Loading [MathJax]/extensions/tex2jax.

js
Learn CBSE
NCERT Solutions for Class 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12
Journey Inside the Atom Class 9 Notes Science Chapter 8
July 6, 2026 by Sastry CBSE
Logo

Powered by

Reviewing Class 9 Science Notes and Exploration Chapter 8

Journey Inside the Atom Class 9 Notes regularly helps in
retaining important facts.
Class 9 Science Chapter 8 Journey Inside the Atom Notes
Class 9 Science Exploration Chapter 8 Notes
Class 9 Science Chapter 8 Notes – Class 9 Journey Inside the
Atom Notes
→ Matter and Atoms: Everything around us, whether living or
non-living, is made up of matter, and matter consists of tiny
particles called atoms. These atoms are extremely small and
cannot be seen with the naked eye. Scientists have long been
curious to know whether atoms are truly indivisible and
began exploring their internal structure.
→ Early Ideas of Atomic Theory: Ancient thinkers like Acharya
Kanada (India) suggested that matter is made of indivisible
particles called parinanu, while Democntus and Leucippus
(Greek) called them atomos, meaning indivisible. However,
these ideas were philosophical and not based on
experiments.
→ Dalton’s Atomic Theory: In 1808, John Dalton proposed the
first scientific atomic theory, stating that matter is made up of
indivisible particles called atoms. He considered atoms as the
fundamental building blocks of matter.
→ Discovery of Subatomic Particles: The discovery of
radioactivity in the late 19th century proved that atoms are
divisible and contain smaller particles (subatomic particles).
This marked the beginning of the study of subatomic
structure.

→ Discovery of Electron (J. J. Thomson): In 1897, J. J.

Thomson discovered electrons through his cathode ray
experiment. He showed that electrons are negatively charged
particles present in all atoms and are much smaller than
atoms. This discovery proved that atoms have internal
structure.

→ Thomson’s Atomic Model: Thomson proposed that an

atom is a sphere of positive charge with electrons embedded
in it, similar to seeds in a watermelon or plums in a pudding.
This model explained how atoms remain electrically neutral,
but it could not explain later experimental observations.

→ Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment: In 1911, Rutherford

conducted the gold foil experiment in which alpha particles
were directed at a thin gold sheet. Most particles passed
straight through, some were deflected, and a few bounced
back. These unexpected results led to a new understanding of
atomic structure.

→ Rutherford’s Atomic Model: Rutherford proposed that an

atom has a small, dense, positively charged nucleus at its
centre, which contains most of the mass. Electrons revolve
around the nucleus, and most of the atom is empty space.
This model is known as the nuclear or planetary model.

→Limitations of Rutherford’s Model:

Rutherford’s model could not explain why electrons revolving
around the nucleus do not lose energy and fall into it.
According to classical physics, atoms should collapse, but
since atoms are stable, this model was incomplete.

→ Discovery of Proton: Rutherford discovered protons as

positively charged particles in the nucleus. For an atom to be
electrically neutral, the number of protons must be equal the
number of electrons.

→ Bohr’s Atomic Model: In 1913, Niels Bohr proposed that

electrons move in fixed circular paths called energy levels or
shells around the nucleus. These shells have definite energy,
and electrons do not lose energy while moving in them.
Electrons can jump between shells by absorbing or releasing
energy, explaining atomic stability.

→ Discovery of Neutron: In 1932, James Chadwick discovered

the neutron, a neutral particle present in the nucleus with
mass nearly equal to that of a proton. This explained why
atomic mass is greater than the number of protons alone.
→ Subatomic Particles: Atoms are made of three subatomic
particles: electrons (negatively charged), protons (positively
charged), and neutrons (neutral). Protons and neutrons are
located in the nucleus, while electrons move around it.
Electrons Protons Neutrons
• Negatively charged Positively charged No charge
• Mass is negligible \( \frac{1}{1800}\) time of protons
Mass is 1 a.m.u Mass is 1 a.m.u
• Get attracted towards +ve charge. Get attracted towards
-ve charge. Do not get attracted, as they are neutral.
• Present outside the nucleus. Present in the nucleus of an
atom. Present in the nucleus of an atom
→ Symbols of Elements: Chemical symbols are used to
represent elements. These were first introduced by Dalton
and later improved by Berzelius using letters from English or
Latin names. The International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC) standardizes these symbols globally. Some
norms of writing these symbols are:
• Many symbols are the first letter or the first two letters
of the name of the element.
• The first letter of a symbol is always written as a capital
letter (uppercase), while the second letter (if there is
one) is written as a small letter (lower case).
• Symbols of some elements are formed from the first
letter of the name and a letter other than the second
letter in the name.
• Symbols of some elements come from their Latin, Greek,
or German names rather than English.
→ Scientists use symbols instead of full names because they
are universally recognised and help scientists communicate
clearly across different languages.
Names and symbols of some commonly used elements are
given below:

Name of Name of Name of

the Symbol the Symbol the Symbol
element element element

Copper
Aluminium Al Cu Nitrogen N
(Cuprum)
Argon Ar Fluorine F Oxygen O

Gold Potassium
Barium Ba Au K
(Aurum) (Kalium)

Boron B Hydrogen H Silicon Si

Silver
Bromine Br Iodine I Ag
(Argentum)

Iron Sodium
Calcium Ca Fe Na
(Ferrum) (Natrium)

Lead
Carbon C Pb Sulfur S
(Plumbum)

Chlorine Cl Magnesium Mg Uranium U

Cobalt Co Neon Ne Zinc Zn

→ Atomic Number (Z): The atomic number of an element is

the number of protons in its nucleus. It determines the
identity of the element and its chemical behaviour in a
neutral atom; the number of protons is equal to the number
of electrons.
→ Mass Number (A): The mass number of an atom is the
total number of protons and neutrons present in its nucleus.
These particles are called nucleons, and together they
account for most of the atom’s mass.
→ Representation of an Atom: An atom is represented by
writing its mass number above and atomic number below the
symbol of the element.

For example, carbon is written as6C12

→ Electron Distribution: Electrons are arranged in different
shells around the nucleus according to the Bohr-Bury rules.
• Maximum number of electrons in a shell is given by
2n2,wheren= 1,2,3,4 (K=2, L=8, M = 18).
• The outermost shell can hold a maximum of 8 electrons
(except the first, which holds 2).
• Electrons fill shells stepwise from the innermost to outer
shells (K → L → M → N).
→ Electronic Configuration: The distribution of electrons in
different shells of an atom is called its electronic
configuration. For example, sodium has an electronic
configuration of 2, 8, 1, showing how electrons are arranged
in shells. It determines chemical properties of elements.
→ Combining capacity of an atom (Valency):
Atoms gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve a stable
electronic configuration, usually an octet (8 electrons) or
duplet (2 electrons for helium). It depends on the number of
electrons in its outermost shell.
 • Combining capacity: The number of atoms of hydrogen
or chlorine with which one atom of an element can
combine to form a compound.
• Valence shell: The outermost shell containing electrons
of an atom
• Valence electrons: The number of electrons present in
the outermost shell
• Valency: The number of electrons gained, lost, or shared
to complete the octet.
→ Isotope: Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have
the same atomic number but different mass numbers due to
different numbers of neutrons. They have similar chemical
properties but different physical properties, like boiling and
melting points.
• Isotopes of hydrogen =11H (protiurn, ~99.98%), 12H
(deuterium, -0.015%), and 13H (tritium, in traces)
• Isotopes of carbon = 612C (most abundant), 613 C, and 614C
→ Uses of Isotopes: Some isotopes have important uses in
daily life.
• Uranium-235 is used as nuclear fuel.
• Cobalt-60 is used in cancer treatment.
• Iodine-131 is used in treating thyroid disorders.
• Carbon- 14 is used for dating fossils.
→ Average Atomic Mass: The atomic mass of an element is
the weighted average of the masses of its isotopes, taking
into account their relative abundance in nature. For example,
chlorine has an average atomic mass of 35.5 u.
→ Isobars: Isobars are atoms of different elements that have
the same mass number but different atomic numbers. This
means they have the same number of nucleons but belong to
different elements.

→ Development of Atomic Models: The understanding of

atomic structure has evolved over time. Dalton proposed
atoms as indivisible particles, Thomson introduced the plum
pudding model, Rutherford proposed the nuclear model, and
Bohr explained energy levels. Later, the modern atomic
model described electrons as probabIlity clouds.

Journey Inside the Atom Notes Class 9

Rediscovering the Roots of Atomic Theory
Acharya Kanada, an Indian philosopher, suggested that if
matter (dravya) is divided again, one would eventually reach
the smallest particles that cannot be divided any further. He
called these particles parmanus. His ideas are recorded in the
Sanskrit text Vaisesika Sutras. A parmanu is infinitely small
and cannot be identified by the senses. Combinations of
parmanus form the entire material world.
The Greek philosophers Leucippus and Democritus proposed
a similar idea. They called these indivisible particles atomos
(Greek for ‘indivisible’). It is from this Greek word that the
modern term ‘atom’ is derived.
Note:
The concept of the atom originally emerged as a
philosophical idea, not from scientific experiments. It was
later placed on a scientific journey by John Dalton.
→ Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808):
Many centuries later, in 1808, John Dalton proposed his
atomic theory based on scientific experiments.
Its main points are
• All matter is composed of extremely small, indivisible
particles called atoms.
• Atoms of the same element are identical in mass and
properties.
• Atoms of different elements differ in mass and
properties.
• Atoms cannot be created, divided, or destroyed in a
chemical reaction.
• Atoms combine in simple, whole-number ratios to form
compounds.
Dalton’s atomic theory was the first scientific description of
how matter is made. It became the starting point for the
modern understanding of atomic structure.
A Short Historical Journey Through Atomic Models
Following Dalton’s atomic theory, scientists became curious:
What are atoms made of? What do they look like? How do
the atoms of different elements differ from each other? Over
the next century, a series of great experiments led to new
and modified models of the atom.
→ Discovery of the Electron: Cathode Rays
In 1897, J. J. Thomson studied the conduction of electric
current through gases at very low pressure using a glass tube
with two electrodes. He applied a high voltage and observed
rays moving from the cathode (negative electrode) to the
anode (positive electrode). These were called cathode rays.
By studying these cathode rays in electric and magnetic fields,
Thomson concluded that they are streams of negatively
charged particles with a mass much smaller than that of
atoms. These particles were later called electrons. Since
electrons were emitted from atoms, this proved that atoms
are made up of smaller subatomic particles called electrons.
The nature of cathode rays was found to be independent of
the cathode material and the gas filled in in the tube. This
showed that electrons are a fundamental component of alt
atoms in every element. The charge of an electron is – 1.602
× 10-19 C, taken as – 1.
J. J. Thomson’s most significant discovery, was that of the
electron, the first subatomic particle to be identified. He
received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1906 for his studies of
the electrical conductivity of gases. As head of the famous
Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge, he guided many
scientists, including Ernest Rutherford.
→ Thomson’s Model of an Atom (Plum Pudding Model):
Thomson proposed that an atom is a sphere of positive
charge with electrons distributed throughout it, like seeds in
a watermelon or plums in a pudding. This is known as the
Plum Pudding Model of the atom.

Analogy Imagine a watermelon: the red pulp represents the

positively charged matter spread throughout the atom, while
the seeds represent the electrons embedded within it.

→ The Gold Foil Experiment:

In 1911, Geiger and Marsden, working under Ernest
Rutherford, tested Thomson’s model through the famous
gold foil experiment (also called the α-ray scattering
experiment).
The Experiment:
A narrow beam of alpha (α) particles (tiny, positively charged
helium particles emitted from radioactive elements) was
allowed to fall at an extremely thin sheet of gold foil. Alpha
particles are actually the nuclei of helium atoms, containing
two protons and two neutrons.
Observations:
• Most alpha particles passed straight through the gold
foil without any deflection.
• Some particles were deflected through small angles.
• A very few particles (about 1 in 20,000) bounced back
almost in the reverse direction.
Conclusion:
Thomson’s model predicted that all alpha particles should
pass straight through or be deflected only slightly (since
positive charge was spread evenly). The large deflections and
back-scattering of α-rays were totally unexpected, and
Thomson’s model completely failed to explain these results.

A. Rutherford’s Model of an Atom (Planetary Model)

Based on the gold foil experiment, Rutherford proposed a
new model
• Most of the space in an atom is empty, which is why
most of α-particles passed through gold foil undeflected.
• All the positive charge and most of the mass of an atom
is concentrated in an extremely tiny, dense region at the
centre of an atom called the nucleus.
• Electrons revolve around the nucleus, just like planets
orbiting the Sun. This is why it is called the planetary
model of the atom.
Size of the Nucleus: The nucleus is about 105 (one lakh) times
smaller than the atom. The diameter of an atom is about 10-
10
m, while the nucleus is only about 10-15 m in diameter, if an
atom were the size of a cricket ground (about 100 m), the
nucleus would be just the size of a tiny black pepper grain!
B. Limitations of Rutherford’s Model
• Rutherford proposed a central nucleus, which was a
major advancement. However, his model could not
explain atomic stability.
• Electrons move in circular paths, so they are
continuously accelerating.
• According to science, accelerating charge emit energy
(radiation). Losing energy, electrons should spiral into
the nucleus. This would cause the atom to collapse. But
atoms are stable in reality, creating contradictions.
Hence, Rutherford’s model was incomplete.
C. Discovery of the Proton
• Rutherford further showed that the nucleus carries
positive charges due to particles called protons. Protons
are much heavier than electrons and possess a charge
equal in magnitude but opposite in sign (+ 1) to that of
electrons (- 1).
• For an atom to be electrically neutral, the number of
protons must be equal to the number of electrons.
→ Bohr’s Model of the Atom
• To solve the problem of atomic stability, Niels Bohr
proposed a new model in 1913. According to Bohr’s
model
• Electrons do not move randomly around the nucleus.
They follow fixed circular paths called stationary states,
orbits, or shells. Each shell has a definite amount of
energy, so they are also called energy levels.
• These shells are represented by the letters K, L, M, N,…
or by the numbers n = 1, 2, 3, 4, … The K-shell (n = 1) is
closest to the nucleus and has the least energy. Energy
increases as shells move away from the nucleus.
• Electrons can revolve only in these allowed shells and do
not lose energy while revolving in a fixed shell.
• An electron can move to another shell only by absorbing
or releasing a fixed amount of energy equal to the
difference in energy between the two shells.
• Each shell can hold only a certain maximum number of
electrons.
Born in New Zealand, Ernest Rutherford moved to Cambridge
to work with J. J. Thomson. He later became known as the
‘Father of Nuclear Physics’. He discovered the atomic nucleus
and explained how some elements naturally break down
(radioactivity), for which he won the 1908 Nobel Prize in
Chemistry.
Niels Bohr was a professor of physics at Copenhagen
University, Denmark. He was curious about how atoms
remain stable. His atomic model provided a much clearer
explanation of the atomic structure. He received the Nobel
Prize in Physics in 1922 for his work on the structure of the
atom.

→ What Components Contributes to the Mass of an Atom?

• Rutherford’s model showed that most of an atom mass
is in its nucleus, while electrons are so light that their
mass can be ignored.
• However, a puzzle remained, a hydrogen atom has one
proton, while a helium atom has two protons, yet
helium is about four times heavier than hydrogen, not
just twice.
• Something in the nucleus must be adding mass without
adding charge.
• These are the components which contribute to the total
mass of an atom.
→ Discovery of the Neutron:
 • In 1932, James Chadwick (a student of Rutherford)
discovered a new subatomic particle with a mass nearly
equal to that of a proton but with no electrical charge.
• This neutral particle was named the neutron (symbol
n°). Neutrons are found in the nucleus of all atoms
except hydrogen.
James Chadwick, working under Rutherford at the Cavendish
Laboratory, Cambridge, discovered the neutron in 1932. This
breakthrough explained why atomic masses are larger than
the sum of just proton masses. He was awarded the Nobel
Prize in Physics in 1935. His discovery opened a new era in
nuclear physics, enabling the creation of artificial radioactive
elements and the splitting of atoms.
The mass of an atom comes mainly from its protons and
neutrons packed tightly in the nucleus. This is why atoms are
heavier than the mass of their protons alone.
Symbols and Relative Charge of Subatomic Particles

Subatomic Relative
Symbol Location
Particle Charge

Around
Electron e– 1
nucleus

Proton p+ +1 In nucleus

Neutron n° 0 In nucleus
Lighter atoms often have equal numbers of protons and L –
neutrons (e.g. carbon has 6 protons and 6 neutrons; oxygen
has 8 each). As atoms get heavier, the nuclei have many more
neutrons than protons (iron has 26 protons and 30 neutrons;
uranium has 92 protons and 146 neutrons). Neutrons help
reduce repulsion between protons and strengthen the
nuclear force that binds the nucleus together.

→ Symbols of Elements
To make chemistry easier, scientists use short symbols to
represent elements. John Dalton introduced the first pictorial
symbols in 1803 to represent the known elements.

In 1813, Berzelius suggested using letters from the Latin

names of elements. Today, the International Union of Pure
and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) approves the names and
symbols of all elements.
→ Rules for Writing Chemical Symbols:
• Many symbols use the first letter or the first two letters
of the element’s English or Latin name.
• The first letter of the symbol is always a capital
(uppercase), while the second letter (if present) is always
 lowercase, e.g. Hydrogen = H; Aluminium = Al (not AL);
Cobalt = Co (not CO).
• Some symbols are formed from the first letter and a
letter other than the second.
e.g. Chlorine = Cl; Zinc = Zn.
• Symbols of some symbols come from Latin, Greek, or
German names, e.g., Iron = Fe (from Latin ferrum);
Mercury = Hg (from Greek hydrargyros); Tungsten = W
(from German wolfram).
Name of some Common Elements and their Symbol

Note:
Scientists use symbols instead of full names because they are
internationally recognised and allow scientists worldwide to
communicate clearly, regardless of language.
→ Atomic Number:
The atoms of one element differ from those of another in the
number of protons (and electrons) they contain. The number
of protons in the nucleus of an atom of an element is known
as its atomic number, designated by the symbol Z. The atomic
number identifies an element.
Atomic Number (Z) = Number of protons in the nucleus
Since an atom is electrically neutral, the number of protons
must be equals the number of electrons. For example,
hydrogen has 1 proton and 1 electron (Z = 1). Helium has 2
protons and 2 electrons (Z = 2).
Example 1.
What is the atomic number of sodium, which has 11 protons?
Solution:
Atomic number of element = Protons in that element.
Atomic number Z = 11.
Since the atom is neutral, it also has 11 electrons.
→ Mass Number:
The total number of protons and neutrons present in the
nucleus of an atom is called its mass number, denoted by A.
Protons and neutrons together are called nucleons.
Mass Number (A) = Number of protons + Number of neutrons
In the standard notation, an element X with atomic number Z
and mass number A is written as
For example, the symbol for carbon is C, its atomic number is
6, and its mass number is 12. In notation, it would be written
as \({ }_6^{12} C\).
Note:
The electron has almost negligible mass compared to a
proton or neutron. Therefore, the mass number (A) is the
mass of the nucleons (protons + neutrons).
Mass Number of Different Elements

Element Protons (P+) Neutrons (n°) Mass Number (A)

Hydrogen 1 0 1

Helium 2 2 4

Lithium 3 4 7

Carbon 6 6 12

Nitrogen 7 7 14

Oxygen 8 8 16

Sodium 11 12 23

Chlorine 17 18 35
Example 2.
An atom has 11 protons and 12 neutrons. Find its
(i) atomic number and
(ii) mass number.
Solution:
(i) Atomic number (Z) = 11;
(ii) Mass number (A) = 11 + 12 = 23.
This is sodium (Na).
Example 3.
An atom has atomic number 17 and mass number 35. Find
the number of neutrons.
Solution:
Atomic number (Z) = 17
Mass number (A) = 35
Number of neutrons = A – Z = 35 – 17 = 18.
This is chlorine (Cl).
Example 4.
An atom has 26 protons and 56 nucleons. Find the number of
electrons and neutrons.
Solution:
Atomic number Z = 26 → Electrons = 26;
Neutrons = 56 – 26 = 30.
This is iron (Fe).
→ How are Electrons Distributed in Different Energy Levels?
Bohr and Bury suggested the following rules for filling
electrons into different shells
 • The maximum number of electrons in a shell is given by
the formula 2n2, where n is the shell number.
• K-shell (n = 1): maximum 2 × 12 = 2 electrons
• L-shell (n = 2): maximum 2 × 22 = 8 electrons
• M-shell (n = 3): maximum 2 × 32 = 18 electrons
• The maximum number of electrons in the outermost
shell is 8 (except the K-shell, which holds a maximum of
2 electrons).

Electrons are filled in different shells in order from the one

closest to the nucleus to outward K→ L → M → N …. A shell
must be completely filled before the next one starts filling.
Number of electrons and the electron distribution in the
shells of the first eighteen elements is given as follows.
Maximum electrons in a shell = 2n2 (n = shell number: 1,2,
3,……………)
Electronic Configuration
The distribution of electrons among the various shells of an
atom is called its electronic configuration. It is written as the
number of electrons in each shell, separated by commas (K, L,
M, N).
→ Combining Capacity of an Atom: Valency
• Atoms combine with other atoms to form molecules and
compounds. The number of atoms of hydrogen (or
chlorine) with which one atom of an element can
combine is called its combining capacity or valency.
• It is expressed in terms of hydrogen and chlorine
because both possess a combining capacity of one.
→ Valence Shell and Valence Electrons:
The outermost shell of an atom is called its valence shell. The
electrons present in the valence shell are called valence
electrons. The number of valence electrons determines how
an atom reacts.
→ The Octet Rule:
It has been observed that elements whose outermost shell
contains 8 electrons (octet) or 2 electrons in the case of
helium – are highly stable and unreactive. Atoms with
incomplete valence shells tend to lose, gain, or share
electrons to attain a complete octet.
→ Determining Valency:
The number of electrons gained, lost or shared to complete
an octet is called the valency of an element.
• If an atom has fewer than 4 valence electrons, it tends to
lose them to achieve stability (form positive ions).
• If an atom has more than 4 valence electrons, it tends to
gain electrons to complete its octet (form negative ions).
 • If an atom has exactly 4 valence electrons, it tends to
share electrons (form covalent bonds).
• If an atom has 8 valence electrons (complete octet), it is
stable and its valency is 0 (e.g. noble gases like neon and
argon).
→ Example of Valency:
• Sodium (Na) has electronic configuration 2, 8, 1. It has 1
valence electron. It loses this electron to get an octet (2,
8). Thus, valency = 1.
• Oxygen (O) has electronic configuration 2, 6. It has 6
valence electrons. It gains 2 electrons to complete its
octet (2, 8). Valency = 2.
• Carbon (C) Electronic configuration 2, 4. It has 4 valence
electrons and tends to share all four. Valency = 4.
• Neon (Ne) Electronic configuration 2, 8. It already has a
complete octet. It neither gain nor lose any electron.
Valency = 0.

Isotopes
Dalton proposed that all atoms of an element are identical.
Later, scientists discovered that atoms of the same element
have the same number of protons (same atomic number) but
different numbers of neutrons (different mass numbers).
Such atoms are called isotopes.
Isotopes: Same Z (atomic number) but different A (mass
number)
→ Isotopes of Hydrogen:
Naturally occurring hydrogen is a mixture of three isotopes
• \({ }_1^{1} H\) (Protium) – 1 proton, 0 neutrons (~
99.98% in nature)
• \({ }_1^{2} H\) (Deuterium) – 1 proton, 1 neutron (~
0.015%)
• \({ }_1^{3} H\) (Tritium) – 1 proton, 2 neutrons (trace
amounts)

→ Isotopes of Carbon:
Carbon has three isotopes: \({ }_6^{12} C\) (most abundant),
\({ }_6^{13} C\), and \({ }_6^{14} C\). All have 6 protons and 6
electrons but differ in the number of neutrons.

Chemical Properties of Isotopes Isotopes of an element have

similar chemical properties because they have the same
number of electrons and the same electronic configuration.
However, they differ in their physical properties (e.g. boiling
point, melting point) because they have different masses.
→ Applications of Isotopes:
Some isotopes have special properties that are useful in
various fields. Some of the applications of isotopes are

A. Average Atomic Mass

Most elements exist as a mixture of isotopes, the atomic
mass of an element is calculated as the weighted average
atomic mass accounting for the relative abundance of each
isotope in nature.
No single chlorine atom has a mass of 35.5 u. It means that in
a large sample of chlorine atoms, the weighted average mass
found to be 35.5 u, accounting for the abundance of each
isotope 35Cl (75 %) change and37Cl (25 %).
Mathematically,
35 × \(\frac{75}{100}\) + 37 × \(\frac{25}{100}\) =
\(\frac{142}{4}\) u = 35.5 u
Homi Jehangir Bhabha was an Indian physicist known as the
father of the Indian nuclear programme. He made pioneering
contributions to atomic energy in India and established key
institutions like the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
(TIFR) and the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), for
peaceful uses of atomic energy including electricity
generation, agriculture, and advanced medical treatments.

Isobars
When atoms of different elements have the same mass
number, but different atomic number, they are called isobars.
Isobars : Different Z (atomic number) but same A (mass
number)
For example, calcium (Z = 20), potassium (Z = 19), and argon
(Z = 18) all have a mass number of 40. They are different
elements but are isobars of each other because they all have
40 nucleons in their nuclei.
Comparision of Isotopes and Isobars

Property Isotopes Isobars

Atomic
Same Different
number (Z)
Mass
Different Same
number (A)

Chemical
Similar Different
properties

\({ }_1^{1} H\), \({ \({ }_18^{40} Ar\), \({

Example }_1^{2} H\), \({ }_1^{3} }_19^{40} H\) K, \({
H\) (hydrogen) }_20^{40} Ca\)

The journey of exploring the mysteries of the atom is far from

over, and exciting discoveries still he ahead.