed 90% of the days (i.e., reliable flow with 90%
probability). Engineers use it to estimate “firm” or dependable water available for water supply,
small hydropower, etc.

3) Mass curve
Mass curve plots cumulative inflow volume vs time (months).
Convert discharge (m³/s) into monthly volume (m³) by multiplying each monthly mean Q by seconds
in that month.
Actual calendar days (non-leap year): Jan 31, Feb 28, Mar 31, Apr 30, … Dec 31.
For each month:

Table (computed volumes in Mm³ = million m³):

Month Days Q (m³/s) Volume (Mm³) Cumulative (Mm³)

Jan 31 200 535.680 535.680

Feb 28 400 967.680 1503.360

Mar 31 600 1607.040 3110.400

Apr 30 2400 6220.800 9331.200

May 31 1200 3214.080 12545.280

Jun 30 1800 4665.600 17210.880

Jul 31 1600 4285.440 21496.320

23
ENERGY ENGINEERING MIE 4314

Month Days Q (m³/s) Volume (Mm³) Cumulative (Mm³)

Aug 31 1200 3214.080 24710.400

Sep 30 2000 5184.000 29894.400

Oct 31 1200 3214.080 33108.480

Nov 30 800 2073.600 35182.080

Dec 31 400 1071.360 36253.440

24
ENERGY ENGINEERING MIE 4314

Total annual volume = 36,253.44 Mm³ (i.e. 36,253,440,000 m³).

Plot the cumulative volumes vs month = the mass curve.

[Link] inflow (Q̄) — two equivalent ways

arithmetic mean of monthly Q:

5) Power that can be developed (step-by-step)

Use hydro-mechanical power formula:

25
ENERGY ENGINEERING MIE 4314

Final answers (concise)

• Hydrograph: Peak = Apr 2400 m³/s.
• Flow Duration Curve: Q90≈260 m3/s
• Mass curve: total annual volume = 36,253.44 Mm³.
• Average inflow: Qˉ=1150 m3/s
• Power at H=90 m, η=0.80: 812.268 MW

4. The table given below shows the data for a weekly flow at a particular site, for 12 weeks. Find the
size of the reservoir and the possible rate of available flow by using mass curve.
Week Weekly flow (m3/s) Week Weekly flow (m3/s)
1 6000 7 1200
2 4000 8 4500
3 5400 9 8000
4 2000 10 4000
5 1500 11 3000
6 1000 12 2000

5. For a particular site of the river, the following run off data was recorded for ten months. Find the
maximum flow available throughout the year, if the storage capacity at the site is 100 million m3.
Month Discharge (millions of m3/month) Month Discharge (millions of m3/month)
1 200 6 180
2 100 7 40
3 20 8 280
4 20 9 60
5 260 10 120

Solution:
Build cumulative inflow (mass curve)
Let Ct be cumulative inflow up to month t (take C0=0).

26
ENERGY ENGINEERING MIE 4314

Condition for a constant monthly release q

Assume the reservoir is full at the start (initial storage = S).
To avoid shortage at the end of any month ttt we must have

Compute (S+Ct)/t for each month

(using S=100)

27
ENERGY ENGINEERING MIE 4314

*** END ***

28