REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS

Human beings are unisexual. There is sexual dimorphism which means males are visibly different from
females in physical build up, external genital organs and accesory sex characters. The structures
associated with male reproductive system are called male reproductive system and the structures
associated with females constitute female reproductive system.

The reproductive organs of both males and females are distinguished into primary and secondary sex
organs.

Primary sex organs: The primary sex organs are gonads, which produce gametes are sex cells and
secrete sex hormones. The gonads of the males are called testes which produce male gametes-sperm
and the male hormone-testosterone. the gonads of the females are ovaries which produce female
gametes-ova and female hormones-oestrogen and progesterone.

Secondary sex organs: The secondary sex organs include the genital ducts and glands which help in
transportation of gametes and reproductive process. They do not produce gametes or secrete
hormones.

Primary and secondary sexual characters

Primary sexual characters are those present at birth, whereas secondary sexual characters are those
that develop at puberty.

PUBERTY

Puberty is the age of human males and females at which the reproductive organs become functional,
gonads start producing gametes and sex hormones, and the boys and the girls become sexually mature.
It is attained between the age of 13 to 14 years in males and between 10 to 12 years in females.

In males, puberty is triggered by the secretion of the hormone testosterone from the testes. The
hormone brings about the development of secondary sexual characters during puberty and maintains
these throughout adult life.

In females, puberty is triggered by the production of the hormone oestrogen from the ovaries. This
hormone brings about the growth and maturation of the reproductive tract and the development of
secondary sexual characters. Puberty changes a girl child into a women fit to bear children.

Secondary sexual characters in human males: The secondary sexual characters in human males include :

1. Enlargement of penis and scrotum.

2. Broadening of the shoulders and increased muscle development.
3. Engorgement of larynx and thickening of vocal cords producing deepening of the voice.
4. Growth of pubic hair and extra hair on the face, in the armpits and on the chest.
5. Changes in behaviour associated with courtship and mating.
6. Increase in height.

Secondary sexual characters in human females: The secondary sexual characters in human females
include:

1. Growth of breasts and external genitalia.

 2. Growth of pubic hair and extra hair in the armpits.
3. Hair on beard, moustaches and chest are lacking.
4. Broadening of pelvis.
5. Initiation of mensuration and evolution.
6. Increase in the subcutaneous fat particularly in thighs, shoulders, buttocks and face.

Male reproductive system

Human male reproductive system consists of the following organs:

a) Testes
b) Scrotum
c) Vas deferns
d) Urethra
e) Penis
1. Testes: The human males poses two testes, which are the primary reproductive organs, lying
outside the abdominal cavity. The two testes are the male gonads in which male gametes i.e.
sperms are formed. The testes also produce the male sex hormone testosterone. The testes of
man produce sperms from puberty onwards, throughout his life.
2. Scrotum: the scrotum is a pouch of skin that hangs between the legs. The two testes lie in the
scrotal sacs. The scrotum acts as a thermoregulator and provides an optimal temperature for
the formation of sperms. The sperms develop at a temperature 1 to 3 degree centigrade lower
than the normal body temperature. The life of sperms is greatly reduced if the temperature is
higher.
3. Vas deferns: This is a straight tube, about 40 cm long, which carries the sperms to the seminal
vesicles. The sperms are stored temporarily in the seminal vesicle, where mucus and a watery
alkaline fluid containing the sugar fructose, mix with the sperms.
4. Urethra: It is about 20 cm long tube that arises from the urinary bladder to carry urine. It runs
through the penis and opens to the outside through male genital pore. The contents of two
seminal vesicles I.e. also come out through this urethra. Thus urethra carries urine from the
bladder, as well as sperms from the Vasa deferentia, through the penis.
5. Penis: It is long and thick muscular organ made up of mostly erectile tissue. It helps in the
transfer of sperms into the female genital tract at the time of copulation.

Female reproductive system

Female reproductive system is more complex as compared to that of males. Female reproductive system
consists of the following organs:

a) Ovaries
b) Fallopian tubes ( oviducts)
c) Uterus
d) Vagina

Ovaries: each human female contains two almond shaped ovary is located in the lower part of the
abdominal cavity near the kidney. Each ovary is connected by a ligament to the uterus. The ovaries are
primary sex organs which produce female gametes ova or ovum and female sex hormones oestrogen
and progesterone. The production of OVA starts at the age of puberty. Usually, one ovum is produced
every month during the fertile years of a women. After menopause the ovaries become small and stop
producing gametes.

Fallopian tubes: Fallopian tube is about 10 to 12 cm long muscular tube which carries eggs from the
ovary to the uterus and also provides the appropriate environment for its fertilization. The funnel
shaped opening and of each fallopian tube lies near the posterior end of each ovary. The other ends of
the long convoluted tubes open into the uterus.

Uterus: The uterus is a large, inverted pear shaped, muscular structure that lies behind the bladder. If
fertilization takes place the embryo gets attached to the wall of uterus and grows there until birth.

Vagina: This is a muscular tube about 7 to 10 cm long whose walls contain elastic tissue. It is well
adapted to receive the male gametes during copulation. The vagina is also called birth canal, as it allows
passage of the baby at the time of childbirth.

Menstrual cycle

The cycle of events taking place in female reproductive organs i.e. in ovaries and uterus, under the
control of sex hormones in every 28 days and marked by bleeding or menstrual flow, is called menstrual
cycle. It has three phases:

• Bleeding phase or Menstruation phase – 4 days

• Proliferative phase – 10 days
• Secretory phase – 14 days

Menarche and Menopause :

At Puberty, the commencement of mensuration is termed as Menarche. It marks the beginning of the
reproductive life of human females. The reproductive cycles continue to occur till the age of 50. After
this age, the Menstruation stops. Cessation of cycle of events in ovary and uterus around the age of 50
years and stoppage of menstrual flow is termed menopause. Thus, the normal reproductive life of
human females is the period between menarche and menopause.

Fertilisation :

Internal fertilization is an essential part of reproduction in human beings. This is achieved by copulation
or mating. During mating, the sperms are deposited into the female genital tract. This is called
ejaculation. Sperms are highly active and mobile. They travel from vagina top upwards through the
uterus to fallopian tube within 5 minutes. There, they spent several hours and undergo many chemical
changes. Finally, only one sperm fertilizes the ovum in the fallopian tube. The fusion of sperm nucleus
with the egg nucleus to form a diploid zygote is called fertilisation. Fertilization occurs only when
copulation occurs during ovulation period. It is marked by the stoppage of menstrual flow. The stoppage
of menstruation is the earliest sign of pregnancy.

Post fertilisation changes

Immediately after conception (i.e., fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote), the embryonic
development begins in the fallopian tube. After various divisions blastocyst is formed which comes to
the uterus, where it gets embedded in the thickened inner wall of the uterus. The close attachment of
blastocyst to the uterine wall is called implantation. It takes place about 7 days after fertilization.

Implantation is followed by a number of developmental changes in the blastocyst, as well as, in the wall
of uterus, which results in the formation of different embryonic layers (ectoderm, mesoderm and
endoderm) and successive development of young foetus(embryo). The first organ formed in developing
foetus, are neural tube and spinal cord. A special umbilical cord develops in the fourth week which
establishes an intimate connection between the foetal membrane and the uterine wall called placenta.
In the placenta the foetal blood comes very close to maternal blood, where the exchange of materials
between the mother's blood and the blood of foetus takes place. The foetus gets nutrients, water,
oxygen, minerals, vitamins etc. from the maternal blood and gives off wastes, carbon dioxide, urea etc.
Thus, the placenta serves as the nutritive, respiratory and excretory organ of the foetus.

The complete development of foetus, from the initial stage of conception till the birth of the young one,
is called gestation. It is also termed as pregnancy. Gestation is completed in about 280 days or 40 weeks
from the first day of the last mensuration. Gestation is followed by parturition. Parturition is the act of
expelling the full term young one from the mother’s uterus at the end of gestation. The new born child
after 280 days of gestation weighs about 3.5 kg.

Birth Control

The regulation of conception by preventive measures or devices to control the number of offspring is
called birth control. A number of preventive methods or devices have been developed for birth control.
The methods or devices of birth control which deliberately prevent fertilization (i.e., fusion of male
gamete with the female gamete) are referred to as contraception. These methods help women to avoid
unwanted pregnancies. These methods are broadly categorised as follows:

1. Barrier methods
2. Chemical methods
3. Intrauterine contraceptive device (IUCD)
4. Natural methods
5. Surgical methods

These methods are as follows:

1. Barrier methods: These are physical devices to prevent the entry of sperm in the female genital
tract during copulation. They also protect against sexually transmitted diseases. Some common
barrier methods are :
a) Condoms: These are thin, strong rubber sheaths used by men to cover the penis. It is
simple but effective and widely used contraceptive that has no side effect. It checks
pregnancy by preventing deposition of semen in the female genital tract. This method
gives best results when used regularly and put on before starting coital activities.
b) Femidoms: It is not a common contraceptive method. A femidom is a thin rubber or
polyurethane tube which fits inside vegina. It is used by female just before starting coital
activities.
c) Diaphragm (Cervical cap): It is a flexible rubber/plastic cover that is fitted over the cervix
in the female. It checks the entry of sperms into the uterus. These are smeared with the
 spermicidal jelly or cream and must be kept fitted for at least 6 hours after sexual
intercourse.
2. Chemical methods: Foam tablets, jellies, pastes, creams and spermicides are some common
chemicals used by females. These chemicals immobilize and kill the sperms.
Oral pills are also used to check ovulation. These are usually hormonal preparations and contain
oestrogen and progesterone.
Vaginal pills are drugs preparations which contain spermicides. They are used before copulation
by women.
3. Intrauterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD): These are contraceptive devices made of copper,
plastic or stainless steel. A Copper-T is inserted into uterus by a practicing doctor. It prevents
implantation in the uterus.
4. Natural methods: These methods include abstinence (avoid copulation), rhythm methods (avoid
copulation around the time of ovulation) and coitus interruptus (withdrawal of male genitals
before ejaculation).
5. Surgical methods: These methods are safe in the long run but they may cause infection and
other problems if not done properly. These methods include Vasectomy and tubectomy.
• Vasectom is a small surgical operation performed in males. It involves the removal of a
small portion of the sperm duct by surgical operation. The two cut ends are then ligated
(tied) with threads. This prevents the sperm coming out.
• Tubectomy is a surgical operation performed in females. It involves the removal of a
small portion of the fallopian tubes or oviducts by surgical operation. The cut ends are
then ligated (tied) with threads. It prevents the egg to enter the fallopian tube.

Both Vasectomy and Tubectomy are also known as methods of sterilization. These do not
affect the normal sexual life.

Abortion: Abortion is the medical termination of pregnancy(MTP) before the foetus becomes viable. It is
done by surgery. However, this method is widely misused by people who do not want a female child. It
is illegal and has been prohibited by law. Moreover, the female-male sex ratio must be maintained to
have a healthy society.