Time-base generator using UJT:

The continuous sweep CRO uses the UJT as a time-base generator. When
power is first applied to the UJT, it is in the OFF state and CT changes
exponentially through RT .The UJT emitter voltage VE rises towards VBB and
VE reaches the plate voltage VP. The emitter-to-base diode becomes forward
biased and the UJT triggers ON. This provides a low resistance discharge
path and the capacitor discharges rapidly. The emitter-to-base diode
becomes forward biased and the UJT triggers ON. This provides a low
resistance discharge path and the capacitor discharges rapidly.

To improve the sweep linearity, two separate voltage supplies are used; a
low voltage supply for the UJT and a high voltage supply for the RTCT circuit.
RT is used for continuous control of frequency within a range and CT is
varied or changed in steps. They are sometimes known as timing resistor
and timing capacitor.
Lissajous Figures
It is the pattern which is displayed on the screen, when sinusoidal signals are
applied to both horizontal & vertical deflection plates of CRO. These patterns
will vary based on the amplitudes, frequencies and phase differences of the
sinusoidal signals, which are applied to both horizontal & vertical deflection
plates of CRO.
The following figure shows an example of Lissajous figure.

The above Lissajous figure is in elliptical shape and its major axis has some
inclination angle with positive x-axis.
Measurements using Lissajous Figures
We can do the following two measurements from a Lissajous figure.
Frequency of the sinusoidal signal
Phase difference between two sinusoidal signals
Now, let us discuss about these two measurements one by one.
Measurement of Frequency
Lissajous figure will be displayed on the screen, when the sinusoidal signals
are applied to both horizontal & vertical deflection plates of CRO. Hence,
apply the sinusoidal signal, which has standard known frequency to the
horizontal deflection plates of CRO. Similarly, apply the sinusoidal signal,
whose frequency is unknown to the vertical deflection plates of CRO
Let, fH and fV are the frequencies of sinusoidal signals, which are applied to
the horizontal & vertical deflection plates of CRO respectively. The
relationship between fH and fV can be mathematically represented as below.
From above relation, we will get the frequency of sinusoidal signal, which is
applied to the vertical deflection plates of CRO as

Where,

nH is the number of horizontal tangencies

nV is the number of vertical tangencies

We can find the values of nH and nV from Lissajous figure. So, by

substituting the values of nH, nV and fH in Equation 1, we will get the value
of fV, i.e. the frequency of sinusoidal signal that is applied to the vertical
deflection plates of CRO.

Measurement of Phase Difference

A Lissajous figure is displayed on the screen when sinusoidal signals are

applied to both horizontal & vertical deflection plates of CRO. Hence, apply
the sinusoidal signals, which have same amplitude and frequency to both
horizontal and vertical deflection plates of CRO.
For few Lissajous figures based on their shape, we can directly tell the phase
difference between the two sinusoidal signals.
If the Lissajous figure is a straight line with an inclination of 45∘ with positive
x-axis, then the phase difference between the two sinusoidal signals will
be 0∘. That means, there is no phase difference between those two
sinusoidal signals.
If the Lissajous figure is a straight line with an inclination of 135∘ with
positive x-axis, then the phase difference between the two sinusoidal signals
will be 180∘. That means, those two sinusoidal signals are out of phase.
If the Lissajous figure is in circular shape, then the phase difference between
the two sinusoidal signals will be 90∘ or 270∘.
We can calculate the phase difference between the two sinusoidal signals by
using formulae, when the Lissajous figures are of elliptical shape.

If the major axis of an elliptical shape Lissajous figure having an inclination

angle lies between 0∘ and 90∘ with positive x-axis, then the phase difference
between the two sinusoidal signals will be.

If the major axis of an elliptical shape Lissajous figure having an inclination

angle lies between 90∘ and 180∘ with positive x-axis, then the phase
difference between the two sinusoidal signals will be.

Electrical Quantities Measurements using Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Electrical quantities measurements by using CRO should be possible. They
are

 Measurement of Amplitude
 Measurement of Time Period
 Measurement of Frequency

Measurement of Amplitude

The display like CRO is used to show the voltage signal like a period
capability on its presentation. This signal's amplitude is constant;
nonetheless, we can switch the quantity of allotments that cover around the
voltage signal inside vertical way by evolving volt/division button on top of
the CRO board. Thus, we will secure the signal amplitude, which is there on
the CRO screen with the assistance of the below formula.

A = j * nv
Where,

 'A' is the Amplitude

 'j' is the volt/division value
 'nv' is the no. of partitions that vertically cover the signal.

Measurement of Time Period

CRO shows the voltage signal as an element of time on its screen. The Time
period of that periodic voltage signal is consistent, however we can fluctuate
the quantity of divisions that cover one complete pattern of the voltage
signal in the flat heading by changing the time/division handle on the CRO
panel.

In this way, we will get the Time period of the signal, which is available on
the screen of CRO by using the accompanying formula.

T = k * nh
Where,

 'T' is the Time period

 'j' is the time/division value
 'nv' is the number of partitions that cover whole cycle of the periodic
signal.

Measurement of Frequency

The horizontal scale on the CRO screen makes it simple to measure

frequency and tile. To ensure exactness while estimating a recurrence, then,
at that point, it helps to upgrade the region of the sign on your CRO show so
we can all the more basically convert the waveform.

At first, the time can be counted using the horizontal scale on the CRO and
the number of flat partitions from one end of the signal to the other
wherever it crosses the flat line. From that point forward, we can foster the
quantity of level allotments through the time or division to find the time span
of the sign. Numerically the estimation of the recurrence can be connoted as
frequency = 1/period.

f = 1/T
Applications of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
The applications of CRO are as follows:

 Waveform Analysis: The primary application of CROs is in the

visualization and analysis of wave shapes. Researchers and architects can
examine the duration, pattern, amount, and structure of electrical signals
in the temporal space. This skill is essential for determining how
symptoms behave and for identifying problems with electronic circuits.
Used for Ensuring signal honesty by identifying wave form distortions,
noise, and anomalies.
 Time Domain Analysis: The time area involves focusing on the long-
term behavior of the signals. CROs provide a graphical representation that
aids experts in understanding how signals fluctuate and interact with one
another. Used for identifying signal anomalies and transient phenomena
for the purpose of troubleshooting electronic circuits.
 Pulse and Transition Time Measurement: CROs are utilized to gauge
beat widths and change times in computerized circuits. For evaluating
digital system performance and timing characteristics, this capability is
essential. Used for evaluating the response time of digital devices and
verifying the integrity of digital signals.
 Voltage Measurement: CROs give a way to exact estimation of voltage
levels in a sign. This capacity is central for describing and approving
 electronic frameworks. Used for measuring voltages, amplitudes, and DC
offsets from peak to peak in a variety of electrical signals.
 Oscillator Testing: CROs assume a critical part in testing and examining
the exhibition of oscillators, which create occasional wave forms. This
incorporates evaluating the recurrence steadiness and waveform qualities
of oscillators. Used for Checking the appropriate working of oscillators in
electronic frameworks.
 Filter Testing: Engineers use CROs to assess the exhibition of electronic
channels by noticing their impacts on wave forms. This includes evaluating
filters' frequency response and attenuation properties. Used for Checking
the usefulness and viability of channels in signal handling applications.
 Frequency Measurement: CROs take into consideration precise
estimation of the recurrence of dreary waveform. The time base settings
on the oscilloscope assist with deciding the time span of the sign,
empowering exact recurrence estimations. Used for Confirming the
recurrence of swaying signals in electronic circuits for legitimate working.
 Transient Analysis: CROs are pivotal for catching and breaking down
transient peculiarities in electronic circuits. Homeless people are
unexpected and fleeting changes in voltage that can affect the security
and dependability of a framework. Used for Contemplating and
investigating abrupt changes or aggravations in electronic circuits, for
example, voltage spikes or errors.
 Measurement of Phase: CROs work with the estimation and perception
of stage contrasts between different signs. Here the timing connection
between signals is critical. It is used for Guaranteeing synchronization and
arrangement of signs in correspondence frameworks or control circuits.
 Sound and Video Applications: CROs track down applications in the
sound and video industry for examining signals connected with sound and
picture handling. This includes checking the quality of the video signal or
the frequency response of the audio. It is used for Guaranteeing the
 quality and constancy of sound and video signals in communicating,
diversion, and media applications.
Advantages of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
 Real-time Visualization: CRO gives continuous perception of electrical
signals, permitting clients to notice wave structures and signal attributes
as they happen.
 Dynamic Signal Observation: CROs empower the perception of
dynamic signal changes, making them important for concentrating on
quickly evolving signals, for example, pulse or regulated wave structures.
 High Accuracy: CROs are reliable instruments for precise signal analysis
because they measure waveform parameters like amplitude, frequency,
and phase with high accuracy.
 Versatility: Due to their versatility in waveform analysis, CROs can be
used in a variety of fields, including electronics, telecommunications,
medicine, and physics.
 Tool for Education: CROs are useful tools for teaching electronics
because they give students a chance to see and understand electrical
signals in action.
 Time Domain Analysis: CROs are fundamental for time space
examination, permitting clients to concentrate on the way of behaving of
signals after some time and break down transient peculiarities in
electronic circuits.
 Easy to use: With current digital CROs, UIs are natural, and highlights like
programmed estimations and on-screen menus upgrade client experience,
making them open for a great many clients.
 Quick Troubleshooting: CROs work with fast recognizable proof and
investigating of electronic circuit issues by giving a visual of signals,
empowering specialists to pinpoint irregularities.
Disadvantages of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
 Susceptibility to Electromagnetic Interference: CROs can be delicate
to electromagnetic obstruction, which might influence signal exactness.
Protecting and cautious arrangement are important to limit obstruction.
 Limited Bandwidth: Some CRO models might have restricted
transmission capacity, limiting their capacity to precisely address high-
recurrence signals. High-recurrence applications might require particular
oscilloscopes.
 Cost: Excellent CROs can be generally costly, particularly those with
cutting edge highlights. This cost element might be a thought for spending
plan compelled clients or little research facilities.
 Limited Storage Capacity: Simple CROs might have restricted capacity
limit with regards to waveform information. While computerized CROs
offer better information stockpiling, the capacity limit is limited and might
be a constraint in specific applications.
 Mass and Weight: The weight and bulk of traditional analog CROs can
make them difficult to transport. While present day computerized
oscilloscopes are more minimal, size and weight can in any case be a
worry in specific applications.
 Risk of Electric Shock: Cathode ray tubes have high voltages, which can
cause electric shock if proper safety precautions are not taken during
maintenance or repairs.
 Complexity for Novice Users: For inexperienced users, some CROs'
advanced features may be overcome. Preparing and experience with the
instrument are fundamental for ideal use, particularly in complex
applications.