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HANDOUT NOTES
MATRICES — PART 2
Cofactor & Adjoint • Determinant • Rank • Orthogonal, Parallel, Symmetric & Skew-Symmetric Matrices • Cramer's Rule (2 & 3
Unknowns)

1. Minor, Cofactor and Adjoint of a Matrix

Minor of an Element
The minor Mᵢⱼ of an element aᵢⱼ is the determinant of the smaller matrix formed by deleting the i-th row and j-th
column from A.

Cofactor of an Element

Cᵢⱼ = (−1)ⁱ⁺ʲ × Mᵢⱼ

The cofactor Cᵢⱼ attaches a sign to the minor:

The sign pattern for a 3×3 matrix alternates like a checkerboard:

⎡ + - + ⎤
⎢ - + - ⎥
⎣ + - + ⎦

Solved Numerical 1 — Finding Cofactors

Find the cofactor C₂₁ of the element a₂₁ in matrix A:
⎡ 1 2 3 ⎤
⎢ 0 4 -1 ⎥
⎣ 2 1 5 ⎦
Solution:
• Delete Row 2 and Column 1 to get the minor matrix, then find its determinant:
⎡ 2 3 ⎤
⎣ 1 5 ⎦
• M₂₁ = (2×5) − (3×1) = 10 − 3 = 7
• C₂₁ = (−1)²⁺¹ × M₂₁ = (−1)³ × 7 = −7
Answer: C₂₁ = −7

Adjoint (Adjugate) of a Matrix

adj(A) = [Cᵢⱼ]ᵀ and A⁻¹ = ( 1 / det A ) × adj(A)

The adjoint of A, written adj(A), is the transpose of the matrix formed by ALL the cofactors of A.

MeritPath Coaching • Matrices Handout — Part 2 • Page 1

Solved Numerical 2 — Cofactor Matrix and Adjoint
Find adj(A) for the matrix below:
⎡ 2 0 1 ⎤
⎢ 3 1 2 ⎥
⎣ 1 0 1 ⎦
Step 1 — Compute all nine cofactors:
• C₁₁ = +(1×1 − 2×0) = 1 C₁₂ = −(3×1 − 2×1) = −1 C₁₃ = +(3×0 − 1×1) = −1
• C₂₁ = −(0×1 − 1×0) = 0 C₂₂ = +(2×1 − 1×1) = 1 C₂₃ = −(2×0 − 0×1) = 0
• C₃₁ = +(0×2 − 1×1) = −1 C₃₂ = −(2×2 − 1×3) = −1 C₃₃ = +(2×1 − 0×3) = 2
Step 2 — Cofactor matrix:
⎡ 1 -1 -1 ⎤
⎢ 0 1 0 ⎥
⎣ -1 -1 2 ⎦
Step 3 — Transpose it to get the adjoint:
⎡ 1 0 -1 ⎤
⎢ -1 1 -1 ⎥
⎣ -1 0 2 ⎦
Answer: adj(A) = the matrix shown above.

2. Determinant of a Matrix
The determinant is a single number (scalar) associated with a square matrix, written det A or |A|. It tells us, among
other things, whether the matrix has an inverse (det A ≠ 0).

2 × 2 Determinant
⎡ a b ⎤
⎣ c d ⎦
det A = ad − bc

3 × 3 Determinant — Cofactor Expansion along Row 1

det A = a₁₁C₁₁ + a₁₂C₁₂ + a₁₃C₁₃

Solved Numerical 3
Evaluate the determinant of:
⎡ 2 -1 3 ⎤
⎢ 0 4 1 ⎥
⎣ 1 2 -2 ⎦
Solution — expand along Row 1:
• det A = 2×[(4×-2)−(1×2)] − (−1)×[(0×-2)−(1×1)] + 3×[(0×2)−(4×1)]
• = 2×(−8−2) + 1×(0−1) + 3×(0−4)
• = 2×(−10) + (−1) + 3×(−4)
• = −20 − 1 − 12 = −33
Answer: det A = −33

MeritPath Coaching • Matrices Handout — Part 2 • Page 2

 Key Determinant Properties
• If any row or column is entirely zero, det A = 0.
• If two rows (or columns) are identical or proportional, det A = 0.
• Swapping two rows changes the sign of the determinant.
• det(Aᵀ) = det(A).
• det(AB) = det(A) × det(B).
• det(kA) = kⁿ × det(A) for an n × n matrix.

3. Rank of a Matrix
The rank of a matrix is the number of linearly independent rows (or columns) — equivalently, the order of the largest
square sub-matrix whose determinant is non-zero. Rank is usually found by reducing the matrix to row-echelon form
using row operations and counting the non-zero rows.

Solved Numerical 4 — Rank by Row Reduction

Find the rank of:
⎡ 1 2 3 ⎤
⎢ 2 4 6 ⎥
⎣ 1 0 1 ⎦
Solution:
• R₂ → R₂ − 2R₁: [2,4,6] − 2[1,2,3] = [0, 0, 0]
• R₃ → R₃ − R₁: [1,0,1] − [1,2,3] = [0, -2, -2]
Matrix after row reduction:
⎡ 1 2 3 ⎤
⎢ 0 0 0 ⎥
⎣ 0 -2 -2 ⎦
• Swap R₂ and R₃ so the zero row is last (does not affect rank):
⎡ 1 2 3 ⎤
⎢ 0 -2 -2 ⎥
⎣ 0 0 0 ⎦
There are 2 non-zero rows, so rank(A) = 2.

Quick Recall — Rank

• For an m × n matrix, rank ≤ min(m, n).
• A square matrix of order n has full rank n only if det A ≠ 0 (non-singular).
• If det A = 0, the matrix is singular and its rank is less than n.
• Rank tells us the number of independent equations in a linear system.

4. Orthogonal Matrix
A square matrix A is orthogonal if its transpose equals its inverse — equivalently, multiplying A by its transpose

Aᵀ · A = A · Aᵀ = I i.e. Aᵀ = A⁻¹
gives the identity matrix.

MeritPath Coaching • Matrices Handout — Part 2 • Page 3

Solved Numerical 5
Show that the matrix below is orthogonal:
⎡ 0 1 ⎤
⎣ -1 0 ⎦
Solution:
Transpose of A:
⎡ 0 -1 ⎤
⎣ 1 0 ⎦
Aᵀ
Now compute A·Aᵀ:
• Row1·Col1 = (0×0)+(1×1) = 1 Row1·Col2 = (0×-1)+(1×0) = 0
• Row2·Col1 = (-1×0)+(0×1) = 0 Row2·Col2 = (-1×-1)+(0×0) = 1
⎡ 1 0 ⎤
⎣ 0 1 ⎦
Since A·Aᵀ = I, the matrix A is orthogonal.

5. Symmetric Matrix
A square matrix A is symmetric if it is equal to its own transpose — elements are mirror images across the leading

A = Aᵀ
diagonal (aᵢⱼ = aⱼᵢ for all i, j).

Example
⎡ 4 -2 5 ⎤
⎢ -2 1 0 ⎥
⎣ 5 0 3 ⎦
Check: the element in Row1-Col2 (−2) matches Row2-Col1 (−2); Row1-Col3 (5) matches Row3-Col1 (5); Row2-
Col3 (0) matches Row3-Col2 (0). Hence A = Aᵀ, so A is symmetric.

6. Skew-Symmetric Matrix
A square matrix A is skew-symmetric if its transpose equals its negative (aᵢ ⱼ = −a ⱼᵢ). This forces every diagonal

Aᵀ = −A
element to be zero, since aᵢᵢ = −aᵢᵢ only when aᵢᵢ = 0.

Example
⎡ 0 3 -2 ⎤
⎢ -3 0 4 ⎥
⎣ 2 -4 0 ⎦
Check: diagonal entries are all 0; Row1-Col2 (3) = −(Row2-Col1) = −(−3) = 3 ✓; similarly for the other pairs.
Hence Aᵀ = −A, so A is skew-symmetric.

Handy Fact
MeritPath Coaching • Matrices Handout — Part 2 • Page 4
 • Any square matrix A can be written as the sum of a symmetric part and a skew-symmetric part:
• A = ½(A + Aᵀ) + ½(A − Aᵀ) [symmetric part + skew-symmetric part]

7. Parallel Matrices
Two matrices A and B of the same order are said to be parallel (or proportional) if one is a scalar multiple of the
other, i.e. B = kA for some non-zero scalar k. Just like parallel vectors point in the same/opposite direction with

B = kA ⇔ bᵢⱼ / aᵢⱼ = k (same for every i, j)

different magnitude, parallel matrices have corresponding elements in a fixed common ratio.

Solved Numerical 6
Are the following matrices parallel?
⎡ 2 -4 ⎤
⎣ 6 0 ⎦
A
⎡ 5 -10 ⎤
⎣ 15 0 ⎦
B
Solution: Check the ratio of each pair of corresponding elements —
• 5/2 = 2.5, -10/-4 = 2.5, 15/6 = 2.5, 0/0 → treated as consistent (both zero)
Every ratio equals 2.5, so B = 2.5A. Since B is a scalar multiple of A, A and B are parallel matrices.

MeritPath Coaching • Matrices Handout — Part 2 • Page 5

8. Cramer's Rule
Cramer's Rule uses determinants to solve a system of linear equations directly, without row-reducing. It works only
when the coefficient matrix is square and its determinant D ≠ 0 (a unique solution exists).

Cramer's Rule for Two Unknowns

a1x + b1y = c1 a2x + b2y = c2

For the system:

Define three determinants:

⎡ a1 b1 ⎤
⎣ a2 b2 ⎦
D
⎡ c1 b1 ⎤
⎣ c2 b2 ⎦
Dx
⎡ a1 c1 ⎤
⎣ a2 c2 ⎦
Dy
x = Dx / D y = Dy / D

Solved Numerical 7 — Two Unknowns

2x + 3y = 8 x − y = −1
Solve using Cramer's Rule:

Solution:
• D = (2×-1) − (3×1) = −2 − 3 = −5
• Dx = (8×-1) − (3×-1) = −8 + 3 = −5
• Dy = (2×-1) − (8×1) = −2 − 8 = −10
• x = Dx/D = −5/−5 = 1
• y = Dy/D = −10/−5 = 2
Answer: x = 1, y = 2

Cramer's Rule for Three Unknowns

a1x+b1y+c1z=d1 a2x+b2y+c2z=d2 a3x+b3y+c3z=d3

For the system:

D is the determinant of the coefficient matrix; Dx, Dy, Dz are formed by replacing the x, y, or z column respectively

x = Dx / D y = Dy / D z = Dz / D
with the constants column [d1, d2, d3].

Solved Numerical 8 — Three Unknowns

Solve using Cramer's Rule:
MeritPath Coaching • Matrices Handout — Part 2 • Page 6
 x+y+z=6 2x − y + z = 3 x + 2y − z = 2
Step 1 — Coefficient determinant D:
⎡ 1 1 1 ⎤
⎢ 2 -1 1 ⎥
⎣ 1 2 -1 ⎦
• D = 1×[(-1×-1)−(1×2)] − 1×[(2×-1)−(1×1)] + 1×[(2×2)−(-1×1)]
• = 1×(1−2) − 1×(−2−1) + 1×(4+1)
• = 1×(−1) − 1×(−3) + 1×(5) = −1 + 3 + 5 = 7
Step 2 — Dx (replace column 1 with constants [6, 3, 2]):
⎡ 6 1 1 ⎤
⎢ 3 -1 1 ⎥
⎣ 2 2 -1 ⎦
• Dx = 6×[(-1×-1)−(1×2)] − 1×[(3×-1)−(1×2)] + 1×[(3×2)−(-1×2)]
• = 6×(1−2) − 1×(−3−2) + 1×(6+2)
• = 6×(−1) − 1×(−5) + 1×(8) = −6 + 5 + 8 = 7
Step 3 — Dy (replace column 2 with constants):
⎡ 1 6 1 ⎤
⎢ 2 3 1 ⎥
⎣ 1 2 -1 ⎦
• Dy = 1×[(3×-1)−(1×2)] − 6×[(2×-1)−(1×1)] + 1×[(2×2)−(3×1)]
• = 1×(−3−2) − 6×(−2−1) + 1×(4−3)
• = 1×(−5) − 6×(−3) + 1×(1) = −5 + 18 + 1 = 14
Step 4 — Dz (replace column 3 with constants):
⎡ 1 1 6 ⎤
⎢ 2 -1 3 ⎥
⎣ 1 2 2 ⎦
• Dz = 1×[(-1×2)−(3×2)] − 1×[(2×2)−(3×1)] + 6×[(2×2)−(-1×1)]
• = 1×(−2−6) − 1×(4−3) + 6×(4+1)
• = 1×(−8) − 1×(1) + 6×(5) = −8 − 1 + 30 = 21
Step 5 — Solve for x, y, z:
• x = Dx/D = 7/7 = 1
• y = Dy/D = 14/7 = 2
• z = Dz/D = 21/7 = 3
Answer: x = 1, y = 2, z = 3

Remember
• If D = 0 and at least one of Dx, Dy, Dz ≠ 0 → the system has NO solution.
• If D = 0 and Dx = Dy = Dz = 0 → the system has infinitely many solutions (or is dependent).
• Cramer's Rule is most efficient for small systems (2 or 3 unknowns); larger systems are usually solved by row reduction
instead.

MeritPath Coaching • Matrices Handout — Part 2 • Page 7

Practice Problems — Try These Yourself
Solve the following on a separate sheet. Show all working steps as demonstrated in class.

# Question

1 Find the cofactor C₃₂ of the matrix [[1,0,2],[3,-1,4],[2,1,5]].

2 Find det A for A = [[3,1,-2],[0,2,4],[1,-1,1]] using cofactor expansion.

3 Find adj(A) for A = [[1,2],[3,4]], then use it to find A⁻¹.

4 Find the rank of the matrix [[2,4,1],[1,2,3],[0,0,5]].

5 Check whether A = [[1,0],[0,-1]] is an orthogonal matrix.

6 State whether M = [[2,5,1],[5,3,-4],[1,-4,7]] is symmetric, skew-symmetric, or neither.

7 Determine whether A = [[1,2],[2,4]] and B = [[3,6],[6,12]] are parallel matrices.

8 Use Cramer's Rule to solve: 3x − 2y = 4 and x + y = 7.

9 Use Cramer's Rule to solve: x + 2y − z = 4, 2x − y + z = 1, 3x + y + 2z = 5.

End of Part 2 | This completes the Matrices Handout Series (Part 1 & Part 2).

MeritPath Coaching • Matrices Handout — Part 2 • Page 8