Comprehensive Guide to Telescope
Mirror Making
Introduction
Making a telescope mirror by hand is one of the most rewarding and intellectually
stimulating endeavors in amateur astronomy and optical craftsmanship 1 . Grounded in
principles established centuries ago and refined by generations of amateur telescope
makers (ATMs), crafting a custom primary mirror allows an individual to sculpt glass to an
accuracy measured in millionths of an inch—fractions of the wavelength of light 2 . This
comprehensive guide covers the end-to-end process of telescope mirror making, detailing
the essential materials, rough and fine grinding techniques, pitch lap polishing, optical
testing methods, figuring for parabolization, and final mirror coatings.
1. Materials and Mirror Blanks
The foundation of any high-performance optical mirror is the choice of substrate material
and its structural properties. The primary objective is to select a material with high
stiffness, chemical stability, and a low coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) to minimize
dimensional distortion under changing nighttime temperatures 3 .
Common Glass Types and Properties
Various glass compositions have been utilized throughout the history of amateur and
professional optical fabrication:
Glass Type Coefficient of Thermal Characteristics & Common
Expansion (CTE) Applications
Inexpensive and readily
available, but highly sensitive
to thermal gradients 3 .
Soda-Lime Plate Glass ≈ 9.0 × 10−6 /∘ C Suitable only for small mirrors (
≤ 6 inches) or slow focal ratios
where thermal stabilization is
manageable.
Borosilicate (Pyrex / ≈ 3.25 × 10−6 /∘ C The industry standard for
Supremax) amateur mirror making 3 .
Offers moderate thermal
stability and excellent
mechanical strength, though it
still requires cool-down time to
reach thermal equilibrium 3 .
Glass-ceramic materials with
near-zero thermal expansion.
Used primarily in professional
Zerodur / Astrosital ≈ ±0.05 × 10−6 /∘ C observatories and premium
amateur instruments where
thermal expansion must be
virtually eliminated.
Exceptionally pure and stable,
featuring low thermal
Fused Silica / Quartz ≈ 0.5 × 10−6 /∘ C
expansion and high rigidity.
Used in specialized research
applications and high-end
commercial optics.
Blank Preparation and Thickness Considerations
Modern amateur designs often favor "thin" mirrors (e.g., thickness-to-diameter ratios of
1:15 to 1:20 or thinner) to reduce weight and cool-down time. However, thin blanks
introduce mechanical challenges, such as the Twyman Effect, where internal stresses or
rough back surfaces induce astigmatism 2 . To prevent this, the rear surface of the mirror
blank must be ground smooth (typically through at least 220-grit silicon carbide) before
working on the optical face 2 .
2. Grinding Techniques and Abrasives
The grinding phase transforms a flat or molded piece of glass into a spherical surface with
the desired radius of curvature and focal length. Grinding is divided into two major stages:
rough grinding (hogging) and fine grinding.
Rough Grinding (Curve Generation)
Rough grinding removes the bulk of the glass to establish the mirror's sagitta (the depth of
the central curve), which is calculated using the formula:
D2
s≈
8R
where D is the mirror diameter and R is the radius of curvature (twice the focal length).
Makers typically employ a tool made of glass, ceramic tile adhered to a plaster disk, or a
metal ring tool 2 . Using coarse abrasives—such as Silicon Carbide (SiC) in grades #40,
#60, or #80 depending on the blank size—the tool is stroked across the mirror (or vice versa)
with water as a lubricant 4 . The standard stroke length is approximately one-third to one-
half the mirror diameter, accompanied by continuous rotation of both the mirror and the
tool to maintain axial symmetry and prevent astigmatism 2 .
Fine Grinding and Pit Removal
Once the target sagitta is achieved, the surface is covered in deep fractures caused by
coarse SiC grains. Fine grinding systematically steps down through finer abrasive sizes to
fracture the glass into progressively smaller micro-pits 2 :
1. Intermediate Grinding: Transition through #120, #220, and #500 Silicon Carbide grit 4 .
2. Micro-Grit Transition: Switch to Aluminum Oxide (Al2 O3 ) powders (e.g., 25-micron,
15-micron, and 9-micron grades) 4 . Aluminum oxide consists of harder, more rounded
particles that fracture less aggressively, leaving shallower pits that are easier to polish
out 4 .
The cleanliness of the workspace during fine grinding is paramount. A single stray coarse
grit particle can introduce a deep scratch, forcing the optician to step back several grades
4 . The pencil test (drawing a grid of pencil marks across the glass and verifying that a few
minutes of grinding completely removes them) is used to confirm full surface contact
between the mirror and the tool 1 .
3. Polishing Process and Pitch Laps
Transitioning from grinding to polishing marks the shift from mechanical fracture removal
to combined mechanical abrasion and chemical dissolution 2 .
The Pitch Lap
Because glass cannot be polished against a hard tool without scratching, Isaac Newton's
invention of the pitch lap remains the gold standard 2 4 . Optical pitch (such as
Burgundy pitch or Gugolz grades #64 through #73) is melted and poured onto a grooved or
tiled tool base 4 . Once cooled, the pitch is warmed and pressed against the fine-ground
mirror surface to conform precisely to its curvature 4 .
The pitch lap possesses unique viscoelastic properties: it acts as a rigid solid during rapid
polishing strokes but slowly flows over time to maintain intimate contact with the glass 4 .
Channels cut into the pitch allow polishing slurry to circulate and prevent hydraulic locking
between the mirror and tool 2 .
Polishing Compounds
The standard polishing agent is Cerium Oxide (CeO2 ), a rare-earth compound with an
average particle size of approximately 3 microns 4 . Mixed with distilled water to the
consistency of skim milk (roughly an 8:1 water-to-powder volume ratio), the slurry is
applied sparingly via a squeeze bottle 4 .
"It is only the Cerium Oxide embedded in the lap that does the real work—everything else
just acts as a lubricant, forming a layer between the embedded CeO2 in the lap and
glass." — Stellafane ATM Guide 4
Alternative compounds include Zirconium Oxide (slower and smoother, often used for
delicate figuring) and traditional Red Rouge (Ferric Oxide), prized by classical opticians for
producing ultra-smooth surfaces despite its propensity to stain 4 .
4. Optical Testing Methods
Quantitative and qualitative testing is essential to guide the polishing and figuring stages.
Amateur opticians rely on several classical and modern testing modalities 1 .
The Foucault Knife-Edge Test
Invented in 1858, the Foucault test remains the workhorse of amateur mirror making. A
point source of light illuminates the mirror's center of curvature, and a knife-edge is moved
across the returning focal point. By observing the shadow patterns (which resemble a relief
map of the mirror's topography), the optician can identify high zones, low zones, and edge
roll-off with nanometer-scale sensitivity 1 .
Using a Couder mask—a cardboard template with windows corresponding to specific
concentric zones of the mirror—the optician measures the focal length of each zone,
generating longitudinal aberration data to map the surface profile against a theoretical
spherical or parabolic curve 1 .
The Ronchi Test
The Ronchi test substitutes the knife-edge with a glass grating ruled with parallel opaque
lines (typically 100 lines per inch) placed near the focal point 2 . The resulting interference-
like fringe pattern (Ronchigram) provides an immediate, intuitive visual readout of the
entire mirror's wavefront error 2 . Straight, parallel fringes indicate a perfect sphere, while
curved fringes reveal zonal errors or spherical aberration 2 .
Modern Interferometry
Advanced makers frequently employ common-path interferometers, such as the Bath
Interferometer, which splits a laser beam to create an interference pattern between a
reference wavefront and the wavefront reflected from the test mirror. Analyzed via software
like OpenFringe, interferometry yields direct Surface Error maps and predicted Strehl ratios
3.
5. Figuring and Parabolization
A spherical mirror naturally focuses parallel light rays at varying focal points (spherical
aberration), failing to bring paraxial and marginal rays to a single point. To achieve a
diffraction-limited telescope, the sphere must be transformed into a paraboloid via
localized polishing, or figuring 2 .
Parabolizing Strokes and Techniques
Parabolization requires deepening the center of the mirror while preserving a smooth curve
toward the edge. Opticians achieve this by modifying standard polishing strokes:
• Choked Strokes: Shortened strokes that concentrate material removal near the 70%
zone.
• Overhanging Strokes: Allowing the mirror to overhang the pitch lap by varying
amounts to deepen the center or correct edge astigmatism.
• W-Strokes: Moving the mirror in a periodic "W" pattern to ensure even distribution
across zones without inducing astigmatism.
Common fabrication defects—such as turned-down edges (TDE), raised centers, and
rough zones—must be corrected through careful selection of lap facet size and stroke
geometry 2 . Throughout figuring, the optician alternates between polishing sessions and
rigorous Foucault or Ronchi testing 1 .
6. Mirror Coating and Finishing
Once the optical surface meets diffraction-limited criteria, it is ready for reflective coating to
transform the transparent glass into an effective reflector.
Vacuum Deposition of Aluminum
Bare glass reflects only about 4% of incident light. Modern mirrors undergo vacuum
thermal evaporation in a specialized chamber where aluminum is vaporized and
deposited onto the glass surface in a thin layer (approximately 80 to 100 nanometers thick)
1.
To protect the delicate aluminum film from oxidation and cleaning wear, a transparent
silicon monoxide (SiO) or silicon dioxide (SiO2 ) protective overcoating is typically
applied during the same vacuum cycle. Enhanced aluminum coatings add multi-layer
dielectric stacks to boost reflectivity from standard 88-90% up to 96% or higher.
Alternative Finishing: Chemical Silvering
While commercial aluminizing is standard, some advanced amateurs perform traditional
chemical silvering at home using reduction chemistry (such as the Brashear process).
Although silver achieves an initial reflectivity exceeding 97%, it tarnishes readily when
exposed to atmospheric sulfur compounds and requires periodic stripping and re-silvering.
Conclusion
Telescope mirror making bridges the gap between rigorous scientific measurement and
classical artisan craftsmanship. By mastering the sequence of blank preparation, rough and
fine grinding, pitch lap polishing, rigorous optical testing, and careful parabolizing, an
optician produces an instrument capable of revealing the deep cosmos with pristine clarity
1 2 . The journey from a raw disk of glass to a pristine optical surface instills a profound
appreciation for the physical universe and the precision achievable by human hands 2 .
References
[1] Stellafane Springfield Telescope Makers. Grinding a Mirror. Available online:
[Link]
[2] Mel Bartels. Joy of Mirror Making: Introduction. Available online:
[Link]
[3] Carl A. Lodd. Four Lessons in Mirror Testing. Available online:
[Link]
[4] Stellafane Springfield Telescope Makers. Reference Information for Grit, Pitch & Polish.
Available online: [Link]