Class 8 Science Chapter 2 Notes – The Invisible Living World: Beyond Our Naked Eye Notes

Class 8

→ Microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi help in producing biogas by decomposing

organic waste in oxygen-free environments.

→ Yeast, a fungus, makes dough rise and become fluffy by producing carbon di¬oxide and
alcohol during fermentation.

→ Curd formation is caused by Lactoba¬cillus bacteria that convert milk sugar into lactic acid
in warm conditions.

→ The basic unit of life is the cell, and microorganisms may be unicellular, like bacteria, or
multicellular, like moulds.

→ Microorganisms differ in size, shape, and function and are found in all types of
environments, including our bodies.

→ Some microorganisms, like Rhizobium, live in root nodules of legumes and naturally fix
nitrogen from the air into the soil.

→ Microalgae such as Spirulina and Chlorella are rich in nutrients, produce oxygen, and help
maintain ecological balance.

→ Cells of microorganisms may or may not have a well-defined nucleus; bacteria have a
nucleoid instead of a nucleus.
→ In experiments with yeast and sugar, gas production causes balloons to inflate and turns
lime water milky due to carbon dioxide.

→ Fermentation is used in traditional foods like idlis, dosa, and bhatura, and is important for
food preparation and preservation.

→ Yeast: A type of fungus that converts sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide through
fermentation.

→ Fermentation: A process where microorganisms break down sugar in the absence of

oxygen, releasing gas or alcohol.

→ Cell Membrane: The flexible outer layer of a cell that controls what enters and exits the
cell.

→ Cytoplasm: The jelly-like fluid inside the cell where all the organelles are suspended and
chemical reactions occur.

→ Nucleus: The central part of a cell that contains DNA and regulates the cell’s activities.

→ Chloroplast: A green organelle in plant cells that performs photosynthesis using sunlight.

→ Nucleoid: The region in a bacterial cell where genetic material (DNA) is concentrated,
without a membrane.

→ Microorganism: A tiny living organism, such as bacteria or fungi, visible only under a
microscope.

→ Biogas: A fuel made by the breakdown of organic matter by microbes in the absence of
oxygen.

→ Lime Water: A clear solution of calcium hydroxide that turns milky when carbon dioxide is
passed through it.

→ Bread Mould: A fungus that appears on stale bread and is used to study fungal growth.

→ Cell Wall: A stiff outer covering in plant and bacterial cells that provides structure and
protection.
→ Decomposition: The breakdown of dead organic materials into simpler substances by
microorganisms.

→ Nitrogen Fixation: The conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into usable forms by certain
bacteria in soil or plant roots.

→ Macrofungus: A fungus large enough to be seen with the naked eye, such as a mushroom.

→ Microorganisms are small-sized organisms and are not visible to the unaided eye.

→ They can live in all kinds of environments, and even in the bodies of plants and animals.

→ They are either unicellular or multicellular. Bacteria and protozoans are unicellular; fungi
can be unicellular or multicellular, while plants and animals are multicellular.

→ The cell is a basic unit of life.

→ The body of all living organisms is made up of cells. A cell contains various components
that help the organism perform its functions and survive.

→ A typical cell is bounded by a cell membrane, filled with cytoplasm, and contains a
nucleus. Plant, fungal, and bacterial cells have an extra covering, called a cell wall, around
the cell membrane. Bacteria lack a well-defined nucleus.

→ Cells differ in shape and size. Their shape is related to the function they perform.

→ Bacteria, fungi, and protozoa are different kinds of microorganisms.

→ Viruses are also small in size, but they are different from other microorganisms since they
reproduce only inside the host organism.

→ Microorganisms can be beneficial or harmful to us.

→ Some microorganisms decompose the plant and animal waste into simple substances and
clean up the environment.

→ Some microorganisms reside in the root nodules of legumes, such as peas, beans, and
lentils. They trap nitrogen from the air and increase the soil fertility.

→ Yeasts are fungi that are used in the process of making breads, cakes, pastries, idlis, dosas,
and bhaturas.

→ Lactobacillus is used in the curd formation at home and the fermentation process in the
food industry.

The human eye can only see objects that are above a certain size. For a long time, many tiny
things around us remained unknown. Long ago, people discovered that a curved piece of
glass could make small things look bigger. The piece of glass was shaped like a lentil seed,
thick in the middle and thin at the edge, hence they called it a lens. Over time, lenses were
improved to become more powerful. Each new tool, from simple magnifying glasses to
microscopes, helped humans see what their eyes could not. The invention of the microscope
opened a fascinating hidden world filled with tiny living creatures. We will explore some of
these life forms in this chapter.

You have already learnt about the amazing variety of living beings. Just look around, there
are so many beautiful plants and animals! They are of all shapes, sizes, and colours. Some
living beings are tiny, while others are really big. They differ not only in their structure but
also in many other features. All these living beings, whether plants or animals, are called
organisms. Have you ever noticed the smallest organism around you that is visible to the
naked eye? Think about it. How small a thing can your eyes see? You might have seen some
people using reading glasses. How does it help them see better? Or what happens when we
use a magnifying glass to observe something?

Activity 1: Let us observe

Take a round-bottom flask made of glass as shown in the Figure. Fill it with water. Close the
mouth of the flask with a cork. Now, place the flask on an open book and look at the letters
through it.

Do you notice something interesting? The letters appear larger when seen through the flask!
This happens because the flask filled with water acts like a magnifying glass. Now, use a real
magnifying glass to look at small organisms, like an ant. Were you able to see the details of
its body more clearly? For a long time, people were curious to explore the tiny organisms
around them, but they could not see them with their naked eyes. So, how did we finally
discover this invisible world? Do you know which scientific discovery helped us see the tiny
world for the first time?

In 1665, a scientist named Robert Hooke published a book called Micrographia. He was a
careful observer and a skilled artist. In this book, he showed detailed drawings of tiny things
that people had never seen before, things he saw using a tool we now call a microscope. His
microscope made things look 200 to 300 times bigger than what one could see with the
unaided eye. One day, he looked at a thin slice of cork and saw it was made of many small,
empty spaces. These compartments reminded him of a honeycomb. He drew what he saw
and called each small space a cell. This was the first time the word cell was used in science
to describe the basic unit of life. Around the same time in the 1660s, Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch scientist, made better lenses that allowed him to build more useful
microscopes. He was the first person to see and describe tiny living things like bacteria and
blood cells. Because of this, he is known as the Father of Microbiology.

What Is a Cell? Class 8 Notes

All living beings are made up of cells. You might wonder what cells look like. Let us take a
closer look at the basic structure of a cell using a microscope.

Activity 2: Let us study a cell (Teacher demonstration activity)

Take an onion bulb from your kitchen or garden and wash it thoroughly with water. Cut the
onion bulb vertically into pieces. Take one piece of onion and pull out the thin, transparent
layer from its inner surface with the help of forceps. This layer is called the onion peel.

Place the peel in a petri dish containing a few drops of safranin (red-coloured stain) for 30
seconds. This will give a pinkish colour to the cells and help us see them. With the help of a
thin brush, transfer the onion peel to another petri dish containing water to rinse the peel
and remove the extra stain. Now, carefully place the stained onion peel on the glass slide
using a thin brush, ensuring it does not break or fold. Put a drop of glycerin over the onion
peel on the slide. The glycerin will prevent drying of the cells and improve clarity for better
visualisation of cells. Slowly place a coverslip over the peel using a needle, such that no air
bubbles get trapped. Use blotting paper to gently wipe off any extra glycerin around the
edges of the coverslip. View the slide under a microscope or a foldscope. Compare it with
Figure c. What similarities do you find in Figures c and d?
You will observe nearly rectangular structures under the microscope. These are the cells of
the onion peel, which are closely arranged without any space between them. Try to observe
the peels of the leaves of different plants around you. You will find that all plants are made
up of cells. What do you think the body of an animal is made of?

Activity 3: Let us investigate

Rinse your mouth with clean water. Use the blunt end of a clean toothpick and gently scrape
the inside of your cheek. Place the scraped material in a drop of water on a clean glass slide
and spread it evenly. Add a drop of methylene blue (a blue-coloured stain) over the material
on the slide. Adding stain improves the visibility of the material under the microscope by
increasing contrast. After one minute, add a drop of glycerin over the material on the slide
to prevent the cells from drying.

Now, carefully place a clean coverslip on the material, and remove the excess glycerin from
the edges of the coverslip using blotting paper. Observe the slide under a microscope and
draw what you see in your notebook. What did you observe? You will observe a polygon-
shaped structure as shown in the Figure. These are cheek cells, which form the inner lining
of your mouth. What similarities and differences did you observe between the cells of onion
peel in Activity 2 and human cheek cells in Activity 3?

You have observed that cells have three main parts: a thin outer lining, a central region, and
a small round structure inside it. The outer layer is called the cell membrane. The round
structure in the middle is the nucleus, which is also covered by a thin membrane. The space
between the cell membrane and the nucleus is filled with cytoplasm. These three cell
membranes, cytoplasm, and nucleus are the basic parts of a cell. Some cells, like onion peel
cells, have an extra outer layer called the cell wall. What is the importance of these
structures in a cell? What functions do they perform? Are these functions important for the
maintenance of life?

The cell membrane encloses the cytoplasm and nucleus. The cell membrane separates one
cell from another. It is porous and allows the entry of materials essential for life processes
and the exit of waste material. Cytoplasm contains other components of the cell and
compounds, such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and mineral salts. Most of the life
processes take place within the cytoplasm. The nucleus regulates all activities that occur
within the cell. It also regulates growth. The cell wall in the plant cell provides rigidity and
strength to plants. This is why all cells are arranged compactly with each other and look firm
in structure.

Cells in all parts of a plant have tiny rod-shaped structures called plastids. Some plastids, like
chloroplasts, contain chlorophyll, which makes them green and helps in photosynthesis. In
non-green parts, they help in the storage of substances. Plant cells also have a large, empty-
looking space called a vacuole. This helps the plant cell store important substances, get rid of
waste, and maintain the shape of the cell. This gives strength and support to the plant. In
animal cells, vacuoles are usually not present, if present, they are usually small. These small
vacuoles store certain substances dissolved in water. So, a cell is not just a simple bag of
liquid it is a complex structure made up of many different parts, each with its special
function to allow the cell, and in turn the entire organism to work.

We have now understood the basic structure of a cell. And we now also understand that
plant and animal cells differ in shape and structure. Do different animal cells also vary in
their shape and structure?

Variation in Shape and Structure of Cells Class 8 Notes

The muscle cell and the nerve cell of a human are shown in Figures (a) and (b). What are the
similarities and differences you see in them?
A muscle cell is shaped like a spindle, while a nerve cell is very long and has branches.
Similarly, some cells are round, while others are long and thin. The number of cells also
varies in different organisms. Why do cells look so different from each other? Does the
shape and structure of a cell relate to its function? The unique shape, size, and structure of
cells help them carry out their specific functions. But how do these cells help in performing
various functions in the body? Let us find out.
You observed in Activity 3 that inner cheek cells are thin and flat. They form a protective
lining on the inner surface of the cheek. Nerve cells, also known as neurons, carry messages
in our body. The elongated shape and branched structure help them reach different parts of
the body and pass on messages quickly. Similarly, plant cells also show variation. In plants,
too, cells may be rectangular, elongated, oval, or even tube-like. Some plant cells form long
tubes that help carry water throughout the plant.

You have already studied the digestive system in Grade 7. Different parts of the digestive
system are made up of different types of cells. A group of muscle cells is present in the food
pipe. These cells contract and relax in a wave-like manner, pushing the food down to the
stomach. This movement is possible because muscle cells are thin, flexible, and spindle-
shaped. The stomach also has different types of cells for performing different functions.
Muscle cells in the stomach wall help churn the food. Other cells in the inner lining of the
stomach produce digestive juices and acid that help break down the food. All these cells
work together to make digestion possible.

What Are the Levels of Organisation in the Body of a Living Organism? Class 8 Notes

The body of a living organism is organised in a complex way. The cell is the basic unit of life,
just like a brick is the basic unit of a wall. A group of similar cells forms a type of tissue.
Different tissues are organised to form an organ. Several organs work together to form an
organ system that performs a major function of the body. All the organ systems together
make up a complete organism, like a plant or an animal. So, the levels of organisations are:
Cell → Tissue → Organ → Organ System → Organism
These levels of organisation help us understand how simple building blocks like cells come
together to form a complex living being. The life of complex living organisms begins with a
single cell ‘egg’. The egg of any organism has an amazing ability to divide repeatedly to form
a complete living being made up of many cells. Such living beings are called multicellular
organisms. Animals, including humans, and plants are all examples of multicellular
organisms.
The yolk (the yellow part of an egg) of an ostrich egg is a single cell. The largest known cell in
the living world measures about 130 mm to 170 mm in diameter. The egg contains extra
non-cellular material: a shell for protection and a white liquid that nourishes the cell during
its continued development.

What Are Microorganisms? Class 8 Notes

Some living organisms are made up of just one or very few cells. They are so small that they
can not be seen with the naked eye. These are called microorganisms. Some
microorganisms, like bacteria and amoebas, are made of just one cell (unicellular). Others,
like some fungi and algae, have many cells (multicellular). They are found all around us in
water, soil, air, and even inside our bodies! But what do their cells look like? Are they like the
plant and animal cells we just learnt about, or are they different? To observe the cells of a
microorganism, again, we need to use a microscope that magnifies their size and makes
them visible to us. Scientists have also created a low-cost and foldable paper microscope, or
foldscope. Foldscopes may not provide the same level of detail as high-powered laboratory
microscopes. However, these make the microscopic world accessible to many people. Let us
now take a closer look at the fascinating world of microbes.

Activity 4: Let us observe pond water/stagnant water

Take a container and collect pond or stagnant water in it with the help of your teacher or
elder(s). Use a dropper and place a drop of pond or stagnant water on a microscope or
foldscope slide. Put a coverslip and observe it under the microscope or foldscope. Observe
the tiny organisms found in the pond or stagnant water.

Activity 5: Let us observe soil suspension

Take a beaker and collect some moist soil in it from the nearby field or garden. Do not touch
the soil with your bare hands; use a spoon or gloves. Pour some water into the beaker and
stir it with a glass rod. The liquid, which may look dirty, has very fine particles of soil, and is
called soil suspension. Keep it aside for some time and let the mixture settle. Use a dropper
and take a drop of water from the top layer. Place the drop on a microscope slide. Cover it
gently with a coverslip and observe it under the microscope.

You may observe small moving organisms similar to those you saw in Activity 4. This
indicates that even soil suspension contains a variety of tiny creatures that cannot be seen
with the unaided eye. The tiny creatures that cannot be seen with the naked eye are called
microorganisms (micro means very small; organisms means living beings) or microbes.

Activity 6: Let us study

A group of students studying in Grade 8 performed Activities 4 and 5. They also collected
information from the library and the internet. They recorded the data obtained after
observing pond water in Table 1 and the data obtained after observing soil suspension in
Table 2. They identified the microorganisms as protozoa, algae, fungi, and bacteria. You can
record if you find any of these categories of organisms.

Did you also observe any of these microorganisms or something different? Record in your
notebook and discuss in your class. In Tables 1 and 2, you have identified a variety of
microorganisms. They are everywhere, and we can only see them with a microscope, a
device that magnifies them 100 to 400 times. Though microorganisms are small in size, they
play an important role in our lives.
Viruses are microscopic and acellular. Viruses multiply when they enter a living cell. They
may infect plants, animals, or bacterial cells and may cause a disease.

How Are We Connected to Microbes? Class 8 Notes

Can we find microorganisms in other places, too? Have you ever seen a lemon, tomato,
orange, or any other food item rot after being left outside for some time? If yes, you may
have noticed a powdery or cotton-like growth on them. This happens because they have
been infected by microbes. But where did these microbes come from? How did they come in
contact with the food? This happens because microorganisms can be found everywhere, be
it in water, soil, air, or even in some food items.
You can use a foldscope or a microscope to explore the surfaces of leaves, stems, roots, or
any other part to see them. Like plants and animals, microorganisms also show great
diversity. Some of them can even be found in extreme climatic conditions, such as hot water
springs and cold snow zones, as well as at moderate temperatures.

You already know some of these organisms live inside our bodies, especially in our gut! You
have studied in the chapter ‘Life Processes in Animals’ in Curiosity, Grade 7, that our
intestine has many bacteria that help in digestion. Like plants and animals, microorganisms
vary in shape, size, and structure. In Tables 1 and 2, you would have observed
microorganisms of different shapes: spherical, rod-shaped, or irregular. How does the
diversity of microorganisms play a role in our daily life? How do they help clean the
environment?

Key Players in Cleaning the Environment Class 8 Notes

Activity 7: Let us do
Take an empty container and fill it halfway with garden soil. Add some fruit and vegetable
peels to the container. Thereafter, put a layer of soil on it and leave it aside. After 2-3 weeks,
observe the changes that have taken place. Do you observe any difference in the contents of
the container?

You may find that peels of fruits and vegetables have turned into a dark-coloured material.
This is manure, which is rich in nutrients and helps increase the fertility of the soil. But how
did the peels of fruits and vegetables turn into manure? In Activity 6, you saw that soil
contains various kinds of microorganisms. Some of these microorganisms, like fungi and
bacteria, act on the plant waste and slowly break it down into simpler, nutrient-rich manure.
You may have seen gardeners in your school or in a field near your house collecting dry
leaves and plant waste and putting them into pits. Do you now understand why they do this?
It is to make natural manure.

Ancient Indian texts, particularly the Vedas, have references to the word ‘Krimi’, which
means different tiny entities, including ‘Drishya’ (visible) and ‘Adrishya’ (invisible). Various
Vedic texts mention their beneficial and harmful effects. Atharvaveda also refers to ‘Krimi’.

If you look around carefully, you might see that decaying plants and fallen leaves stored in a
container or lying in the garden disappear after some time. This is because microorganisms
break down and turn them into simpler substances rich in nutrients. These nutrients go back
to the soil and help plants grow better. Microorganisms also decompose bodies of dead
animals. So, microbes help recycle the waste and return important nutrients to nature.
Manure formation occurs at an optimal temperature and an appropriate moisture level. Isn’t
it interesting? By now, you must have understood that bacteria and some fungi are types of
microorganisms that play an important role in our lives. And guess what, these helpful
bacteria can also decompose animal wastes like dung! From Activity 7, we can also infer that
microorganisms not only help in plant growth, but also clean our environment by breaking
down waste. Now, think what would have happened if microorganisms did not exist on
Earth?

Microbes as a Source of Biogas

Many microorganisms, like bacteria and fungi, live in an oxygen-free environment. Some of
these bacteria can decompose plant and animal waste present in the environment or
household wastewater. During the process, they release a mixture of gases containing
carbon dioxide and a high proportion of another gas, methane. This gas has been used as a
fuel source for cooking, heating, generating electricity, and even running vehicles.

Dr. Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty (1938-2020) was a scientist who studied bacteria. In 1971,
he developed a special bacterium that could break down oil spills, helping to clean the
environment. His discovery received a patent in 1980. A patent is a copyright given to a
person so that no one else can copy, use or sell his/her invention without permission. His
work showed how microorganisms could be used to solve environmental problems like
pollution. He is remembered for his contributions to science and for protecting the
environment using microbes. What are the other problems that you think can be solved with
the help of microorganisms? How does the diversity of microorganisms help in our kitchen?

Microorganisms and Food Class 8 Notes

Activity 8: Let us perform

Take two bowls, A and B. In each, take 200 g of flour (atta or maida) and add a pinch of
sugar. Now, in bowl A, add a small amount of yeast powder and mix it well with the flour. In
bowl B, do not add any yeast, so that we can compare the results of the two bowls. Knead
the flour of the two bowls with warm water to make soft dough. Cover the dough with a
damp cloth and keep it in a warm place. Observe both the bowls after 4-5 hours.

Did you find any change in the volume, smell, or texture of the dough? If not, leave the
dough for some more time. After some time, you may notice that the dough in bowl A,
where yeast was added, has risen slightly, become fluffy, and has a different smell compared
to the dough kneaded without yeast. Why does this happen? What is the role of yeast? Why
did we add sugar and warm water to the flour?

Yeast is a type of microorganism. It belongs to a group of microorganisms called fungi. Yeast

grows well in warm conditions. You may recall from chapter ‘Life Process in Animals’ in
Grade 7 that, like other organisms, yeast also respires and breaks down food to release
energy for their growth and carry out life processes. During this process, carbon dioxide is
released, which forms bubbles that make the dough soft and fluffy. Yeast also produces a
small amount of alcohol during this process, which gives the dough a slightly different smell.
This special property of yeast is used in the process of making breads, cakes, and more! In
addition to yeast, some bacteria, such as Lactobacillus, help in the fermentation of batter for
making idlis and dosas, and dough for making bhatura.

Activity 9: Let us prepare

Take two small glass bowls, label them ‘A’ and ‘B’. Pour lukewarm milk into bowl A, and cold
milk into bowl B. Now, add a small spoonful of curd to each bowl and mix well using a spoon.
Cover both bowls. Keep bowl A in a warm place and bowl B in a cool place (like a
refrigerator) for a few hours or overnight. Observe the changes in the glass bowls. Write
your predictions and observations in the Table.

You will observe that in bowl A, the milk has turned into curd after a few hours and has
become a little sour. Whereas in bowl B, the milk has not curdled, but it might be a little
sour. Do you know why this happens? The curd contains several types of bacteria. One of
them is Lactobacillus. This bacterium feeds on the sugar in the milk (lactose), multiplies, and
ferments the milk to form curd. Instead of producing alcohol (like yeast), these bacteria
produce lactic acid, which makes curd sour. These bacteria grow well in warm conditions.
That is why curd is formed in bowl A but not in bowl B.

We can categorise the microorganisms into different categories, such as protozoa, fungi,
bacteria, some algae, and more. Some bacteria, such as Rhizobium, form the swollen regions
called nodules and live in them as shown in the Figure. Roots of certain legumes, such as
beans, peas, and lentils, have root nodules that contain Rhizobium bacteria. These bacteria
trap nitrogen from the air and make it useful for the plants. This helps plants grow better
without chemical fertilisers. That is why farmers grow legumes in rotation with other crops.
This naturally increases the nitrogen in the soil and keeps it healthy for the next crop.

Amazing Microalgae: Tiny Helpers in Water Class 8 Notes

Microalgae are microscopic plant-like organisms that live in water, soil, air, and even on
trees. They make their food using sunlight. While doing this, they also release oxygen and
produce more than half of the Earth’s oxygen supply. They are rich in nutrients and serve as
a food source for many aquatic animals. Some, like Spirulina, Chlorella, and Diatoms, are also
used by humans as health supplements and medicines. Microalgae also help in cleaning
water and are used to make biofuel. However, pollution, climate change, and habitat
destruction are threatening microalgal diversity and abundance. It is important to conserve
these tiny organisms to protect the environment and maintain oxygen balance on Earth.

Spirulina, a microalga, is called a superfood because of its health benefits. Spirulina is also a
good source of vitamin B12, which is essential for our body. It has a lot of protein, more than
60 per cent of its body weight, and only a small amount of fat and sugar. Nowadays, farming
of Spirulina is becoming a feasible livelihood opportunity. You can grow Spirulina easily by
following these steps:

 Set a clear glass tank in a bright place away from direct sunlight.

 Cover the tank with a shade net, or keep the tank at a place with moderate
temperature conditions.

 Fill the tank with pond water.

 Add living Spirulina collected from a pond.

 Stir the growing Spirulina twice a week.

 After 3-6 weeks, Spirulina may be harvested from the tank by filtering it through a
fine cloth.

Conservation of microalgae is a good practice for ensuring food security and livelihood
development.

Why is a Cell Considered to be a Basic Unit of Life? Class 8 Notes

The body of all living organisms is made up of tiny building blocks called cells. A single cell
contains various components that help organisms perform various functions. The bodies of
all plants and animals are made up of many cells. Therefore, they are called multicellular
(many-celled) organisms. In multicellular organisms, cells carry out specialised functions
individually but also cooperate to increase the chance of survival.
Some microorganisms, such as bacteria and protozoa, are made up of just one cell. These
are called unicellular (single-celled) organisms. They carry out all the functions necessary for
their survival in a single cell. Other microbes, like algae and fungi, are made up of one or
more cells. For example, yeast is a unicellular fungus while mould is a multicellular fungus.

Like animal and plant cells, the cells of microorganisms are also surrounded by a cell
membrane. Cells of fungi additionally have a cell wall, but they do not have chloroplasts, so
they cannot make their food through photosynthesis. Bacteria do not have a well-defined
nucleus and a nuclear membrane. Instead, they have a nucleoid. This feature distinguishes
them from cells of yeast, protozoa, algae, fungi, plants, and animals. We have only looked at
a few basic cell structures here. The cell has other components about which you will learn in
higher classes. For observing subcellular components, we need microscopes with high
magnification. An electron microscope magnifies the cell about 10,00,000 times, where we
can see more structures present in a cell.

By now, you must have understood that all living beings, including microorganisms, are
made up of one or more cells. Their cells differ in size, shape, and structure. Plant and
animal cells also have some differences. Understanding these differences helps us learn how
these organisms function differently. In this chapter, we have learnt about the beneficial
microorganisms. However, some microbes cause diseases in plants and animals, including
humans. We will learn about some of the diseases caused by microbes in the next chapter.