MINISTRY OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

COMPUTER SCIENCE SYLLABUS NOTES

FORMS 1 – 4
2015 - 2022

The syllabus consists of the following topics:

Hardware and Software

Application of Computer Science
Data Representation
Communication Networks and Internet technologies
Security and Ethics
Systems Analysis and Design
Algorithm Design and Problem Solving
Programming
Databases
Web Design
Technopreneurship

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What Is Computer?

Definitions:
1. An electronic device that works under the control of stored programs to automatically accept, store and
process data into information
2. It is an electronic and digital data processing machine.
3. It is an electronic and digital data processing machine which works with stored programs.
4. It is an electronic machine capable of accepting, processing, storing and output data or information

Definition of terms
Electronic- it uses electricity to perform its functions.
Digital- accept and process data in binary form/digits i.e. zeros and ones.
Processing- Transforming data into information.
Machine- Anything which makes work easier.
Stored Program- Set of instructions kept for execution.
Program - a set of coded instructions which a computer follows
Data: Data- Refers to raw facts/unprocessed information/ raw facts and figures of an activity. It can just
be a list of numbers, names or a combination of these. Data is meaningless and needs to be processed. Data
cannot be used for decision making purposes as it is meaningless.
Information: Refers to processed data which is meaningful to the user. It is data that has been converted into
meaningful form. In general it is processed data. Information can be understood and therefore can be used for
decision making purposes. Information is meaningful. To get relevant information, data entered into the
computer must be relevant, accurate and up-to-date. If data entered into the computer is wrong (Garbage In)
the results will also be wrong (Garbage Out), and is generally referred to as Garbage-In Garbage-Out (GIGO).
It is a rule stating that the quality of the output is a function of the quality of the input; put garbage in and you get
garbage out. Therefore the accuracy of the results produced by the computer depends on how accurate the user
enters data, functions, formulae and codes program procedures.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPUTER
 It is electronic: - can only work when there is electricity.
 It is a device: a machine.
 Is controlled by programs: Works according to instructions, written in computer language, given by the
user for it to perform a specific tasks.
 Is automatic in operation: Can work with minimum or no human intervention.
 Can accept data: data can be entered into the computer through various means and the computer
accepts it.
 Can store data and programs: Data and programs entered into the computer can be stored for future use.

CONFIGURATION DIAGRAM OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

INPUT DEVICES CENRAL OUTPUT DEVICES

e.g Keyboard, PROCESSING e.g Monitor,
mouse etc UNIT(CPU) Printer etc

STORAGE MEDIA
e.g Hard disk
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ADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS

 They process data at very high speed thus large volumes of goods can be produced.
 Computers are very accurate in making calculations and thus ensure that no calculation errors
occur.
 Computers are very reliable to use since they rarely makes mistakes.
 Computers store large volumes of data for a long period of time.
 Computers cut labour costs as they can perform duties that need many people.
 They replace humans and thus cut labour costs on wages, medical aid, retirement benefits, leave
payments, etc.
 Computers can work for 24 hours a day with no complains as humans.
 They do not get tired.
 Computers create employment for the community, for example, computer teachers (tutors),
programmers, computer technicians, database administrators, etc.
 High quality goods are produced using computers.
 Ensures efficient, easier and faster communication through the internet.
DISADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS
 Continuous usage can lead to health problems like Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI), back ache,
eye problems, etc.
 Lead to increase in computer crime (the use of computer to perform unlawful activities) like
computer fraud (improper electronic transfer of funds from one account to another using
computer).
 Hacking (Obtaining unauthorised accessed to protected and secure computer
systems or network, usually using intelligent methods), music and software piracy (illegal copying,
selling and buying copyrighted software without certification.).
 Data theft using computers, sending of viruses, etc.
 Copyright: A document granting exclusive right to use, publish and sell software, musical or
artistic work.
 Can lead to unemployment since computers can replace human labour as in car assemblies.
 Expenses related to repairs, maintenance and safety can be high.
 They only work when there is electricity.

End-user: A person or organisation who are the final beneficiaries of a program or a device like a
computer.

ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER

The main elements (components) of a computer are classified into Hardware elements and Software elements

HARDWARE

Hardware refers to tangible devices of a computer. These are parts of a computer that exits in physical
form, for example mouse, keyboard.

Hardware is grouped into: Input Hardware, Processing Hardware, Output Hardware, Storage hardware/devices

INPUT HARDWARE/ INPUT DEVICES

These are devices used to enter data into the computer, for example mouse and keyboard. Below are some of
the input hardware and their uses:

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KEYBOARD
Keyboards allow you to input letters, numbers, and other symbols into a computer that often function as
commands. It is a device used to enter data and instructions into the computer by typing. It is similar to the
traditional typewriter. It is used to enter alphabetic letters (A-Z-both lower case and upper case), numbers (0-9)
and other special characters like the %, $, coma, ?, and the space.

*NB: - A character is any single symbol, digit or letter that can be entered into the computer. These
characters can be numeric (numbers 0-9, positive and negative), alphabetic (letters A-Z, both lower and upper
case), alphanumeric data (a combination of both numeric and alphabetic characters) and special characters
(space, $, >, etc.).

*NB: - Control Character: - Refers to non-printable character code or number in the character set that do not
represent a written symbol. These are mostly used in peripheral devices control and for communication
purposes, for example, carriage return, tab or backspace; and others typed by depressing a key and the control
key at the same time.

*NB:-Extended Binary-Coded-Decimal Interchange Code

(EBCDIC) an 8-bit character set and encoding representing 256
alphanumeric and special characters

- ASCII - American Standard Code for Information Interchange:

- a code for information exchange between computers made by
different companies; in which a string of 7 binary digits
represents each character; used in most microcomputers. Each
character has its ASCII binary code that can be understood by
the computer.

Keyboard entry of data is manual and its excessive use without

breaks will cause Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI).

Advantages Disadvantages
Enables fast entry of new Users with arm/wrist problems can find keyboards hard to use
text into a document
Very easy to use Fairly large and take up desk space
Information appears on the Entering data can be slow when compared to direct data entry (e.g. scanning a
screen as it is typed so it is bank card)
easy to verify (check for
correctness)

MOUSE
It is a mouse shaped device used to enter data and instructions into the computer by
clicking. It can also be used for pointing and selecting items. Clicking is the process of
pressing and releasing the mouse button. It is a fast method of entering data and for selecting
Advantages Disadvantages items.
Faster to select an option compared to People with poor hand movement or
using a keyboard. disabilities can find mice difficult
Mice enable easy navigation around Easily damaged and ball mice pick up dirt and
applications and internet become clogged/blocked
Small and take up very little space Hard to use without flat surface

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 TRACKBALL

It is an input device with a small ball that can be moved by passing the palm of your
hand over it. This will move an arrow on the screen. It is used to draw designs and to
select options from menu. It is mostly found on laptop computer

Advantages Disadvantages
People with limited hand/wrist Trackerball tend to be more expensive than mice
movement find the easier to use
Pointer can be positioned more
accurately on the screen than with a
mouse
Take up less desk space than a mouse
as they do not need to be moved
around

SCANNER

This is an input device used to convert images from paper into electrical signals for input
into the computer. The images can then be edited, printed or saved. Mostly used to
scan pictures, photographs, etc. A scanner can be connected to a computer
using USB, Firewire, Parallel, or a SCSI port. The picture shows an example of a flatbed
photo scanner, the Epson V300.

Advantages Disadvantages
Images can be stored for later editing at a The quality of the scanned images can be limited depending
later date on the quality of the scanner.
Scanners are much faster than having to Images lose quality during the scanning process
type in the documents again
You can scan in damaged documents then Images can take up a lot of disk space
repair using Graphic Editing software

TOUCH SCREEN
A screen display on which you could enter data by pointing with a finger on intended option, used on (ATMs)-
Automated Teller Machines, cell phones, computers, etc.
pti
uc Advantages Disadvantages
Faster to select an option compared to using a People with poor hand movement or disabilities can
keyboard. find touchpad difficult
Touchpads enable easy navigation around More difficult to control the pointer when compared
applications and internet with the mouse
Included in the laptop so no need for separate mouse. More difficult to perform operations such as drag
This helps improve portability and drop
Can be used even when there are no flat surfaces
available
Don’t get clogged with dirt as ball mice can

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MICROPHONE
It is an analogue input device that recognises human voice for data entry into the
computer.

*NB:-An analogue device is a device that recognises data in continuously varying form, e.g.
microphone, wall watches (with minute, hour and second hand), fuel petrol gauge, speedometer, etc.

A microphone is used in voice recognition systems (voice synthesis). These are computerised systems that
allow users to communicate with the computer by talking (voice input). These systems are now over 90%
accurate and are appropriate for the handicapped, especially those without hands. They are very fast in entering
data and in giving instructions to the computer. They are speaker independent and can recognise natural
language. However, older systems were not speaker independent and allowed the user to speak slowly, using
specific words that were programmed for it to understand. Multimedia speakers, sound cards, a microphone and
voice recognition software are needed in voice recognition systems.
Advantages Disadvantages
Faster to read in text rather than type it in using a Sound files can be quite large and take up memory
keyboard
Sound input onto your computer can be edited Voice recognition software isn’t very accurate and can
using Sound Manipulation Software lead to errors (e.g. cannot tell the difference between
“their” and “there”).
Voice recognition can be used to make tasks
safer. (Like using voice to operate a radio in a
car

LIGHT PEN
A ballpoint shaped device used to enter data by writing on an ink pad. It is also used to make alterations on the
screen to the drawings, to write directly on the screen and to select commands.

GRAPHICS TABLET

Devices used to provide interface for drawing on the screen and links with the light pen.
Alternatively referred to as a drawing tablet and pen tablet, a graphics tablet is
a hardware input device that enables an artist to draw or sketch digitally using a pen
or stylus. They are helpful because they provide a more natural and precise feel than a
standard computer mouse. The picture to the right shows an example of a Pen Graphics
Tablet from Wacom.

DIGITAL CAMERA
A device use to capture photographs, films, videos or a combination of both for entry into the computer where
they can be edited.

Advantages Disadvantages
No film needed. No developing costs to view the Digital cameras can be very expensive
pictures
Images can be viewed immediately and Quality images can be quite large in size and can take

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 unwanted images can be deleted up a lot of memory
Images can be copied, edited, enlarged or Resolution (quality) of digital images are still not as
enhanced good as traditional printed images
Images can be added to websites or documents

WEBCAM
A webcam is a hardware camera connected to a computer that allows anyone connected to the
Internet to view either still pictures or motion video of a user or other object. The picture of the
Logitech Webcam C270 is a good example of what a webcam may look. Today, most webcams
are either embedded into the display with laptop computers or connected to the USB or Fire
Wireport on the computer. A digital camera designed to take digital photographs and transmit
them over the internet.

Advantages Disadvantages
Webcams can be left on constantly. They Picture is often of poor quality (image break up)
only activate themselves when you need
them
Allow people to have face to face They need to be connected to a computer and internet
conversations without needing to travel connection in order to work

Common uses of webcams include:

 Chatting: are commonly used to allow people to see each other whilst chatting over the internet.
Formally this is called 'teleconferencing'
 Tourists: There are hundreds Webcams of webcams dotted around the world that are pointed to an
interesting scene such as the outside view of a lab in the Arctic or maybe the Niagara Falls. The web
cam is attached to a computer which sends an image to a server on the internet on a regular basis.
People then connect to the server to see the latest image.
 Security: Webcams can also be used to capture an image only if movement is detected in the scene in
front of it so they are widely used in burglar alarm and other security equipment

BAR CODE READER

These are devices at Point of Sale Terminals (POS) that read bar codes on
products for automatic data entry into the computer. Mostly used in library
systems, luggage handling systems at airports, warehouse stock control, etc.

Bar codes are numbered vertical lines and spaces of varying size on products that provide data
for such a product to the computer when read by bar code readers. If the bar code reader fails
to read the bar codes, data is entered manually through the keyboard by entering the numbers below the bar
codes.

Advantages Disadvantages
Webcams can be left on constantly. They only Picture is often of poor quality (image break
activate themselves when you need them up)
Allow people to have face to face conversations They need to be connected to a computer and
without needing to travel internet connection in order to work

Bar codes have the following advantages:

 They are cheap and easy to use.
 They are very accurate in entering data.

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  They are a very fast means of entering data since they are an automatic data entry method.
 Customers can be served quickly as it increases speed and efficiency.
 Automatic re-ordering of goods in supermarkets is possible.
 Automatic stock taking is possible.
 Need for fewer people in the stores thereby cutting labour expenses.
 Out of date items can be automatically identified, there is no need to remember prices
(supermarkets).
 It becomes easier to do price changes.

Information found on bar codes includes:

 Product name
 Check digit.
 Product number.
 Country of origin.
 Manufacturer’s number.
 Weight
How the computer system checks that the barcode has been read correctly: either the computer performs the
following:

Calculates the check digit; remainder = 0 if barcode has been read correctly OR uses the weights and modulus
11 and use remainder
DOCUMENT READERS

These are devices used for entering data automatically into the computer by reading through documents.

These include:

 Optical Mark Recognition (OMR),

 Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
 Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

OPTICAL MARK RECOGNITION (OMR)

The Optical Mark Readers use light sensitive devices to sense pencil marks on a piece
of paper for automatic data entry into the computer. Light is reflected from the
document onto the Optical Mark Reader which records the output. It then records low
intensity/zero intensity at certain points. OMR is mostly used in marking multiple
choice exams at ZJC and „O‟ Level and reading pupils‟ registers. OMR is fast and
accurate in entering data. An Optical Mark Reader is the device that is used for
automatic data entry in OMR systems. OMR allows for the processing of hundreds or
thousands of physical documents per hour.

Advantages Disadvantages
Very fast way of inputting information. (10,000 Forms need to be accurately designed to make sure that
forms can be read per hour) the marks/shading are in correct position to be read by
the device.
100% accurate as documents are fed in If forms have been incorrectly filled in they cannot be
automatically and no need for user input. read properly.
(This means that they have to be manually checked

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 which takes a lot of time and costs a lot)
Can only read shaded areas (Cannot input or read text).

OPTICAL CHARACTER RECOGNITION (OCR)

It is the use of light sensitive devices to recognise alphabetic characters and numbers on a sheet of
paper for automatic data entry into the computer. Mostly used by insurance companies, in billing
systems and processing of Bank Giro-forms. An Optical Character Reader is the device that is used
for automatic data entry in OCR systems.
Advantages Disadvantages
Much faster way of entering information into The system can have difficulty reading handwriting.
the computer compared with using a
keyboard.
Cheaper than paying someone to manually Not a very accurate technique
enter information.
100% accurate as there is no manual entering As it is not 100% accurate, information needs to be
of information. (Device does it manually checked for errors. This is time consuming.
automatically)

MAGNETIC INK CHARACTER RECOGNITION (MICR)

A method of automatically entering data into the computer by reading

characters on documents past a magnetised field with iron oxide, e.g. reading
numbers on the bottom of a cheque. A Magnetic Ink Character Reader is the
device that is used for automatic data entry in MICR systems.

Advantages Disadvantages
Greater security than OCR because the special Only a very limited number of different characters can
ink characters cannot be changed. be read.
NO manual input… therefor less errors. (User Both Reader and Magnetic Ink are more expensive than
just swipes information through the reader). other methods of automatic data entry

Information can still be read even is someone

writes over the magnetic ink characters (Like
with a signature).

SENSORS
An object whose purpose is to detect events or changes in its environment then provide
corresponding output e.g temperature sensor, pressure sensor, light sensor, sounds sensor,
humidity or moisture sensor, water level sensor, movement sensor, switch or button sensor,
proximity sensor etc

REMOTE CONTROL
Component of an electronic device such as television set, DVD player, radio etc. to operate the
device wirelessly from short distances.

ADVANTAGES:

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  Portable
 Easy to use
 Convenient
 Saves energy (human)

DISADVANTAGES:

 Easily lost
 Need to be quiet close to object

NUMERIC KEYPAD
A numeric keypad, number pad, numpad, or ten key is the palm-sized, 17-key
section of a standard computer keyboard, usually on the far right. It provides calculator-
style efficiency for entering numbers. The numpad's keys are digits 0 to
9, addition (+), subtraction (-) , multiplication (*) and division (/) symbols, a decimal
point (.), Num Lock, and Enter. Laptop keyboards often do not have a numpad, but
may provide numpad input by holding a modifier key (typically labeled "Fn") and
operating keys on the standard keyboard. Particularly large laptops (typically those
with a 17 inch screen or larger) may have space for a real numpad, and many
companies sell separate numpads which connect to the host laptop by a USB
connection (many of these also add an additional spacebar off to the side of the zero where the thumb is
located, as well as an additional 00 key typical of modern adding machines and cash registers).

Advantages Disadvantages
Faster than keyboard for entering numeric Can be difficult to use due to small keys
information
Usually small devise (like mobile phones) are Difficult (but not possible) to enter text information.
easy to carry

JOYSTICK
An alternative to the mouse but specifically used for playing video games. There are many
different types, the more sophisticated respond to movement in 3 axis directions, as well as
having a number of configurable buttons.
It is also a pointing device used to move the cursor position on the screen. It consists of a small
vertical liver fitted on a base. Liver is used to move the cursor on the screen. It has a click,
double click and drag and drop switch.
Advantages of joysticks Disadvantages of joysticks
They give a better gaming experience for Some people find joysticks more difficult to control
racing or flying styles of computer games than a traditional mouse.
Joysticks are not particularly robust and can break
easily if too much force is used on them.

MAGNETIC STRIPE READER

Magnetic strips are usually found on the back of most credit cards, cheque` guarantee
cards, loyalty cards, membership cards etc. The magnetic strip can hold personal details
such as account number and name. The strip can contain
n up to 60 characters, stored magnetically.

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ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Simple for people to use - little or no training Very limited storage capacity for data
Cards are inexpensive to produce Data can be easily destroyed by strong magnetic fields
Not always secure as thieves can obtain the readers and
Data on the cards can be altered if necessary.
read the data on the card.
Security is improved by the use of PIN numbers to
confirm that the person is the rightful card owner

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OUTPUT HARDWARE/ OUTPUT DEVICES

These are devices that display or output information/work which has been processed/being processed/done by
the computer in a readable format to users or devices used to display and produce data and information held
inside the computer, for example: speakers, Graph plotters,Projector,Screen, Printer etc

SPEAKERS
Speaker is a hardware device connected to a computer's sound card that outputs sound
generated by the computer.
When computers were originally released, they had on-board speakers that generated a
series of different tones and beeps. As multimedia and games became popular, higher
quality computer speakers began to be released that required additional power. Because
computer sound cards are not powerful enough to power a nice set of speakers, today's
speakers are self-powered, relatively small in size, and contain magnetic shielding.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
They are provided with the computer. They can take up a fair amount of desk-space,
compared to headphones.
They're very simple to operate. They can distract people around you therefore
disrupting a communal work area.
They help blind people who would otherwise have
difficulty using a computer.
They can be useful for alerting computer users, even
when they're busy, such as in pop-ups.

HEADPHONES

Sometimes referred to as earphones, headphones are a hardware device that either plugs into
your computer (line out) or your speakers to privately listen to audio without disturbing anyone
else. The picture is an example of a USB headset from Logitech with a microphone and a popular
solution for computer gaming.

Advantages
 The sound can only be heard by the user (mostly)
 Portability - lightweight and easy to carry around
 Can listen to music on the move
 Although prices vary, many headphones and earphones are inexpensive

Disadvantages
 If music is played too loudly or for long periods of time there is a risk of permanent hearing loss
 Often not aware of surrounding noises such as cars in traffic or people talking
 If the music is too loud or the headphones not fitted correctly then others can hear an annoying sound
from them.
 Can be uncomfortable to wear for long periods of time.
 If the device is large e.g. a computer, it is not easy to move about the room while wearing the
headphones

BRAILLE READER
A braille reader, also called a braille display, is an electronic device that allows a
blind person to read the text displayed on a computer monitor. The computer sends

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the text to the output device, where it is converted to Braille and "displayed" by raising rounded pins through a
flat surface on the machine.
Braille readers come in various forms, including large units (about the size of a computer keyboard) and
smaller units, designed to work with laptops and tablet computers. There are also Braille reader apps
for smartphones and tablets that work in conjunction with a Bluetooth-connected Braille output device

SCREEN READER
A screen reader is any application that tries to read what is on a computer monitor using sound or some other
device. More specifically, a screen reader attempts to identify and interpret data that is being sent as output for
display. Once the data has been interpreted, it is presented to the user in some way; for instance a simulated
voice, a Braille output device, or text-to-speech software. Screen readers are quite helpful to those who are
visually impaired, blind, learning disabled, or unable to read. Common examples include Narrator for
Windows, VoiceOver for Mac OS, and ChromeVox for Chrome OS.

Advantages, Benefits and Different Uses of a Screen Reader

 It allows a blind person to use the computer
 It allows a blind person to create a document using a word processor like MS Word
 A blind can now read any article on the internet
 Also in writing email
 In social networking
 In writing a computer program
 If they want to communicate through instant messaging software
 If they want to make a blog
 They can also play some computer games, [Link] has a collection of accessible games for the
blind
 With the help of a screen reader, blind musicians now use an audio editing software to record, edit and
save their songs for example

Disadvantages of a Screen Reader

 Because visually impaired people only listen to a screen reader reading the text displayed on the
screen, they don’t usually have the chance to know the correct spelling of a certain word especially
when it’s not that common like medical terms etc. Sure they can make a screen reader to read character
by character after they hear a word that they don’t know the spelling but its time consuming.
 Screen readers use a computer sounding voice and some people find this very boring. Some companies
are doing their best to create speech synthesizers that can mimic how human read a sentence; like the
proper intonation.

PLOTTERS
Plotters are used to produce a hard copy of schematics, high quality drawings and
other similar applications.

They are used by engineers, architects and map-makers to draw plans of buildings,
diagrams of machines or large scale maps. They can also be used for many other
similar tasks.

A plotter differs from a printer in that it draws images using a pen that can be lowered, raised and moved
across the paper to form continuous lines. The electronically controlled pen is moved around the paper by
computer controlled motors.

Advantages of plotters
 Plotters can work on very large sheets of paper while maintaining high resolution.

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  They can print on a wide variety of flat materials including plywood, aluminum, sheet steel, cardboard,
and plastic.
 Plotters allow the same pattern to be drawn thousands of time without any image degradation.
Disadvantages
 Plotters are quite large when compared to a traditional printer.
 Plotters are also much more expensive than a traditional printer.

PROJECTOR

A projector is an output device that can take images generated by a computer and
reproduce them on a large, flat (usually lightly colored) surface. For
example, projectors are used in meetings or in class to help ensure that all
participants or students can view the information being presented.

Advantages of Projectors

 Large-Sized Picture: Digital projectors can be used to create extremely large sized images akin to
those seen in a cinema hall. Although a movie projector with very large light output can generate
images of up to 300", even commonly available digital projectors are capable of producing sharp
pictures as big as 120".
 Advantage While Creating Small Images: Even if the projector is used to produce smaller sized
images of up to 60", it can still save you a lot of money when compared to a LCD TV of the same size.
Moreover, the picture at this size is very bright and can even be used with a few lights on.
 Saves on Space: A ceiling mount projector does not occupy any space on the floor and remains mostly
unseen when not in use. Even a retractable screen can be put out of sight when not in use, which is
better than a bulky television set that is difficult to move frequently.
 Ease of Installation: Other than ceiling mount projectors that need an expert for installation, a normal
projector is easy to setup and can be done without much effort.

Disadvantages of Projectors

 Light Can Play Spoilsport: A projector works best when operated in low light conditions as the
pictures produced are clearer and brighter. This can often prove to be a disadvantage when you are
addressing a conference where your audience needs to take down notes.
 Costly Maintenance: The maintenance cost of home theatre projectors is often on the higher side than
that of a LCD television. The lamp of a projector needs to be replaced occasionally, depending on your
usage and the projector model.
 Separate Speakers Required: A movie projectors either has no audio of its own or has very little
sound that is inadequate if you want to watch movies or television programs. Therefore, setting up
home theatre projectors requires purchasing a separate audio system.
 Ceiling Mount Projectors: If you are looking to ceiling mount your movie projector to save up on
floor space, it should be noted that the process can be a little tricky and may require the services of an
expert. Also, a projection screen will require separate installation.

MONITOR
Also called screen or Visual Display Unit (VDU). It is the main way of getting the processed
data out of the computer. Monitors produce soft copy. Soft copy means it is not tangible and can
easily be changed. A monitor (or screen) is the most commonly used output device. They come
in many different shapes, sizes and forms. In an exam question, you will need to be able to
choose the best type of monitor and then explain your reasons.

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The picture on a monitor is made up of thousands of tiny coloured dots called pixels. The quality and detail of
the picture depends on the number of pixels that the monitor can display. The higher the number of pixels, the
better quality the output.

Larger monitors make working at the computer much easier on the eyes, but the larger the monitor, the more
money it costs!

PRINTERS

Printers produce “hard copy” printed on permanent material. Hard copy means it is tangible and
cannot be easily change.

ACTUATORS
Used to generate physical movement from signals sent by the computer which can be sent through wireless
transmission or cables.

An actuator is often part of a computer control system. The actuator is a mechanical device or motor which
carries out the action or decision made by the control system. For example the lens of this digital camera
moves in and out according to how much zoom is wanted.

This movement is controlled by an 'actuator'. In this case it is a tiny electric motor that is controlled by a
computer control system within the [Link] an actuator can be absolutely tiny or it can be truly massive
such as the devices that open and shut the Thames flood barrier gates.

But they all do the same thing, namely allow a computer to control movement or action.

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 15

PROCESSING DEVICES
These are devices used to convert and to manipulate data as per user requirement. The sole processing device
of a computer is the processor, which is inside the Central Processing Unit (CPU) casing. Processing
involves sorting of data, updating records, searching certain records, adding a sequence of numbers, and
others.
Functions of the processor include:

 Controls the sequence of instructions.

 Processes all instructions given by the user.
 Give commands to all parts of the computer.
 Carry out data processing like making calculation to data given by the user.

Most of the computers have micro-computers (small execution chip found in microcomputers). With MS-DOS
(Microsoft Disk Operating System) computers, chips progressed from 286, 386 and 486 processors. Intel
Corporation then developed Pentium processors, ranging from Pentium 1, Pentium 2, Pentium 3 and Pentium 4,
with each processor being faster than the preceding one. Pentium 4 processors have a speed of about 2.6 GHz.
Newer chips are faster in processing. The speed of a processor determines the speed and function of a
computer.

Until the 1980s, most computers had one processor, but recent ones have two or more processors (called co-
processors), those with two processors are called dual processors. Two or more processors share loads and
therefore perform operations faster. The speed of a computer is also determined by the clock speed for each
microprocessor. This speed is measures in Megahertz (MHz).

The structure of the CPU or Processor is as illustrated below:

ARITHMETIC
CPU
AND LOGIC
UNIT

INPUT CONTROL OUTPUT

UNIT

MAIN
MEMORY

The processor comprises of: Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) and the Control Unit (CU)

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) Functions

 Carries out arithmetic operations like add, subtract, divide, etc - Performs logic operations, like AND, OR,
etc

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 16

(b) Control Unit (CU)

 It coordinates and controls all hardware operations; It carries out the Fetch-Execute Cycle. ALU
operations on data are first loaded into the accumulator register, which store instructions, data being
processed and results of an operation.

Arithmetic and Logic Unit

This unit performs the arithmetic and logical operations on the data and instructions supplied by the input
devices, under the command from the control unit. The basic arithmetic operations performed are addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division, which are built into the control unit. In addition to arithmetic
operations computer can perform logical operations as well e.g. comparing two or more numbers or letters,
making decision according to the defined criteria, etc. this is a place where data is manipulated and the result
are communicated to memory.
Control Unit
This is the most important unit in a computer system. It supervises the entire operation of a computer system;
it acts as a traffic policeman, which controls the traffic of data and electronic signals between various units
and components of computer. It instructs the input device when to start and stop the input to memory, it
transfer the input information from memory to arithmetic and logic unit, it selects the proper operations to be
carried out, it directs the memory unit when to start and stop the transfer of information to output unit, etc.
therefore the function of control unit in a computer is to maintain order and direct the flow of operations in a
proper manner. It acts like central nervous system for various units of a computer.
Central Processing Unit
Control Unit, Arithmetic Logic Unit of a computer system are together known as Central Processing Unit
(CPU). The CPU is the brain of a computer system. In human body, the brain takes all major decisions and
other part of the body function as directed by the brain. Similarly, in a computer system, all major calculations
and comparisons takes place inside the CPU and the CPU is responsible for activating and controlling the
operations of other units of the computer system.

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 17

THE FETCH AND EXECUTE CYCLE

Step 1. Fetch instruction: In the instruction phase, the computer’s control unit fetches the instruction to be
executed from memory. Microprocessor gets software instruction telling it what to do with data.
Step 2. Decode instruction: Then the instruction is
decoded so the central processor can understand what is
to be done. Microprocessor determines what the
instructions mean.
Step 3. Execute the instruction: In the execution phase,
the ALU does what it is instructed to do, making either
an arithmetic computation or a logical comparison.
Microprocessor performs the instruction.
Step 4. Store results: Then the results are stored in the
registers or in memory.
Step 3 & 4 are called the execution phase. The time it
takes to complete the execution phase is called the
EXECUTION TIME (E-time).
After both phases have been completed for one instruction, they are again performed for the second
instruction, and so on.

Buses
 A bus is a pathway through which data and signals are transferred from one device to another in the
computer system.
 They are a set of parallel wires connecting two or more components of the computer.
 Buses can be internal or external.
 Buses can be generally referred to as system bus and this connect the CPU, memory and I/O devices.
 Each bus is a shared transmission medium, so that only one device can transmit along a bus at any one time.
 Multiple devices can be connected to the same bus

The main types of buses are:

- Data bus:
 Used for carrying data from memory to the processor and between I/O ports.
 Comprises of either 8, 16, 32 or 64 separate parallel lines
 Provide a bi-directional path for data and instruction’s between computer components. This means that the
CPU can read data from memory and input ports and also send data to memory and output ports.
 The width of the bus determines the overall system performance. For example, if the data bus is 8 bits wide,
and each instruction is 16 bits long, then the processor must access the main memory twice during each
instruction cycle

- Address bus:
 Used for transferring memory addresses from the processor when it is accessing main memory
 They are used to access memory during the read or write process
 The width of the address bus determines the maximum possible memory capacity of the computer.
 This a uni-directional bus (one way). The address is send from CPU to memory and I/O ports only.

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 18

- Control bus:
 The purpose of the control bus is to transmit commands, timing and specific status information between
system components. Timing signals indicate the validity of data and address information. Command signals
specify operations to be performed. Specific status signals indicate the state of a data transfer request, or the
status of request by a components to gain control of the system bus
 This is a bi-directional bus used for carrying control signals (Signals can be transferred in both directions).
 They carry signals to enable outputs of addressed port and memory devices
 Control signals regulate activities on the bus.
 Control buses transmit command, timing and status information between computer components.

Fan
A fan is used to cool the processor. It blows away hot air so that the processor remains cool.

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 19

STORAGE DEVICES
These are devices used to store data and programs for future use.

STORAGE UNIT
Data and instructions entered into a computer system through input units have to be stored inside the computer
before actual processing starts. Similarly, results produced by the computer after processing have to be kept
somewhere inside the computer system before being passed on to an output unit. Moreover, a computer must
also preserve intermediate results for ongoing processing. Storage unit of a computer system caters to all these
need. It provides space for storing data and instructions, intermediate results, and the results for output.
Methods of storing data:
Refers to ways files and records are stored on a storage media, that is the arrangement of data. These include:
- Serial Storage: Data is stored as they occur without following any order, as on magnetic tapes.
- Sequential Storage: Data is stored using a predefined order, either in ascending or descending order of a
key field, as occurs on magnetic tapes.
- Direct (Random) Storage: Data is stored in a random way using an index, as on diskettes, hard disks, CD-
ROMs, etc.
Methods of Accessing Data
These are methods used to retrieve data held on storage media. These include:
(1) Serial Access: Data is retrieved in the order it is stored, reading files one after another from the first until
the required data is found in an unsorted list of records. It is very slow and time wasting in accessing records
far away from the first position but is faster to access data at first position of the disk. It is used in magnetic
tapes.
(2) Sequential Access: Data is retrieved in the order stored, from the first until the required data is found,
using a key field in a sorted list of records, as in magnetic tapes.
(3) Direct (Random) Access: Data is retrieved by going directly to the needed file, as applied in hard disks,
diskettes, CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, Memory Sticks, etc. It is a very fast method of accessing data.

MEASUREMENT OF STORAGE CAPACITY

It is important that you understand a little about the measurements used to define storage capacities:

Bit: Computer are digital. This means they work by processing ones and zeros. The basic one or zeros is
called a bit of information.
Byte: There are eights bits in a Byte.
KB - Kilobyte: There are approximately a thousand bytes in a KB (also called a KByte)
MB - Megabyte: There are approximately a million bytes in a MB (also called a MByte)
GB - Gigabyte: There are approximately a thousand, million bytes in a GB (also called a GByte)
TB - Terabyte: There are approximately a million, million bytes in a TB (also called a TByte).

UNIT ABREVIATION STORAGE

Bit B Binary digit 1 or 0
Nibble 4 bits
Byte B 8 bits
Kilobyte KB 1024 Bytes
Megabyte MB 1024 KB
Gigabyte GB 1024GB
Terabyte TB 1024 TB
Petabyte PB 1024 PB
Exabyte EB 1024 EB
Zetabyte ZB 1024 ZB
Yottabyte YB 1024 YB

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 20

TYPES OF MEMORY
Storage unit of all computers is comprised of the following two types of storage:
 Primary memory/storage and
 Secondary memory/ storage

PRIMARY STORAGE
Primary storage, also known as main storage or memory, is used to hold pieces of program instruction and
data, intermediate result of processing, and recently produced result of those jobs on which computer is
currently working. These pieces of information are represented electronically in the main memory chip’s
circuitry and while it remains in the main memory, CPU can access it directly at a very fast speed. It is volatile
in nature i.e. as soon as the computer is switched off or reset, the information hold by it is erased. Primary
storage normally has limited storage capacity and is very expensive. In modern computers it is made up of
semiconductors.

TYPES OF PRIMARY MEMORY

Primary memory is subdivided in two types:
1. RAM:- Random access memory and
2. ROM:- Read Only Memory

1. Random Access Memory (RAM)

Random Access Memory (RAM) is the best known form of computer memory. The
Read and write (R/W) memory of a computer is called RAM. The RAM is a volatile
memory; it means information written to it can be accessed as long as power is on. As
soon as the power is off, it cannot be accessed. RAM holds data and processing
instructions temporarily until the CPU needs it. RAM is considered “random access”
because you can access any memory cell directly if you know the row and column that
intersect at that cell. RAM is made in electronic chips made of so called semiconductor
material, just like processors and many other types of chips.

2. Read Only Memory (ROM)

One major type of memory that is used in PCs is called read - only memory or ROM for short. ROM is a type
of memory that normally can only be read, as opposed to RAM which can be both read and written.

There are two main reasons that read-only memory is used for certain functions within the PC:
 Permanence: The values stored in ROM are always there, whether the power is on or not. A ROM can
be removed from the PC, stored for an indefinite period of time, and then replaced, and the data it
contains will still be there. For this reason, it is called non-volatile storage.
 Security: The fact that ROM cannot easily be modified provides a measure of security against
accidental (or malicious) changes to its contents.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RAM AND ROM

RAM ROM
1 Is Volatile Non-volatile
2 Stores user’s programs and data during Contains boot-up file and BIOS
usage
3 Needs top-up (to be upgraded/increased) Do not need top-up
4 Stores data temporarily Stores data permanently
5 Writable Memory Read Only (not Writable)
6 Has bigger storage capacity Has less storage capacity

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 21

SECONDARY STORAGE
Secondary Storage of a computer is also known as auxiliary storage, is used to take care of the limitations of
primary storage. That is, it supplements the limited storage capacity and volatile characteristic of primary
storage. This is much cheaper than the primary storage and can retain information even when the computer
switches off or resets. Secondary storage holds the program instructions, data and information of those jobs on
which the computer system is not currently working but needs to hold them for processing later.

STORAGE MEDIA
Regardless of the repository model that is used, the data has to be stored on some data storage medium.

Magnetic tape
Magnetic tape has long been the most commonly used medium for bulk data storage, backup, archiving, and
interchange. Tape has typically had an order of magnitude better capacity-to-price ratio when compared to
hard disk, but recently the ratios for tape and hard disk have become a lot closer. There are many formats,
many of which are proprietary or specific to certain markets like mainframes or a particular brand of personal
computer. Tape is a sequential access medium, so even though access times may be poor, the rate of
continuously writing or reading data can actually be very fast. Some new tape drives are even faster than
modern hard disks.

Magnetic tapes have the following advantages:

 Data can be arranged in an ordered sequence.
 They are re-usable, that is can be overwritten several times.
 Suitable for high hit rate processing systems like payroll, billing systems, etc.
 They last for a very long period of time, and thus can be used to keep historical records.
 They are very cheap to buy.
 They store very large volumes of data, of up to 20 GB.
 They are small, robust, and portable and provide low cost storage per GB.

However, they have the following disadvantages:

 It takes too long to find (search for) a needed record in a long list of data records.
 It is very difficult to update record held in a magnetic tape.
 It takes too long to update records, time wasting.
 They are prone to humid (moist) conditions.
 They are very slow to write to and read from

Hard disk (internal and external)

Stores your operating system, application programs and data. When you save data, it is normally saved to the
hard disk.

The capacity-to-price ratio of hard disk has been rapidly improving for many years. This is making it more
competitive with magnetic tape as a bulk storage medium. The main advantages of hard disk storage are low
access times, availability, capacity and ease of use.[8] External disks can be connected via local interfaces like
SCSI, USB, FireWire, or eSATA, or via longer distance technologies like Ethernet, iSCSI, or Fibre Channel.
Some disk-based backup systems, such as Virtual Tape Libraries, support data deduplication which can
dramatically reduce the amount of disk storage capacity consumed by daily and weekly backup data. The main
disadvantages of hard disk backups are that they are easily damaged, especially while being transported (e.g.,
for off-site backups), and that their stability over periods of years is a relative unknown.

Hard disks have the following advantages:

 It is easier to access data stored on hard disks.
 They have a long life span, of about 5 years or more.
 Provides direct access to data.

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 22

  It is easier and faster to update data on hard disks.
 They are more robust.
 Have large storage capacity, about 300 GB or more.
 Very reliable to use

OPTICAL STORAGE
Optical storage devices save data as patterns of dots that can be read using light. A laser beam is the usual
light source.

The data on the storage medium is read by bouncing the laser beam off the surface of the medium. If the beam
hits a dot it is reflected back differently to how it would be if there were no dot. This difference can be
detected, so the data can be read.

CD / DVD: These have largely replaced diskettes as a way of supplying programs. They can hold a lot more
data. Recordable CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray Discs are commonly used with personal computers and generally
have low media unit costs. However, the capacities and speeds of these and other optical discs are typically an
order of magnitude lower than hard disk or tape. Many optical disk formats are WORM type, which makes
them useful for archival purposes since the data cannot be changed. The use of an auto-changer or jukebox can
make optical discs a feasible option for larger-scale backup systems. Some optical storage systems allow for
cataloged data backups without human contact with the discs, allowing for longer data integrity
Dots can be created using the laser beam (for media that is writable such as CD-Rs). The beam is used in a
high-power mode to actually mark the surface of the medium, making a dot. This process is known as
‘burning’ data onto a disc.

Uses of compact disks:

 Transferring data from one computer to another.
 Creating backup storage for programs and data.
 Booting the computer when loading the operating system or restoring damaged system files (system
repair).

Advantages of CDs:
 Provide fast and direct access to data.
 Has large storage capacity of about 750 MB.
 Produces high quality sound and pictures.
 It is a multi-media device.

Disadvantages of CDs: Can be affected by direct sunlight. Less durable. They can easily get scratched. Not
so easy nor fast to save data on them

This is a magnified view of the dots on the surface of a CD.

The different patterns of dots correspond to the data stored on the disc.

Read-Only Optical Discs

Read-only optical discs have data written onto them when they are manufactured. This
data cannot be changed.

CD-ROM

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 23

 Compact Disc - Read-Only Memory (CD-ROM) discs can hold around800MB of data. The data
cannot be altered (non-volatile), so cannot be accidently deleted. CD-ROMs are random-
access devices.
CD-ROMs are used to distribute all sorts of data: software (e.g. office applications or
games), music, electronic books (e.g. an encyclopaedia with sound and video.)

DVD-ROM
Digital Versatile Disc - Read-Only Memory (DVD-ROM) discs can hold around 4.7GB of data
(a dual-layer DVD can hold twice that). DVD-ROMs are random-access devices.
DVD-ROMs are used in the same way as CD-ROMs (see above) but, since they can hold more
data, they are also used to store high-quality video.

High Capacity Optical Discs

Blu-Ray
Blu-Ray disks are a recent replacement for DVDs. A Blu-Ray disc can hold 25 - 50GB of data (a
dual-layer Blu-Ray disc can hold twice that). Blu-Ray discs are random-access devices.
Blu-Ray discs are used in the same way as DVD-ROMs (see above) but, since they can hold more
data, they are also used to store very high-quality, high-definition (HD) video.
The 'Blu' part of Blu-Ray refers to the fact that the laser used to read the disc uses blue light
instead of red light. Blue light has a shorter wave-length than red light (used with CDs and
DVDs).

Using a blue laser allows more data to be placed closer together on a Blu-Ray disc, than on
a DVD or CD, so Blu-Ray has a much higher storage capacity than these older discs.

HD DVD
High-density DVD (HD-DVD) discs can hold around 15GB of data (a dual-layer HD-DVD can
hold twice that). HD-DVDs are random-access devices.
HD-DVD discs are used in the same way as DVD-ROMs (see above) but, since they can hold
more data, they are also used to store very high-quality, high-definition (HD) video.
The HD-DVD format was launched at the same time as Blu-Ray. For about a year they
competed to be the 'next DVD'. For various reasons, Blu-Ray won the fight, and the HD-DVD
format has been abandoned.
Recordable Optical Discs
Recordable optical discs can have data written onto them (‘burnt’) by a computer user using a special disc
drive (a disc ‘burner’).
CD-R and DVD-R
CD-Recordable (CD-R) and DVD-recordable (DVD-R) discs can have data burnt onto them, but not erased.
You can keep adding data until the disc is full, but you cannot remove any data or re-use a full disc.

CD-RW and DVD-RW

CD-ReWritable (CD-RW) and DVD-ReWritable (DVD-RW) discs, unlike CD-Rs and DVD-Rs, can
have data burnt onto them and also erased so that the discs can be re-used.
When CD-Rs and DVD-Rs are burnt, the laser makes permanent marks on the silver-coloured metal layer.
This is why these discs cannot be erased.

When CD-RWs and DVD-RWs are burnt the laser makes marks on the metal layer, but in a way that can be
undone. So these discs can be erased.

DVD-RAM
DVD-Random Access Memory (DVD-RAM) discs are a type of re-writable DVD. They often
come in a floppy-disc style case (to protect the disc).

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 24

DVD-RAM discs have a similar capacity to a normal DVD, holding4.7GB of data. DVD-RAM discs
are random-access devices.

DVD-RAM discs are used in many camcorders (video recording cameras).

The discs are much higher quality than normal DVD-RWs and can reliably store data for up to
30 years. This means that they are often used for video and data back-up and archiving.

Uses of DVDs:
 Transferring large volumes of data from one computer to another.
 Creating backup storage for programs and data.
 Booting the computer when loading the operating system or restoring damaged system files (system
repair)

Advantages of DVDs:
 Provide fast and direct access to data.
 Has large storage capacity of about 4.7 GB or more.
 Produces high quality sound and pictures.
 It is a multi-media device.

Disadvantages of DVDs:
 Can be affected by direct sunlight.
 Less durable.
 They can easily get scratched.

Caring for DVDs, VCDs and CDs:

 Do not expose them to direct sunlight.
 Do not touch the recording surface.
 Use soft marker for labelling and not ball point.
 Keep them free form dust conditions.

SOLID STATE STORAGE

USB Flash Drives: These are small, stick-like devices that plug into a USB port. They can stores Gigabytes
of information and are an easy way to transfer data from one computer to another.
There are security considerations attached to use of these devices as it is easy to copy
large amounts of data to these devices and then take that information out of the office,
for this reason many companies ban the use of these devices. When using a USB flash
drive the drive is listed within the Windows Explorer program in exactly the same way
that your hard disk is. It will have a drive letter associated with it.

Also known as flash memory, thumb drives, USB flash drives, CompactFlash,
SmartMedia, Memory Stick, Secure Digital cards, etc., these devices are relatively expensive for their low
capacity in comparison to hard disk drives, but are very convenient for backing up relatively low data
volumes. A solid-state drive does not contain any movable parts unlike its magnetic drive counterpart, making
it less susceptible to physical damage, and can have huge throughput in the order of 500Mbit/s to 6Gbit/s. The
capacity offered from SSDs continues to grow and prices are gradually decreasing as they become more
common.

Storage capacity ranges from 1 GB, 2 GB, 4 GB, 8 GB and 32 GB.

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 25

Advantages of Memory Sticks:
 have a long life span about 3 yrs.
 Have large storage capacity about 32 GB or more.
 Provide direct access to data.
 Very cheap to buy.
 Portable since they can fit in a pocket.

Disadvantages of Flash Drives:

 Older machines have no sockets to plug in memory sticks.
 They need software/drivers installed for them to work.
 They can get lost easily.
 Virus spread quickly through them.

REMOTE BACKUP SERVICE/ONLINE STORAGE

With the advent of high speed internet connections it is now possible to store your files online. This allows
you to access your files from any computer with an Internet connection. If you wish you can also give
permission for other people to access your files, for example you could allow family members to access your
digital photo collection.

As broadband Internet access becomes more widespread, remote backup services are gaining in popularity.
Backing up via the Internet to a remote location can protect against some worst-case scenarios such as fires,
floods, or earthquakes which would destroy any backups in the immediate vicinity along with everything else.
There are, however, a number of drawbacks to remote backup services.
 First, Internet connections are usually slower than local data storage devices. Residential broadband is
especially problematic as routine backups must use an upstream link that's usually much slower than
the downstream link used only occasionally to retrieve a file from backup. This tends to limit the use
of such services to relatively small amounts of high value data.
 Secondly, users must trust a third party service provider to maintain the privacy and integrity of their
data, although confidentiality can be assured by encrypting the data before transmission to the backup
service with an encryption key known only to the user. Ultimately the backup service must itself use
one of the above methods so this could be seen as a more complex way of doing traditional backups.

Diskette (floppy disk): The original IBM PC did not have a hard disk, the operating system, programs and
data had to be contained in one or two diskettes. Later a hard disk was
added, after which point diskettes were used for supplying programs
which could be installed (i.e. copied) to the hard disk, or you could
back up small amounts of data to the diskette. Most modern PCs are no
longer supplied with a diskette drive, due to the fact that diskettes are
unreliable and are easily damaged. They only hold very small amounts
of data.

During the 1980s and early 1990s, many personal/home computer

users associated backing up mostly with copying to floppy disks.
However, the data capacity of floppy disks failed to catch up with
growing demands, rendering them effectively obsolete.

Uses of diskettes are:

 Creating backups for small amounts of data.
 Transferring small amounts of data from one computer to another.
 Booting up the computer in case of system failure, for system recovery.
 Storage of small programs and data.

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 26

Advantages of Diskettes:
 They are portable (easy to carry around as they can fit in a shirt pocket.).
 Conceals less electricity.
 Most are high Double Density Diskettes.

Disadvantages of Diskettes:
 have very short life span (not durable).
 Can be affected by humid conditions.
 Can easily be affected by dusty conditions.
 Can easily be damaged if placed close to the screen for a long time.
 Takes long to read data into memory than from a hard disk.
 Hold very small amount of data, 1.44 MB.

Caring for diskettes:

 Do not place them near magnetised field or near the computer screen.
 Keep them free from dust.
 Keep of dry place.
 Do not expose them to direct sunlight.

Network Drives: Seen by your computer as a normal drive, but in reality the network drive is a folder located
on another computer which is connected to the network.

ZIP DRIVE
Zip Drives: Similar to diskettes in shape but does not flop. Data is stored in a random way. Data is accessed
in a random way. Storage capacity is 100 MB.
Advantages of Zip Drives:
 They are portable (easy to carry around as they can fit in a shirt
pocket.).
 Conceals less electricity.
 Relatively cheap
 Most are high Double Density drives.
 More durable than diskettes
 Good for archiving data

Disadvantages of Zip Drives:

 Hold small amount of data of about 100 MB.
 Not as compact as USB flash drive
 Slow data transfer rates

*NB: - Virtual Memory – Refers to temporary storage (on hard disk) used by the computer to run programs
that need more memory (RAM) than the computer has. For example, programs could have access to 4
gigabytes of virtual memory on a computer's hard drive, even if the computer has only 32 megabytes of RAM.

HARDWARE MAINTENANCE

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 27

Computer hardware maintenance involves taking care of the computer's physical components, such as its
keyboard, hard drive and internal CD or DVD drives. Cleaning the computer, keeping its fans free from dust,
and defragmenting its hard drives regularly are all parts of a computer hardware maintenance program.
Maintaining hardware helps to extend the computer's lifespan. It helps to prevent wear and tear, and keeps the
system functioning smoothly.

SYSTEM MAINTENANCE
Keep your system functioning smoothly by managing hard drive space, scanning for system errors and
regularly defragmenting the hard drive. Virus protection is also important, as some viruses can interfere with
computer hardware.

PHYSICAL MAINTENANCE
Keeping computers away from dust and dirt, keeping them clean and avoiding extreme temperature changes
all help to maintain hardware. Keep liquids away from the computer. Solvents should never be used to clean a
computer; rather, you should wipe the monitor and keyboard regularly with a soft cloth.

SOFTWARE
Software refers to a set of instructions written in computer language that tell a computer to perform a specific
task, like adding a set of numbers. It is program designed to give instructions to the computer. Without
software, a computer will be useless.
TYPES OF SOFTWARE
Software is grouped into systems software and application software.

SYSTEMS SOFTWARE:
Refers to programs that control and manages the performance of all computer systems.

Systems software comprises of:

(a) Operating systems (b) Utility programs (c) Translators

a) Operating System
It refers to the programs that supervise, control and manage the performance of the computer hardware in
accordance with set objectives for example Windows XP.
Examples of operating systems include
 Windows 95
 Windows 98.
 Windows 2000.
 Windows XP
 Windows VISTA
 Windows 7
 Windows 8.
 Microsoft Disk Operating System (MS-DOS),
 Unix, Linux, OS/2
 Android
FUNCTIONS OF THE OPERATING SYSTEM

 Controls movement of data to and from peripherals.

 Acts as a background on which application programs can run.
 Manages hardware, software and memory resources of a computer.
 Acts as an interface between the user and the computer.

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  Scheduling and loading of programs to provide continuous job processing sequence.
 Provides a log of users for the computer.
 Handling of errors and correcting them where possible.
 Protect hardware, software and data from improper use.
 Control over the selection and operation of input, output and storage devices of the computer.

FEATURES (CHARACTERISTICS) OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

 It must be reliable in terms of being free from errors and handling of all jobs.
 Efficient, that is should be able to use resources fully ensuring good job processing, response
time, turnaround time, etc
 It must be maintainable
 Must be small in terms of storage space on the disk.

Response time - the time that elapses from the moment an instruction is given to the computer and the
time that instruction is carried out.
Turnaround time - the time taken from the moment a document is produced by a computer and the
moment it is used as an input document to that computer again.

NB. Most operating systems are written in low level language. This is for them to quickly coordinate
computer activities since they will not be converted as they are already in machine language.

The following must be considered when buying an operating system:

 Hardware type and computer design e.g. Windows operating system works well on IBM
compatible machines.
 Applications intended for the computer e.g. accounting, stock taking, etc.
 Method of communicating with the computer, that is, use of few or many peripherals and
terminals.
 Method of operating the computer e.g. multi access, multi programming, etc

TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

1. Single User Operating Systems: These are operating systems that allow one computer user at a
time in an interactive mode, for example MS-DOS, CP/M, OS/2, etc.

Advantages of Single user operating systems are:

 They are cheap to buy, They are interactive, that is, they allow a two way communication between the
user and the computer in a conversational mode, They ensure better security to data since they only
allow one user at a time, They provide simple command language.
Disadvantages of Single user operating systems are:
 They are very slow in processing data.
 Most of the computers are dedicated to one task.
 The commands are difficult to learn and to use.
 Commands are difficult to master.

NB- Control Programs: These are programs that monitor hardware operation on the computer.

Monitor (supervisor) programs: - These are programs that supervise and manage hardware and software
elements of the computer

2. Time sharing operating systems: This type of operating system allows many users to use the

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same processor at a time, using the round robin method by use of time slices. In Round Robin, each
user is given a fraction of a second to use the processor so that all users seem not to be sharing the
processor.

*NB: - Time slice: A brief period of time during which a particular task is given control of the
microprocessor in a time-sharing multitasking environment. A computer's processor is allocated to an
application, usually measured in milliseconds. Time slice is also called quantum.

Multitasking: It is the concurrent execution of two or more programs on the same computer by use of time
slices.

3. Multi Access / Multi user operating systems: It is when many online users access one processor
at the same time to make use of multi-programming.

4. Multi-programming: This is whereby two or more programs (tasks) are being processed (run) at
the same time on one computer by use of time slices, for example playing music while typing a
document. Programs may take turns to make use of the processor, thus when one is using the CPU,
others will be using the peripherals. It uses interrupts to pass control from one program to another.

5. Multiprocessing: A type of operating system that allows one computer to have two or more processors but
sharing the same memory, e.g. dual core computers.

6. Batch Processing System: - A system in which data is collected over a long period of time, put in groups
and processed with minimum or without user interaction as in payroll processing. Jobs can be entered at a
remote terminal, that is, without direct communication with the host computer. Thus batch processing
promotes Remote Jo
b Entry (RJE): which is the entering of data into the computer through a terminal far away from the host
computer.

 For instance, a central computer can process batches of cheques collected from different branches,
mostly during the night. If there are errors, the results will also be wrong. Batch processing is very cheap
to operate and easy to run. Users can also perform some other tasks while batch processing takes place.
 In batch processing, there is minimum or no human intervention during data processing period. It is
used where large amounts of data is processed and where processing does not need to be done
immediately, e.g. in Payroll processing, water billing, electricity billing, telephone billing, clearance of
cheques, etc).

Advantages of batch processing are as follows:

 It is less expensive to use.

 Processing does not need to be done with anyone present.
 Users do not need to be specialists in computers, It allows remote job entry.

Disadvantages of batch processing are as follows:

 Batch processing systems are not interactive.

 Data is processed after a long period of time.
 No action can be taken if anything wrong happens during processing

b) Translators
These are programs that convert source code to object code. Translators are in two forms, which are
interpreters and compilers. A translator or programming language processor is a computer program for
specifying a program in one programming language (the target language) that is functionally equivalent to that
(a translation of another) in a different language (the source language). This is without losing the functional or

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logical structure of the original [Link] include translations between high-level and human-readable
computer languages such as C++ and Java, intermediate-level languages such as Java bytecode, low-level
languages such as the assembly language and machine code, and between similar levels of language on
different computing platforms, as well as from any of these to any other of these. The term is also used for
translators between software implementations and hardware/ASIC microchip implementations of the same
program, and from software descriptions of a microchip to the logic gates needed to build it.

Examples of widely used types of computer languages translators include interpreters, compilers and
decompilers, and assemblers and disassemblers.

c) Utility Programs
These are programs used to perform specific, useful and frequently needed tasks in a computer.
These are programs designed into the operating system to support programs and also help users when writing,
storing and running their programs
They are also programs that perform certain tasks which are often needed e.g. a sort routine, providing a list of
files virus scanning etc.

Task carried by utility programs include:

Sorting, deleting, virus checker, editing
They are also called service programs

Functions of utility programs

Loaders –programs responsible for loading programs into the main memory
Linkers- programs responsible for linking program modules together

Utilities include the following:

i. Virus Scan Utility: These are programs that protect computers from virus attacks, for example
Norton Antivirus, AVG, Avast, Esat NOD32, MacAfee, etc.

ii. Sort Utilities: These are programs used to arrange data, files and records into a specific ordered
sequence, for instance in ascending or descending order of a given key.
iii. Debuggers: These are utilities used for assisting in correcting errors in programs.

iv. Dump Utilities: These are programs that assist in copying data from main storage to output devices and to
other storage devices like the hard drive.

v. Editors: These are programs used to make changes to data already held in the computer.

vi. Peripheral Transfer Utility: These are programs used to transfer data from one peripheral device to another.

vii. System Status Utilities: These are programs that provide information on the state of files,
memory, users and peripherals.
viii. File Maintenance Utilities: These are programs used to reorganise programs and to update them.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE

This refers to programs and their documentation, designed to perform a specific task like payroll
processing, word processing, etc. Programmes designed to meet user needs.

Application package (suite):- a collection of application programs purchased as one package, for example
Microsoft Office 2007.

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Integrated Package: A collection of a word processor, spreadsheet, database and presentation packages bought
as one package, for example, Microsoft Office 2007.

Advantages of Integrated Packages are:

 It is cheap to buy as compared to buying single application programs at a time.

 Programs have been tried and tested and therefore are free from errors.
 Programs are designed in a similar way, making it easier to learn others if you are able to use
one of them.
 Programs are easier to use and to learn, for example, when designing a database using
Microsoft Access.
 Regular updates are provided on the internet or on disks.

Disadvantages of integrated packages are as follows:

 They are not tailored for individual user requirements. Organisations purchasing them have
little or no control over their use.
 The packaged programs can only be modified by the programmers (owners). Most of the
need regular updating, which may be expensive.
Methods of Acquiring Software

1. Off-the-Shelf: This refers to buying generalised software like Microsoft Word from software vendors.

Generalised (generic) software refers to application programs designed for use in a number of
organisations without problems, for example Microsoft Word. A software vendor is an organisation
that specialises in selling generic software.

Advantages of generic software

 Cheaper than custom written (tailor made) packages. They are immediately available in
shops.
 They are tried and tested and therefore are free from errors.
 Documentation is always provided in form of manuals, user guides and tutorials that may be in
soft or hardcopy.
 Training courses can be available from other end-users.
 Technical support is always available from other users and from the internet. Other users of the
package can be consulted before purchasing or when a problem occurs.
 Upgrades are always available every year or two.
Disadvantages of Generic Software

 May not meet the individual needs of an organisation. May not run on the organization’s hardware.
 May not interface with other software already in use in the organisation.
 Organisations purchasing them have little or no control over their usage.
 Organisations purchasing them have no right to modify them.

2. Tailor-made Software (bespoke)

These are programs specifically designed to meet the needs of only one organisation, for example a bank. The
organisation would employ or hire an analyst / programmer who will first asses the needs of the organisation
before designing a program that will solve the problems of the organisation.
Disadvantages of Tailor-made software

 It is very expensive to develop.

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  They take too long to develop and to implement.

*NB: - A programmer is a person who specialises in designing, coding and testing computer programs.
Software House is an organisation that specialises is developing software; this includes both generic and
tailor-made.

3. Special Purpose Application Software

These are programs designed for one specific business purpose, for example Pastel for accounting
purposes.

Advantages of Generic Software Over tailor made software

 Off - the - self software is cheaper to buy while tailor-made software is expensive.
 Generic software has been tried and tested hence free from errors while tailor-made software may
have some errors.
 Generic software is easier and faster to implement while tailor made software takes long to
implement.
 Generic software is used by many organisations; therefore users can share information on its usage
while tailor-made software is only used by one organisation.
 Generic software has regular updates available for download on the internet while tailor-made software
does not.
Advantages of tailor made software as compared to Generic Software

 Tailor-made software is designed to meet the requirements of an organisation while generic

software might not meet the needs of an individual company.
 Organisations have full control over tailor-made software as compared to off-the-shelf software which
is controlled by the programmers.
TYPES OF APPLICATION SOFTWARE

1) Word processors
2) Desktop publishing
3) Database management
4) Spread sheet
5) Graphics/ pant/ draw
Word processing software
Are programs designed to solve problems of written work.
They use the concept of type written with memory
This type of software is used to produce written material such as latters, memos, reports, projects and books.

Examples of word Processing software

-Ms Word -Word pad -lotus word pro -Word Perfect
-Ampiro - Note Pad Display write

The main advantage of using Word processors is that text can be changed on the screen and mistakes
corrected until the document is perfect and it can then be printed.

Desktop Publishing Software

These are programs designed to produce work that includes graphics and text manipulation. It provides the
facility to manipulate text and graphics easily. It also allows user to change the text orientation. Used to
produce letterheads, business cards, anytime cards, posters, calendars, envelopes or greeting cards.

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Examples
Print artist, Ms Publisher, Instant art, Announcement 4.0, Page marker, Ventura publisher and Frame
maker

Database Management software

These are programs used to store, sort, search and retrieve information as easily as possible. A database is
simply a collection of information. Examples of database are customer information and student information. A
database is made up of records and fields, Records are in rows and fields are in columns
Examples of DB M Software
Ms access, Mysq Oracle , Qbase, Sql

Spread sheet programs

Also known as Financial Analysis programs, Spread sheets were designed to perform money calculations.
Calculations are done at high speeds by spread sheets. They are also used to calculate complex mathematical
functions.
Examples of Spreadsheet programs
Ms excel, Lotus 1-2-3, Quattro Pro and SuperCal

Graphics and Presentation Software

Software designed to add interest and clarity to reports and presentations. It can also be used to produce
new art. With this type of Software you can paint, produce 3-dimentional images and motion
Examples of
Adobe Photoshop ,Ms Paint ,Ms PowerPoint, Harvard Graphics, True Space, 3D Studio, Corel Draw.

Multimedia Applications
Multimedia is a technology that has been introduced in recent years. It is a technology
that deals with the combination of text and graphic, sound , video and animation,
This has been very useful in the fields of Education and Training. Most educational
Program the user can stop pause, restart and replay it at will
Examples
Encyclopaedias such as Ms Encarta, Edusoft [Everyday]
Mathematics and English Discovery. The world of Natured]
Games like the Silent Steel, Need For Speed, Zuma etc.
Educational Programs like Science Advantage 2000(a biology, physics, chemistry, CD package.
Reasons for various software
 New versions of software are released to update older versions
 As hardware gets more advanced so the operating system and software applications that runs on them
need to be developed to not only supply the need of the user but to keep in time with new
development.
 Some old versions of programs will not run don’t run on move advanced us.
 Equally newer versions of applications may not run on older version of operating system
 Newer versions typically patch up areas that may not have been taken into consideration in previous
versions.
 Also different versions of programs aimed at different users i.e. office.
SUMMARY
Software

System Application
Operating system Word processor
Ms Dos Word perfect, Word pad, Note pad, Ms word Ampiro
Windows 95, 98, 2000NT, XP, Vista, 7, 8

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 Spread sheet
Linux Excel, Lotus 1 2 3
Unix Quattro
Macintosh
Data bases
Utilities D base, Access, My SQL, Q-base
Founders Graphics
Virus scan Corel draw photo shop (Adobe)
Norton utilities Paint
Multimedia

APPLICATION OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

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This chapter deals with the areas where computers are used, what they used for, how they are used, the
advantages and disadvantages of their usage in such areas.

USE OF COMPUTER IN AGRICULTURE FIELD

Computer help Agriculture through Computer software, computer internet etc…

Use of computer in agriculture field through software/application

Through computer application, animal are individually tracked so, no mistakes will take place but if it is done
by a person sometimes mistakes or error can be happen .Information such as health of the animal, milk
production, reproductive information. These types of information are known as herd recording. This herd
recording is stored in computer.
Computer usefulness in agriculture field through internet
Through forum and social networking site farmers can get connected with other experts and exchange their
views and other details .Farmers can get a lot of information on variety of agriculture topics by surfing .
Farmers can get connected to foreign customers who can help to improve their product and increase their
production capacity. Farmer can get information regarding price, weather, temperature etc…..
Other uses of computer to agriculture field
Keeping financial record, Production record, online banking, Buy required resources through internet etc…
The amount of water sprinkled in a balanced quantity is also computerized.

The production capacity in farming and animal husbandry has increased due to use of computer in agriculture
field .There are less losses since work is monitored by computer.

By using computer in traditional field like agricultural field we can increase the productivity and minimize the
errors.

USE OF COMPUTERS IN BUSINESS

Before the use of computer in business many other type of equipment were used which is similar to the
computer. The equipment such as type writer, Tele fax etc… were used. But after the use of computer in
business the work done by the type writer was replaced by a keyboard. During the use of type writer hard
copy was taken by the user but in computer we can store the copy which we typed using keyboard in the same
computer.
Sending letters, application etc… to various internal and external parties is done by computer through e- mail
facility. Because of the use of e-mail, time will be saved and response can be receive and given as soon as
possible.

Use of computer in business through internet

1. A business organization can reach their customer without any intermediate personalities.
Example:-Business man reach customer without whole seller and retailer.
2. Reduce salesman and sales cost, because of this more profit can be gained.
3. New market can be reach by the business due to usage of internet.
4. Advertisement can be promoted through internet.
5. Online buying and selling can be done.
6. Income and expenditure is one of the most important parts in business. If accounting process is done
by a person many errors can be done due to omission of entry, entering of amount wrongly, error
during balancing etc… But due to use of computer the accuracy in accounting process is increased.

THE APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS IN THE BANKING SECTOR

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Computers in the banking sector have enhanced customer service and productivity regarding account
management, while streamlining back-office activities. The biggest impact is in the area of competition. Small
banking institutions can access the same technology as large banking institutions and, therefore, can compete
with them more effectively for business.
Account Management
In banking, activities start with banks automating customer accounts, which allows personnel to create, update
and maintain customer records. Banking hardware and software have enhanced the accuracy of accounts that
tellers and other banking personnel process. Banking software performs customer transactions through a
centralized data record system. Account management is the genesis and backbone of all banking information
systems.
Hardware Technology
In the 1960s, bank hardware consisted of a mainframe and a punch card machine. Punch cards contained
customer account information and were read into the main system by a punch card machine. Mid range and
client/server hardware configurations, which are no larger than a mini tower system, can run an entire bank in
addition to receiving transactions from affiliated bank branches. These new hardware technologies can process
more transactions than legacy banking hardware systems. Hardware technologies have enabled advances into
wireless banking and telecommunications banking.
Electronic Transactions
Banking systems must perform electronic transactions. Direct deposit is an example of an electronic
transaction. Computers processing electronic transactions must have hardware and software encryption
capabilities to keep data from being compromised during a transmission. After the computer performs
electronic transmissions, it transfer the information to the main computer system for processing and updating.
Banks have extended electronic transaction capabilities through landline and cell phones, the Internet and
ATMs.
Web-based Banking
Web-based banking systems use a dedicated server through a bank network system. An area of the banking
system is partitioned for Internet applications. Web-based banking systems by law must include secure servers
and authenticated certificates regarding transactions from the Federal Deposit Insurance Company and the
Federal Reserve Board. Customers who choose to bank online can access their account through a web
interface, which integrates with the main computer. A customer's credentials -- user ID and password -- pass
through several checkpoints before entering the main system to perform a web-based transaction.

APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS IN EDUCATION

COMPUTER AIDED LEARNING (CAL )
Computers are being used actively in educational institutes to improve the learning process. Teachers can use
audio video aids through computer to prepare lesson plans. They can use Microsoft Power Point to prepare
electronic presentations about their lectures. These electronic presentations will be displayed on multimedia
projectors in class rooms. This will be interesting and easy to learn for students. Multimedia presentations are
easy to deliver for teachers too, These presentations save a lot of effort and time. Moreover multimedia
presentations are interesting to view and hear sound and visual effects. Computers will be helpful for:
 Instructing the students using PowerPoint slides, Word documents or Web pages and using hyperlinks
for better concept clarity.
 Helps in improving pronunciation of students by using microphones, headphones, speakers, specially
prepared software and special dedicated websites.
 Encouraging the students to use internet, surf web pages and gather relevant detailed information
through search engines. Students will gain a lot of information and knowledge by positive use of
internet.

CBT (COMPUTER-BASED TRAINING)

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CBT stands for Computer Based Training. In CBT, we prepare different educational programs with the help of
professional teachers and audio visual aids. These educational programs are generally in the shape of lectures
on a specific subject. These programs are provided on CDs. Students will learn as and when they wish and at
their own homes. They can view CD contents, view lecture notes, books or video lectures about their course
work any time they need.
ONLINE EDUCATION
Many web sites provide online education. You can read or download educational material and books. For
example, Virtual University of Pakistan is an Online Educational Institution. Students use internet to access
VU website. The students log in to their accounts and e-mail boxes. They interact with different teachers
online. They receive and submit their assignments and work through internet to their teachers. Email systems
or online chat systems are used for instant communication between students and teachers.
RESEARCH
Computers are also used for research work. Internet is a huge source of information on any topic. Students of
any level can use internet to access useful information about their projects and research work. Moreover
different researchers can share their research work with other researchers using computers and Internet.
Researchers use computers to organize and store their research materials in computers.
INSTITUTE ADMINISTRATION
Computers are being used to perform many tasks in educational institutions, easily and quickly:
1. Keeping Records of students (admission records, attendance and leave records, fee collection,
examination records of students)
2. Storing Records of employees ( payroll, attendance, assignments, project) of school / college
Managing Accounts of the institution
3. Fees collection and maintenance of fees record.
4. Circulation of instruction/notices and getting it in printed form
5. Preparation of school/ college magazine, etc. with the help of Microsoft Word, a popular word
processing software.
ADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS IN EDUCATION FIELD
1. Faster data processing, speed is the main characteristics of a computer.
2. Huge and organized Storage of information, Vast storage is another main characteristic of a computer.
Students and teachers can download and store large amounts of educational materials, books,
presentations, lecture notes, question papers in computers.
3. Computers can ensure Accuracy of teaching text materials, as many word processing application
software provide Spelling and Grammar Checking Tools
4. Audio-visual aids in teaching process for effective learning
5. Attractive and Better presentation of information through applications software like Microsoft Power
Point to develop brilliant presentations for lectures
6. One of the main uses of computers in education is 'the Access to the Internet' for information search
about any topic.
7. Another advantage of using computers in education field is Quicker communication between students,
teachers and parents that improves quality of teaching and learning process. Parents can know the
progress of their children through computers and internet, by browsing the website of the educational
institute. They can check different examination results, attendance reports, curricular and co-curricular
activities of their children.

ADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS IN EDUCATION FIELD

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  Faster data processing, speed is the main characteristics of a computer.
 Huge and organized Storage of information, Vast storage is another main characteristic of a
computer. Students and teachers can download and store large amounts of educational materials,
books, presentations, lecture notes, question papers in computers.
 Computers can ensure Accuracy of teaching text materials, as many word processing application
software provide Spelling and Grammar Checking Tools
 Audio-visual aids in teaching process for effective learning
 Attractive and Better presentation of information through applications software like Microsoft
Power Point to develop brilliant presentations for lectures
 One of the main uses of computers in education is 'the Access to the Internet' for information
search about any topic.
 Another advantage of using computers in education field is Quicker communication between
students, teachers and parents that improves quality of teaching and learning process. Parents can
know the progress of their children through computers and internet, by browsing the website of the
educational institute. They can check different examination results, attendance reports, curricular and
co-curricular activities of their children.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

Uses of Computers in Scientific Research

Computers have changed the ways in which scientific research is compiled and analyzed. Scientists, engineers
and researchers alike are able to compile vast amounts of data and leave it to the computer to work through the
data while focusing on another area of the research project. This creates research results with fewer errors and
better-engineered products.

Complex Data Analysis

Computers used in scientific research have the ability to analyze data in ways and at
speeds not possible with the human eye. They are able to analyze percentages of
materials present in a variety of compounds from soil samples to chemicals and even
the air you breathe. Additionally, computers used in this manner can determine trends
in data samples. For example, computer analysis of data in research could determine
the temperature at which certain chemical compounds break down or the percentages
of improvement patients show when administered a certain medication.

Solving Mathematical Equations

Scientific research often requires that complex mathematical equations be solved in order to
determine if data is valid or if a certain structure of molecules will remain stable. Computers
are integral to this calculation process since scientists can write software programs specifically
to provide answers to such questions. This removes the element of human error, which can cost research
institutions millions of dollars in fixing a product that was created with even the smallest amount of flawed
data.

Prediction Modeling

Scientists and researchers are able to use computer programs to model how data might
manifest itself in the future. This ability is useful in predicting climate patterns, simulating
how engineered products might perform in the field, predicting the erosion rate of beaches
and anticipating the absorption rate of medications in the body. Scientists and engineers
are then able to adjust building strategies or chemical compositions of products to ensure
safe operation and consumption.

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TRANSPORT MANAGEMENT

USES OF COMPUTERS IN TRANSPORTATION

Computers are very useful in transportation today. It is useful in both land and air transportation. Following
are the main uses of computers:-
1. Car navigation
One important use of computer in transportation is Global Positing System , or [Link] feature a screen
that shows a map which track your vehicle's movement through satellites signals. These pinpoint your location
between 100 [Link] some mobiles have also this system.
2. Positive train control
Positive Train Control by Federal Railroad Administration is the computer system that tracks the movement of
trains on various railways around the country. PTC technology is capable of preventing train to train
collisions, derailments caused by excessive speed and the associated death or injuries.
3. Mapping
Mapping system through computers is very useful now .We can find the route of any location where we want
to go through [Link] input our address and destination address then computer will give us visual
map,distance ,total driving time,traffic jams etc.
4. Online booking
We can book our tickets of bus,train,airplanes [Link] saves our [Link] give us all information
regarding tickets in few seconds.
5. Weather forecast
We can get weather forecast information through computers which is very useful for
transportation especially air transportation. We can travel according to the weather forecast
given by computers.

USES OF COMPUTER IN MEDICAL FIELD

Today Computers are an essential part of an hospital. Doctors and administration staff uses computers to
manage patient history and medicine stocks etc.

Computer plays a major role in medical field by helping doctors as an assistant to cure people.
Computer are used to store details of patients such as Name, Age, Address, Date of admition etc…storing
such a type of details in computer is more easier than writing in books or papers because books and papers can
be missed or lost and it is difficult to search immediately in an emergency time. Computer save time and make
our work easier. This type of information system is known as Electronic Medical Record (EMR).Electronic
Medical Reports and Electronic Health Report are connected all the branches of a certain hospital by the
server. So in an emergency time it can be obtained from any branch of a particular hospital.

Their uses include storing patient related data, housing knowledge bases, providing the logic and circuitry for
medical equipment, scanning and imaging the body, and facilitating speedy communications. Computers can
be used in medical field in the following ways:

TOP USES OF COMPUTERS IN MEDICAL FIELD

1. Hospital Administration
These days, Computers are being used in hospitals extensively. We can computerize the accounting, payroll
and stock system of the hospital. We can keep the record of different medicines.
2. Recording Medical History of Patients
Computer can be used to store the medical history of the patients. Medical history is very important for
patients as well as doctors. Doctors may better prescribe the medicines on the basis of the medicines used in

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 40

past for a particular patient and the results obtained. Database Management System software is used to store
Patient records efficiently.

Patient records and history are stored on computer databases in the medical field. The medical history of a
patient includes physical symptoms, diagnoses, treatments, and even family medical history.

Details of the medications prescribed are stored together with details of any that can not be prescribed, such as
an allergy to penicillin.
Appointments are scheduled using a computer database.
Billing information is also stored.
Hospitals and surgeries depend on computers for administrative and financial functions.
3. Monitoring Systems
Many computerized devices are used to monitor the blood pressure, heartbeat and brain of the patients.
Computers guide in some surgical operations, too. For example in laparoscopic surgery, the surgeon inserts
the medical tools and a small camera, and conducts the operation with the help of computers and monitors.

Computers also monitor heart rates, pulse rates and brain readings. Therefore, we conclude that computers
make this possible to deal with such complicated operations. It would be virtually impossible for a human to
do this.
To get an accuracy in above mention Imaging computer has been added to the medical equipment .Because of
computers are connected to do above mention Imaging doctors can get a very good idea to do the rest of the
work to cure a person.
Types of monitoring
1. Cardiac monitoring
2. Hemodynamic monitoring
3. Respiratory monitoring
4. Neurological monitoring
4. Diagnosis of Diseases
Computers are being used to diagnose diseases with the help of software. There are some Medical Software to
diagnose diseases and prescribe medicine on the basis of symptoms.
5. Life Support system
Life support systems are used to help disabled persons, for example hearing aid device for deaf people. Latest
life support devices use computer technology to help the disable people, to overcome their disabilities.
6. Faster and Cheaper Communications
Doctors and other staff can use internet to communicate to doctors in other parts of the world, for sharing
information on medical topics or even about a particular patient case. They can exchange pictures, reports and
other documents, too.
7. Computer are used in medical imaging as well
1. Ultrasound imaging
2. Magnetic response imaging(MRI)
3. Medical x-ray
Computers are being used in Medical Radiology / Diagnostic Imaging. Computers play an role in all types of
clinical image processing like CT scan and ultrasound. Ultrasound uses sound waves that bounce off body
parts, producing echoes. A computer translates the echoes into images, showing broken bones, muscle
problems, or changes in organs, accurately.
Computers are more helpful in receiving necessary details quickly, accurately and computers are also used in
imaging and Monitoring .Due to this usefulness of computer in medical field people can be cured as much as
possible.

ROBOTICS

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Robotics is the science or technology of designing, building and using robots. Robotics is the use of computer-
controlled robots to perform manual tasks. Robots are commonly used by the military and businesses to
complete tasks that are dangerous for people, such as defusing bombs, exploring shipwrecks, and mines. They
are also used to perform monotonous jobs, such as on an assembly line. There are personal or service robots to
assist with personal tasks. There are robots for the use of entertainment. The appearance of robots depends on
their function or purpose. Today, robotics is a rapidly growing field. Robotics research is continuing to make
smarter and more capable robots. NASA researchers have developed a way to make a crew of robots work
together to grasp, lift, and more heavy loads across rough, varied terrain. The software allows the robots to
"share a brain" so that each robot knows what the rest are doing. This enables the robots to work together to
develop plans, such as how to maneuver around a rock or other obstacle the crew may encounter.

The Implications of Robotics

Although there are many benefits in creating robots to benefit society, some people may have concerns with
the idea of having robots around. Society has many concerns with the implications robots may cause, some
may think that robots may come to close to realistic that may potentially harm humanity. Other concerns that
may arise with the issue of having robots take over human jobs. Another disadvantage of having robots is that
they may be expensive to build and maintain. Robots also have limited duties, so they are only able to perform
specific task and are not able to think for themselves. Timing might also be a problem; at times of
emergencies some robots may not respond properly.

COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

Understanding Computer-aided Manufacturing and its Benefits

Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) refers to an automation process that accurately converts product
design and drawing of an object into a code format, readable by the machine to manufacture the product. The
system allows professionals who have completed Computer Aided Design courses to control machinery in a
highly automated environment to manufacture various items and pieces. CAM is also used in all computer-
aided operations in a manufacturing plant, such as planning, management, transpiration, and storage.
Computer-aided Manufacturing (CAM) is the term used to describe the use of computerized systems to
control the operations at a manufacturing plant. These computerized systems assist manufacturers in various
operations such as planning, transportation, management, and storage. CAM helps manufacturers improve
their time to market capabilities, and create precise dimensions.

Brief Introduction to Computer-aided Manufacturing

As a process, CAM is used after Computer-aided Design (CAD) or Computer-aided Engineering (CAE). The
model designed using CAD is sometimes used as the CAM input. This is why it is referred as CAD-CAM.

The functions of this combination software is divided into two main categories:
• Manufacturing Planning: In this process, the computer delivers information for production planning as
well as management. This may include:
 Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP)
 Computer Assisted NC Part Programming
 Computerized Machinability Data System
 Work Standards Development
 Inventory and Production Planning
• Manufacturing Control: In the process, the computer is used to manage and control the physical operations
of the manufacturing plant. These may include:
 Shop Floor Controlling
 Process Monitoring and Controlling
 Inventory Controlling
 Production Delivery Controlling

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Applications That Lend Themselves to Computer-aided Manufacturing
Following are few manufacturing applications, which are controlled by CAM:
 Flame and plasma cutting
 Laser cutting
 Hole punching or drilling
 Bending
 Sawing
 Spinning
 Pinning
 Routing and milling
 Gluing
 Picking and placing
Benefits of CAD-CAM in Manufacturing
Today, every manufacturing plant uses at least a type of CAD-CAM system to control their operations.

Here are the various advantages they can avail by using these software applications.
• Improves Machining Capabilities: By using a CAD-CAM system, manufacturers can improve their
machining capabilities. For example, when a manufacturer takes up a complex 3-axis machining task, they
rely on the combination software to create a tool path for machining projects such as molding. The CAM
system automates the process, and makes it easier for manufacturers to complete the project in time.
• Improves Client Accessibility: The CAD-CAM software allows manufacturers to receive CAD files from
their customers. After receiving these files, they can set up the machining tool path, and perform simulations,
which helps them calculate the machining cycle times. The software allows manufacturers to minimize errors,
execute projects easily, and deliver products to the market within a shorter turnaround time.
• Helps Improve Productivity of CNC Machines: Most CAM-CAD systems provide high–speed machine tool
paths, which help manufacturers minimize their cycle times, reduce tool and machine wear. High-speed
tool paths enable manufacturers to improve their cutting quality and accuracy. This type of high- speed
machining helps improve the productivity of the CNC machine by more than 50%.
• Helps Reduce Material Wastage: As CAM–CAD software feature simulation features, it helps a
manufacturer to visually inspect the process of machining. This allows him to capture tool gouges, and
collisions at an early phase. This feature contributes to the overall productivity of a manufacturing set up. This
also helps them eliminate mistakes, as well as reduce material wastage.

Computer Aided Design (CAD) is the use of computer software to facilitate the generation, modification,
and optimization of a part or a compilation of parts. Using software to facilitate part design allows for higher
precision, simpler and more accurate design iterations, and comprehensive documentation for part and/or
project management (e.g. integration with a traditional Bill of Materials or BOM). There are a number of
vendors that provide CAD software. At Creative Mechanisms we use Solidworks. Some of the benefits of
CAD over traditional drafting and/or 3-D model making include the following:

 CAD allows for simple and accurate automation and/or process modeling (known as Mechanical
Design Automation). Traditionally MDA was not possible without first building a physical prototype
of every part in the system and then assembling it to check functionality. The ability to digitally model
and automate a prototype before ever generating a physical model adds enormous efficiency to
manufacturing processes and cost reduction benefits.
 CAD allows for the ability to conduct Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM). For example,
integrating CAD technology with Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machines or Additive
Manufacturing processes (3D printers) e.g. Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) machines.
 CAD takes into account material properties and interactivity characteristics between different
materials.
 CAD allows for highly accurate dimensional analysis and mathematical scalability using vector
graphic technology (digital images based on mathematical formulas).

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  CAD provides highly precise part tolerance (much lower margin of error between parts).

CAD for Static Mechanical Design or Mechanical Design Automation (MDA): One of the enormous
benefits of CAD software is the ability to automate 3D imagery and integrate different pieces of the same
product in tandem with one another.

CAD for Computer Aided Manufacturing (CNC & Additive Manufacturing): At Creative Mechanisms
we use a fully integrated software-hardware package that ties together our Computer Aided Design software
(Solidworks) and our heavy machinery (two single tool CNC machines, one 16-
tool CNC machine, and an industrial grade FDM machine or “3D printer”). The
benefit of having a fully integrated system is that design iterations can be made
near-instantaneously without the headache of downloading and reuploading
everything each time you want to print an updated part. This is a small thing that
makes a big difference when it comes to rapid prototyping productivity.

CAD for Manufacturing (Injection Mold Automation): When it comes to mass-manufacturing there aren’t
a lot of technologies that compete with injection molding. One of the most important things to analyze when
designing for injection mold production are the particulars of the mold flow (the way in which molten plastic
works its way through the mold tool prior to solidifying into the shape of your part). We utilize Solidworks
plastics to optimize our designs for production. Proper diagnostics with the right software tools and design
experience will help you minimize defects and maximize your return on investment.

INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS
Artificial intelligence is the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer
systems. These processes include learning (the acquisition of information and rules for using the information),
reasoning (using the rules to reach approximate or definite conclusions), and self-correction. Particular
applications of AI include expert systems, speech recognition, and machine vision

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the science of developing computer systems that have the ability to learn from
experience and mimic human reasoning in specific areas, as in medical diagnosis, mineral prospecting, etc.
Expert systems are a branch of Artificial Intelligence.

EXPERT SYSTEM
-An expert system is a computer program that uses artificial intelligence (AI) technologies to simulate the
judgment and behavior of a human or an organization that has expert knowledge and experience in a particular
field.
-These are computer systems developed to mimic human reasoning and work at the level of an expert in a
particular field, e.g. in medical diagnosis. Expert systems are used in the following fields:
oil or minerals prospecting, diagnosing a person’s illness, Diagnostics (e.g. finding faults in a car engine, etc.),
tax and financial calculations, complex “thinking” tasks such as chess, weather forecasting,
criminology/forensic science, career choices, etc
Components (Elements) of an Expert System
- The diagram below shows some of the components:

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- Knowledge Base: a representation of facts (data) in a particular field (e.g. diseases, symptoms, treatments,
etc. as in medical diagnosis)
- Inference procedure (engine): contains reasoning methods used to arrive at a conclusion using information
in the knowledge base. It contains interrogation technique/questions and answers.
- User interfaces: these enable people to form queries, provide information, and interact with the system.
- Explanation facilities (system): enable the systems to explain or justify their conclusions, and they also
enable developers to check on the operation of the system themselves.
- Rule Base: This is found in the Working Store. It contains inference rules and the inference engine uses
these to draw its conclusions.
The system uses a rule base and an inference engine together to simulate human reasoning when analysing a
problem and arriving at a conclusion. To simulate human processes it is necessary to have a vast amount of
information stored in the knowledge base and the reasoning set out as a set of rules in the rule base.

Steps Followed When Producing/Creating an Expert System

- Gather information from experts in the field(e.g doctors, geologists, etc).
- Design the knowledge base.
- Input data into knowledge base.
- Design the rule base.
- Design inference engine
- Design display of results
- Test system with known problems and solutions
- Design appropriate user interface

Ways of Improving Expert Systems

- Frequently carrying out researches and making updates.
- Quickly inputting new data into the knowledge base.
- Assigning its control to a number of highly experienced personnel who will monitor and make updates as
soon as possible.

Advantages of Expert Systems

- Provides consistent answers

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- Fast identification of solutions to problems by quickly analysing data.
- They produce reliable and accurate results if well programed.
- There is no need for an expert to be present since they can act as a prompt to an expert.
- They can deal with complex situations much faster than humans.
- They could be used in hazardous areas (e.g. Oil prospecting).
- They do not forget as humans do.
- Many copies can be made at a low cost.
- Knowledge of several experts is combined.
- Save costs on wages and salaries for staff.
- Conclusions are based on logic, no emotions involved.
- Can explain its reasoning method

Disadvantages of Expert Systems

- They lack creativity/does not reason.
- They are unable to learn outside the system.
- They lack sensory experience.
- They take time and are difficult to develop.
- They need to be constantly updated to keep pace with recent developments in the field they are applied.
- This may be difficult and time consuming to use.
- Data is entered by humans who may make mistakes in doing so. This can lead to incorrect decisions being
made
- lacks common sense in some of the decision making processes
- cannot adapt to changing environments unless the knowledge base is continually updated
- errors in knowledge base can lead to incorrect decisions.
- expensive system to develop and set up in the first place
- needs considerable training to ensure system used correctly by operators
- leads to deskilling and unemployment.
- They are usually dedicated to one domain area (for just one task)

Speech recognition
Speech recognition is the ability of a machine or program to identify words and phrases in spoken language
and convert them to a machine-readable format. Rudimentary speech recognition software has a limited
vocabulary of words and phrases, and it may only identify these if they are spoken very clearly. More
sophisticated software has the ability to accept natural speech.
How it works
Speech recognition works using algorithms through acoustic and language modeling. Acoustic modeling
represents the relationship between linguistic units of speech and audio signals; language modeling matches
sounds with word sequences to help distinguish between words that sound similar.
Often, hidden Markov models are used as well to recognize temporal patterns in speech to improve accuracy
within the system.
Applications
The most frequent applications of speech recognition within the enterprise include call routing, speech-to-text
processing, voice dialing and voice search.
Advantages
The pros of speech recognition software are;
 it is easy to use and readily available.
 Speech recognition software is now frequently installed in computers and mobile devices, allowing for
easy access.
 Speech recognition offers a way to communicate with the technology around us.

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Disadvantages
 The downside of speech recognition includes its inability to capture words due to variations of
pronunciation
 Its lack of support for most languages outside of English and
 Its inability to sort through background noise. These factors can lead to inaccuracies.

Performance
Speech recognition performance is measured by accuracy and speed. Accuracy is measured with word error
rate. WER works at the word level and identifies inaccuracies in transcription, although it cannot identify how
the error occurred. Speed is measured with the real-time factor. A variety of factors can affect computer
speech recognition performance, including pronunciation, accent, pitch, volume and background noise.
It is important to note the terms speech recognition and voice recognition are sometimes used interchangeably.
However, the two terms mean different things. Speech recognition is used to identify words in spoken
language. Voice recognition is a biometric technology used to identify a particular individual's voice or for
speaker identification.

Machine vision (computer vision)

Machine vision is the ability of a computer to see; it employs one or more video cameras, analog-to-digital
conversion (ADC) and digital signal processing (DSP). The resulting data goes to a computer or robot
controller. Machine vision is similar in complexity to voice recognition.
Two important specifications in any vision system are the sensitivity and the resolution. Sensitivity is the
ability of a machine to see in dim light, or to detect weak impulses at invisible wavelengths. Resolution is the
extent to which a machine can differentiate between objects. In general, the better the resolution, the more
confined the field of vision. Sensitivity and resolution are interdependent. All other factors held constant,
increasing the sensitivity reduces the resolution, and improving the resolution reduces the sensitivity.
Human eyes are sensitive to electromagnetic wavelength s ranging from 390 to 770 nanometers (nm). Video
cameras can be sensitive to a range of wavelengths much wider than this. Some machine-vision systems
function at infrared (IR), ultraviolet (UV), or X-ray wavelengths.
Binocular (stereo) machine vision requires a computer with an advanced processor. In addition, high-
resolution cameras, a large amount of random access memory (RAM), and artificial intelligence (AI)
programming are required for depth perception.

Machine vision is used in various industrial and medical applications. Examples include:
 Electronic component analysis
 Signature identification
 Optical character recognition
 Handwriting recognition
 Object recognition
 Pattern recognition
 Materials inspection
 Currency inspection
 Medical image analysis
The term machine vision is often associated with industrial applications of a computer's ability to see, while
the term computer vision is often used to describe any type of technology in which a computer is tasked with
digitizing an image, processing the data it contains and taking some kind of action.

WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT
Applications of ICT in wild life conservation

1. Basic data collection

ICTs have many uses in the field of data collection, either in the form of laptop computers, palm top
computers or Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs). Cybertracker allows non-ICT-literate users to accurately log

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and record wild life data using a specially designed icon-driven system. It is a hand-held device that allows
rangers and animal trackers to record what they see at that very moment The device will then plot maps
showing exactly where the observations were made, using GPS.
[Link] Database for endangered species
ICT is also being used to build up databases or catalogues of a wide range of species. A database of critically
endangered, vulnerable and rare species can also be created.
There is an array of digital tools such as instant messaging, text messaging, blogs, videos, and social
networking sites that are inexpensive ,easy to use and enable people to upload pictures, videos and views
about wild life which can help in increasing database on wildlife and the identification of animals from
existing database.
[Link] and monitoring Wildlife.
Along with GIS systems, satellite and radio tracking is a widely used and popular technology in the
conservation world. The advances in the technology, principally in the reduction of the size and weight of
‘collars’, an increase in battery life and the incorporation of solar cells, has meant that tracking and monitoring
capability is being extended to include smaller species as well.. Further advances mean that environmental
data can also be collected, such as air temperature and, for marine animals, depth and heart rate, all of which
contributes to a much greater understanding of a species. Depending on the type of system used, tracking and
monitoring technologies enable the monitoring of animal movements over vast distances, often providing data
which would either simply not be available, or would take a considerable amount of time and effortto gather.
Through the ability to locate specific animals, or groups of animals, and monitor their movements over a
period of time, conservationists are able to draw conclusions of various parameters related to their behaviour
which can be the basis of their conservational strategies.

[Link] of population size and composition.

The demography of a species is the most powerful tool in assessing its [Link] and satellite tracking help in
quantification and monitoring of a species. FIT is an effective censuring and monitoring tool especially for
nocturnal and otherwise elusive species. This method is used effectively in identifying and monitoring Rhino
in South Africa, Indian Bengal tiger, Cheetah in Namibia and polar bear in Canada
5. Home Range Determination.
Locations of each animal are used to calculate a home range size which is recalculated each time the animal is
relocated. Graphs for different ages/sexes/individuals may be compared to see how much variation exists
between different groups, and what number of relocations is necessary to differentiate between groups. The
distances between consecutive radio locations of an individual are often used as an index of the total daily
movement for that individual .
6. Habitat Utilization Studies
Radio-telemetry can provide detailed information about an animals use of habitat like habitat preference ,
different habitat of males and females ,circadian patterns of habitat use :occupying nocturnal or crepuscular
habitats which differ substantially from daytime ones.
[Link] migrational patterns of birds
The birds show varied difference in their migration. Some species take long journey with many stopovers so
the habitat of these areas are crucial in conservation of migratory birds. The migratory patterns of 15 species
of Asian birds were studied by the use of radio transmitters placed on birds and PTT with ARGOS satellite.
The data was used to determine migration routes and stopovers to examine habitat use. Locational data was
overlaid with topographic and vegetation layers to find priority areas for conservation.
[Link] and survival
Radio-telemetry techniques are enable to find the cause specific mortality factors because tagged animals can
be located soon after death and the agent of mortality ascertained in lesser time.
[Link] term patterns of habitat use
To understand patterns over time that may be related to habitat changes or human activity,it is needed to look
back over decades. This means archival maps, photographs, field notes, and other relevant data acquired in the
field by numerous researchers in the past is required. So the researchers digitized historic database and
compare it with the current information to reveal the long-term patterns of habitat use. In the conservation

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plan of mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei beringei) in central East Africa,the hand drawn maps made about
two decades before of daily gorilla group locations were digitized and compared with current ranging
[Link] helped to understand the changing patterns of gorilla behavior and the gorillas relationship to
their environment and to quantify and understand the impacts of poaching and encroachment.
[Link] ranging pattern
Using GPS the group movements of the animals are logged from which group ranging pattern of that species
can be established.
[Link] park management and planning
Key in the process of creating protected areas is first determining the range and migration routes of the species
in question. Without this information it is difficult to identify the most crucial, ecologically relevant sites.
Niassa in Mozambique is one of the last sites containing a vital gene pool of tuskers (large bull elephants with
tusks) and satellite tracking of individual elephants was crucial in determining their range, prior to establishing
the boundry of Niassa National park.
[Link] Population Dispersal
Population dispersal is a highly valued measurement for conservation biologists because it can indicate the
period at which the species headed for trouble. Although large population declines have been projected, very
little is known about the movements and threats faced by individual albatross at sea, especially during their
post breeding dispersal. The post breeding movements of 18 black-footed albatross tagged in California's
Cordell Bank National Marine Sanctuary were tracked. Albatross are known for flying long distances, and the
study confirmed these incredible journeys. Overall, four out of nine males traveled west of the international
dateline (180º W) yet only one of the nine tracked females ventured into the western North Pacific. This
preliminary data suggests that male and female birds segregate at sea. So, albatross remainthreatened because
they travel well beyond the safe zone into unregulated waters. This is an exciting observation with important
conservation implications.
[Link] distribution
Using GIS, scientists can assess the distribution of the endangered animals relative to management zones and
protected regions particularly in the far ranging species. This can help in making the multiple nations
accountable for their conservation. The world's largest seabird, the albatross,is critically endangered. Each
year, thousands of albatrossdie at the end of fishing hooks. Using the satellite-tagged birds and remotely
sensed information from satellites, scientists are investigating and quantifying movements of black-footed
albatross( 16). Findings showed that postbreeding black-footed albatross do not remain within the Cordell
Bank National Marine Sanctuary or the U.S. EEZ waters but range widely across high seas areas harvested by
pelagic longline fisheries. Based on the known breeding colonies, Japan and the United States have
jurisdictionover the black-footed albatross. During the postbreeding season, however, the birds tracked during
this study ranged within territorial waters of Canada, Japan, Mexico, and Russia..By overlapping albatross
satellite telemetry tracks with boundaries of jurisdictional waters and fishing effort data, GIS graphically
highlights those fisheries and countries with responsibilities for albatross conservation. So , the integration of
satellite tracking, remote sensing, and GIS mapping is empowering resource managers to tackle large-scale
conservation questions.
14. Assesment and reduction of human and wildlife conflict
Identifying, tagging and tracking problem animals can reduce human/wildlife conflict by providing an early
warning that an animal is near a village or populated area. Endangered species can then be darted and
relocated without the loss of human or animal life.
15. Identification of farm-bred and wild-caught specimens
A major problem facing conservation initiatives that seek to promote the ‘controlled farming and breeding’of
endangered species (in order to relieve the pressureon wild populations) is finding ways of determining
whether individual specimens are genuinely captive bred, or caught in the wild( 17). By injecting small
electronic tags into the scales of ranch-bred crocodiles, conservationists working in South-east Asia are able to
identify individuals taken from wild stock. This discourages the poaching of wild crocodiles, since the
implementation of such a system makes them harder to sell.
[Link]-led conservation initiatives

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Many conservation programmes are community based. The World Conservation Union (IUCN) has
implemented a pilot project to see how ICTs can promote conservation and resource management in remote
conservation areas of Mozambique. ICT is providing rangers with a means of communication, allowing them
to contact their base station and each other, monitor threats to the wildlife and signs of deforestation, and alert
communities to any dangers posed by wildlife.
[Link] raising
The social media helps in fund raising for wild life conservation. It provide a forum to wildlife lovers to
discuss wild life conservation and help in fundraising through online giving .
[Link] of wild life trafficking
Wildlife enforcement monitoring system is an application of ICT to prevent the transboundry wild life
trafficking using data gathered through a national data compilation and [Link] life and Forest crime
Analytic Toolkit is designed to assit the government officials in wildlife administration and customs to
conduct comprehensive analysis of possible measures related to the protection and monitoring of wildlife and
to identify technical assistance.

COMPUTER APPLICATION IN MINING

Mineral and Oil Prospecting (Using expert systems)
An Expert System called prospector asks the user to enter geological formations of a particular area such as
rock and soil type and then gives advice on the possible mineral deposits that can be found in that area. An
interactive user screen appears. Questions are asked about geological profiles. Answers to questions are typed
in. The inference engine searches the knowledge base using the rule base.
Inputs
Geological data such as rock and soil type
Processing
Draws conclusions from rules and facts using geological data entered and the mineral data stored in the
knowledge base. E.g
- suggest the probability of finding oil as an output
- indicates the probable depth of deposits
- predicts geological deposits above the soil
- produces contour maps showing concentration of minerals, rocks, etc

Output
- Possible mineral deposits that can be found in that area
- Geological maps

Data Logging
The automatic collection of data from source at set intervals, over a period of time, for use at a later stage,
using sensors. A device that automatically collects data from source at set intervals for use at a later stage is
called a data logger.

Features of Data Loggers:

 They contain processor inside them.
 Have Interface: Devices that act as connection point between data loggers and the computer.
 They have own storage facility: For storage of data collected from sensors
 They contain or are connected to sensors that are used for collecting data in analogue form. All
physical properties can be measured with sensors e.g. light, heat, sound, pressure, acidity and
humidity.
Sensor type Purpose
Mercury Tilt switch Detects if device is tilted, e.g. a vending
machine
Light sensor Detects the intensity of light (light level),

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 e.g. so as to turn on or off street lights.
Used also in greenhouses, automatic door,
traffic control, etc
Can detect light reflected from a barcode
Push switch Used to turn on or off interior light, e.g
inside a fridge if a door is opened or
closed
Temperature sensor Detects temperature levels in central
heating systems, chemical plants, etc.
Infra-red sensor Used in burglar alarms, counting people,
detecting heat sources
Sound sensor Records sound levels from beer halls,
houses, etc
Proximity sensor Detects how close to each other are two
parts, e.g. if a window is opened; an alarm
is raised because the proximity between
the window and the sensor is changed.
Position sensor Senses the angle of an object from a
certain point, e.g. from a robot
Pressure/motion sensor senses when someone has walked over an
object e.g. used in burglar alarm systems,
automatic doors, counting vehicles, etc
Acoustic sensor Listening to foot steps (in burglar alarms),
sound from broken glass, etc
pH sensor Measures the acidity or alkalinity of
objects e.g. of soil and water, in pollution
monitoring, chemical process control, etc
Humidity(moisture) sensor Measures humidity (moisture) levels in
air, greenhouses, irrigation systems, etc
Distance sensor (could be proximity) Measure the distance from one point to
another
Oxygen sensor Used to monitor pollution levels

 They can be connected to small keyboards or other special reading devices.

 They are connected to an Analogue to Digital Converter (ADC), which converts data signals in
continuously varying form (analogue) collected by sensors into discrete (digital) values that can be
accepted by the computer.
Types of Data Loggers
a. Data loggers with permanent computer connection
 These take readings and send them to the computer in offices through connection cables or through
wireless connections.
 The time intervals (time between each reading) and the period over which the logging takes place can
vary
 The computer may process the readings instantly and produce graphs
 The readings may also be stored on the disk for processing at a later date
 These are suitable for experiments in laboratories

b. Data loggers with temporary connections to the computer

 These are not always connected to the computer, but are connected when necessary
 They are mostly used in monitoring environmental conditions over a period of time

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  The time intervals (time between each reading) and the period over which the logging takes place can
vary. The time interval for data logging is the time between readings. The logging period is the total
length of time over which readings are taken.
 Reading are stored by the data logger and loaded into the computer at a later date for processing
 They can be used in remote areas (not directly connected to the computer): remote data logging.

Performing the data logging process

This can be illustrated by the diagram below:

- Connect sensor to the interface box

- Connect interface to the computer
- Load data logging software (if not loaded already)
- Enter time interval (e.g. 30 seconds)
- Specify total reading time
- Display results as a list on the screen
- Produce graphs for analysis of data. Other graphs can be plotted automatically
- Save data on disk for use at a later date
- Export data to other applications like spreadsheet

Benefits of computerised data logging.

- Data loggers are a very fast method of data collection than manual methods.
- Data can be processed immediately (real-time)
- Data loggers are very accurate than humans in collecting data.
- Data loggers enable collection of data on events that happen too quickly than human beings could do.
- They can also record data on events that happen too slowly and boring for human beings to carry
- Data loggers stored data for a very long period of time.
- Data loggers can work 24 hours a day, thus ensuring continuous data logging process

Monitoring and Control Systems

Monitoring System:
A computer program that keeps track and verifies the operations of a data-processing system and warn the
user if an anomaly occurs, e.g. patient monitoring in hospital, monitoring key parameters in chemical and
nuclear plants, monitoring for intruders in houses using burglar alarms, etc. In monitoring, there is human
intervention. In a monitoring system:
- computer system takes information from the sensors
- data from sensors is converted to digital form using the ADC
- processor compares the data from sensors with stored values (parameters)
- system informs the user of status either by read outs
- if values are within acceptable parameters, nothing is done and monitoring continues
- if values are outside acceptable parameters, the system warns or alarms if values are outside set parameters.
- can update files but no changes to the process are done during monitoring

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Examples of monitoring systems include: Patient monitoring in hospitals, Monitoring scientific experiments
in laboratories, A burglar alarm system, Environmental monitoring (oxygen or pollution level in river)

Monitoring Oxygen Levels in a River (Environmental Monitoring)

- Sensors read data from the river (Oxygen level, acidity level, using the pH sensor)
- Data from sensors is converted to digital form
- Computer stores received data
- Oxygen and acidity levels from sensors are compared with historically stored (pre-set values/parameters)
- Either data can be transferred to CD/DVD/Memory stick for later analysis OR

- Data is send to the monitoring station directly through mobile phone network or through cables.
- Red colour is displayed on screen if values are outside acceptable level or an alarm is sound.

Monitoring of Patient’s Vital Signs in Hospital

- Sensors read key vital signs (e.g. pulse/heart rate, temperature, blood pressure, respiration, blood sugar level,
blood gases, Brain activity, etc.)
- The data from sensors is converted to digital form using ADC
- The data is stored in computer memory
- The computer compares data from sensors with pre-set parameters
- The results are output on the screen in form of graphs, actual values humans can read, colour display on
screen (Red in case of danger, green of ok, etc), alarm/sound if there is danger.
- An alarm is activated if any of the data is outside acceptable parameters
- The system continues to monitor the patient until the computer is tuned off.

These systems are designed to monitor critically ill patients or premature babies. Some biosensors connected
to the computer are attached to the patient for tracking and recording vital signs such as heart beat, blood

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pressure and brain activity. The biosensors will transmit readings to the central computer should the situation
go beyond a critical warning level and:
- issue a warning on the computer display for nurses on standby
- sound a warning siren, alarm, beep or sound to alert medical staff
- flash a light to draw attention of medical staff

Patients in intensive care are monitored through sensors. The sensors measure and give feedback pertaining to:
blood pressure, temperature level, weight, pulse rate, etc.
The computer is pre-set with normal range of values. It compares these with feedback from sensors.
Computers record patients’ medical data over some time for later analysis. Data recorded includes:
- Taking measurements on patients, for instance: blood pressure, temperature level, weight, pulse rate etc.
This relieves nurses of some duties that will be boring, making them faster and more reliable.
- There are however some hospital tasks that are more suitable for human beings to perform than computers.
These include dressing patients, bathing patients, etc.

In hospitals, computers also perform the following:

- Used to hold data for children‘s immunisation processes.
- Monitoring of patients during surgery as they control body scanners and sensors.
- For Stock control : For hospital blood stocks, food stocks, drug stocks, etc
- For patient Booking system : For out-patients and in-patients to see the doctor
- For keeping Personnel records : For keeping and management of employee records

Surveillance Systems for House Breakers

The interaction between sensors and microprocessor in a surveillance system is as follows:
- sensors around the house would gather information
- e.g. has a light beam been broken
- has pressure pad detected excess pressure
- has infra-red beam detected excess heat
- has acoustic sensor detected any noise such as breaking glass
- data translated into digital using an ADC (analogue to digital converter)
- microprocessor/computer will compare signal from sensor with stored information
- e.g. signal that light beam is broken

pressure > stored “normal” value

heat level > stored “normal” value
acoustic level > “stored” normal value
- if any values are outside normal range, microprocessor/computer sends a signal to an alarm and/or flashing
light
- system also automatically sends signal to police/security company
- since the house is large, sensors will be in zones; therefore computer will indicate on a control panel the zone
where intruder broke in

Control System
- It is a system in which one or more computers are used to monitor and regulate the operations of non-
computer equipment e.g. in oil refineries.
- Control systems involve monitoring and logging of physical quantities, provide an analysis of performance
and allows some user interaction.
- Feedback is an essential element as well as timing.
- Most control systems are real-time systems, e.g. in oil refining, chemical processing, traffic lights
(controlling the sequence of lights to maintain optimum traffic flow), chemical and nuclear plants (opening
and closing valves, safety systems, etc.), etc.
- In computer control:

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  computer system takes information from the sensors
 compares the data with stored values
 Takes action to try to get values within acceptable ranges by sending signals to devices to open/close,
on/off etc. Devices that receive signals include valves, motors, windows, tapes, etc.
 output from system can affect next input (feedback)

Examples of control systems include: controlling a nuclear reactor, controlling a chemical process,
controlling a greenhouse environment, controlling central heating system, controlling a set of traffic lights

Components of Computer Control

- A computer (or microprocessor).
- Sensors to enable the computer to detect quantities such as temperature or pressure.
- Motor: Devices which actually turns on or off other devices, e.g power supply, windows, vents, water pipes
- Devices for the computer to turn on and off.
- An interface to connect the sensors and devices to the computer.
- software to read data from the sensors and turn the devices on and off

How control is done

- Sensors gather information from the environment in analogue form.
- The ADC translates the analogue data into digital form
- The microprocessor compares the incoming data with the data values already stored in memory.
- If values are outside set parameters, the computer sends a signal to a device to switch on or off (e.g. if
controlling a central heating system, if temperature > set temperature a heater will be switched off and/or a
cooling fan switched on; if the temperature is below the set point then the heating will be switched on and/or
a cooling fan switched off).
- The digital signal will be converted to analogue form using a DAC (Digital to Analogue Converter).
Actuators are usually employed to operate devices like valves, heaters, etc.
- The computer/microprocessor system will continually monitor the data coming from the sensors

NB: In chemical and nuclear plants, there is often a combination of monitoring and control taking place.
Information from sensors is often displayed on a control panel where operators can see key values and alarm
conditions (e.g. if a system monitors temperatures and 1100C is the normal temperature and 1200C is the
alarm temperature, the control panel will show normal, present and alarm values in the form of read outs –
either the computer will automatically take action if necessary or the operator will take action (override the
system if necessary)

Chemical Process Control

Consider the following situation:
A chemical process only works if temperature is above 70oC and less than 100oC, and the pH (acidity) level
is between 3.5 and 8.5. The heater is used to warm the reactor and valves are used to add acid when necessary
to maintain the acidity. The following is a description of how the sensors and the computer in this system
works:
- Temperature and chemical sensors read data from the chemical process
- Data from these sensors is converted to digital form using ADC
- Computer compares values from sensors with pre-set data in computer memory
 If temperature is too low, a signal is send to switch on heaters
 If temperature is too high, a signal is send to switch off heaters
 If temperature is within acceptable range, no action is taken
 If pH is too high, signal is send to open valve and acid is added
 If pH is too low, signal is send to close valve
 If pH is within acceptable levels, no action is taken

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  Signals are changed from digital to analogue so as to control heaters and valves
 This continues as long as the computer is activated.

Control in Greenhouses
- The environment must be kept constant if plants are to grow successfully in greenhouses.
- Temperature and humidity in the air needs to be controlled so that it is kept constant
- Sensors are used to record humidity and temperature levels in analogue form. The analogue signals are sent
to the computer
- The computer will have stored (pre-set) values of minimum acceptable level and maximum acceptable level
for both temperature and humidity
- If the sensor records humidity level below the minimum acceptable level, the computer will send signal to
the actuator to close the windows and switch on the pump for a certain period of time, which will spray water
as a fine mist inside the greenhouse.
- Too much humidity will cause the processor to send signals to the actuator to open windows to assist
ventilation and drying out air.
- In case of temperature, if the greenhouse becomes too hot, the windows are opened and heater turned off. If
it becomes too cold, windows are closed and heater switched on.

Inputs:
- Humidity/moisture (collected from humidity/moisture sensor),
- Temperature (all in analogue form; collected from temperature sensor)

Processing:
- detecting temperature/humidity level
- Processors compares pre-set values in the computer with data collected from sensors
- Processor instructs actuator to take action if values exceed or are less than minimum/maximum pre-set
values

Outputs:
- Windows open or closed (digital form)
- Heater on or off (digital)
- Pump for water supply on or off (digital)

Computerised Traffic Control System

Input:
- Data is read from sensors(light sensor, motion/pressure sensor, weight sensor, sound sensor, etc)
- Data is read from camera images

Processing:
- Computers analyse data from sensors.
- Computers calculate average traffic flow and speed.
- Computer sends signals to actuators to adjust change of lights and timing

Output:
- Change of lights at junction.
- change timing plan

Advantages of using computerised traffic control systems

- Ensures improved traffic flow control.
- Reduces traffic accidents.
- Keeps delays to a minimum.
- Reduces pollution. cars use less fuel

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In case of an emergency, the computerised traffic system may perform any one of the following:
- Give uninterrupted path through the system of linked traffic lights.
- Give green link – wave for all traffic to pass.
- Turn all lights to red.
- Activate emergency generator.
- Sound an alarm.

Microprocessor-Controlled Streetlights
Input:
- Pre-set values of Sunset time and Sunrise time
- Light level (Light sensor sends measurement of light to microprocessor, ADC converts this to digital)

Processing:
- Processor compares sunrise time, sunset time and current time.
- If sunrise time = current time or higher, the processor send signal to actuator so that it switches off lights,
else,
- if signal equals sun set time, the processor send signal to actuator so that it switches on light.
- Also the amount of light is compared with pre-set value. If higher – nothing happens, If lower or equal sends
signal to send signal to actuator so that it switches on the streetlights.

Output:
Lights switched on or off
Benefits of Monitoring and Control Systems
- It is safer to use computer control than human beings, e.g. in monitoring temperature in a blast furnace,
monitoring radiation level in a nuclear reactor, etc.
- It is faster to respond to problems that may affect the system, e.g. nuclear reactor can automatically shut
down in response to earthquake
- They don’t get tired, thus computers can work 24/7
- Computer systems do not miss key data that must be entered into the system as humans do.
- Computer control is more reliable than human beings as computer does not forget to take readings
- computers are more accurate and can take more frequent readings (e.g. if readings need to be taken every 30
seconds, humans can make mistakes or miss readings or even find it impossible to take readings at such short
time intervals)
- data can be automatically displayed and analysed without the need to enter data manually (which in itself
could introduce errors into the system)
- Data can be automatically stored and used in other programs.
- The results of the system can be automatically stored in a spread-sheet package or a database package for
future reference.
- Computer’s response time is faster, which is important especially in patient monitoring

Disadvantages of Monitoring and Control Systems

- High initial costs because computer-controlled devices are more expensive to buy and to set up.
- Fewer workers will be employed leading to a rise in the numbers of the unemployed.
- The software for the control system is very expensive
- If the computer malfunctions the system will not work
- If there is a power cut the system will not work
- The computer can’t react to unexpected events like a human could. It can only respond in the way it has been
programmed to.
- It can cause some concern if total control for a system and the decisions are handed over to a computer.

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Automated Systems
- These are control systems that are dedicated to one particular task and lack the ability to collect and analyse
data as in digital cameras.
- They do not allow for or act on user interaction, e.g. washing machines, cameras, watches.
- Most control systems have embedded computers systems inside them.

NB: Embedded Computers: –

- Refers to use of microprocessors in non-computer equipment like in cameras, washing machines, watches,
etc. They do not have mouse, monitor and keyboards.
- These are normally dedicated for a specific task they are designed for. Embedded computers are also found
in household items like camera, microwave, washing machine, video recorder, fridge, sewing machine, air
conditioning, electronic toys, rice cooker dish washer, Televisions, alarms, clock, radio, DVD players, etc.

Refrigerators
Inputs:
- temperature level (from temperature sensor/ or entered manually through the number pad),
- Pressure (from pressure sensor/contact switch/push switch) ,
- push switch setting

Processing:
- Analogue data from sensors is converted to digital by the ADC
- Processor controls temperature level by comparing with pre-set values.
- If temperature is higher than pre-set value, the processor sends signal to motor to switch on compressor
- If not higher, the compressor is switched off by the actuator
- Processor controls the display panel.
- Processor sends signals to display panel and to the motor to switch lights on or off.

Outputs
- Switch on lights if door is opened and off when closed
- Light emitting diodes indicating current temperature of the inside of refrigerator.
- A warning buzzer (sound) if light is left open.
- Cold temperature

Air Conditioners
Inputs:
- Pre-set temperature level
- Temperature from temperature sensors
- Pressure from pressure sensors: monitors pressure of refrigerant

Processing
- Processor controls temperature.
- Processor sends signal to motor to change fan speed
- If temperature is below pre-set value, the processor gives motor signal so that it switches off fans
- If temperature is above pre-set value, the processor gives motor signal so that it switches on fans
- Processor controls timing and the display panel

Output
- Cool temperatures in the room
- Fans switched off or on depending on the situation

Digital Camera:
Input:

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- Light mode( night or day mode)
- Film speed
- Colour setting

Processing:
- Processor sends signal to automatically adjust film speed,
- Processor positions the end of film,
- Processor sends signal to adjust distance from object,
- Processor sends signal to adjusts light.

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- Processor sends signal to save image on the memory card

Output
- Sound to indicate that the film/picture has been taken
- Image/film captured and stored
- Light flashed to indicate film/picture is taken

Speed Cameras
These are used on roads to take photographs of cars which have exceeded the speed limit. Some of these
cameras use microprocessor controlled chips to store information.
The advantages of speed cameras with microprocessor controlled chips are that:
- Data and images can be transferred automatically which will be faster.
- Image can be viewed straight away.
- Can store considerably more data and photos.
- Can store other information (apart from photo image) e.g. road conditions.
- Chips can be re-used.

Inputs
- Maximum speed (speed limits)
- Road condition

Processing:
Tasks which would be carried out by the microprocessor as a speeding car approaches a camera
include:
- Sense and record speed of vehicle.
- Compare speed of vehicle with stored value(s) and decide whether photograph should be taken.
- Check on value of light intensity.
- Adjust focal length, focus image, adjust shutter speed and set exposure.

Tasks which would be carried out by the microprocessor as the photograph is being taken include:
- Log the time
- Log the date.
- Log the speed.
- Record the road conditions.
- Operate ―flash.
- Operate shutter.
- Instructs storage of the image.
- Check on value of light intensity.
- Adjust focal length and focus image.

Outputs
- Video/pictures of cars captured
- Alarms of over-speeding cars

Microwave Cookers
Function by switching a microwave unit on for a sufficient time to either defreeze frozen food or cook it. It is
used to cook food quickly by using waves (similar to radio waves) to heat the food.
Inputs:
Modern cookers have sensors attached to a microprocessor for detecting as inputs:
 Weight of food
 Temperature of food

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Some cookers will also have additional sensors for detecting:
- Amount of steam produced during cooking
- Amount of alcohol produced

Processing:
- The microprocessor continually monitors sensor readings and by referring to a programmed in-built database
of food types.
- The microprocessor determines time needed to cook or defreeze food.
- IF a temperature in the food indicates the food is cooked OR the time set on the oven clock is reached THEN
microwaves are not produced

Output: Heat for cooking, Light indicating that food is cooked, power turned off if food is cooked.
*NB:-Tasks performed by microprocessor inside some of the devices include:
- In digital camera: automatically adjust film speed, positions the end of film, adjust distance from object,
adjusts light.
- In washing machine: Controls the amount of water. Adjust and controls speed of wash. Control temperature
of water and the time taken to wash the clothes.
- In fridges: Controls temperature level. Control the display panel. Switch on lights if door is opened and off
when closed.
- In air conditioners: Controls temperature. Controls timing and the display panel

Differences between Control and Automated Systems

Automated systems Control Systems
Can have several tasks Dedicated to one task
Can collect and analyse data lack the ability to collect and analyse
data
Allows user intervention They do not allow for or act on user
intervention
Has an element of feedback Do not involve feedback

Feedback: The process in which output of a system can affect its own output. It is whereby part of the output
of a system is returned to its input in order to regulate its further output.

Simulation and Modelling

Modelling
A model is a representation of a real-life process/object which consists of a set of equations which describes
its behavior.
Modeling is the creation of a programmed simulation of a situation/process in order to predict future trends.
It involves the use of mathematical formulas and calculations to predict what is likely to happen based on
data recorded.
In modeling, we use the computer to solve equations so that we can carry out simulation.
An equation for part of an economic model could be:
Unemployment = people able to work – people working.
You can develop and evaluate your own models or use the models that have already been set up to simulate a
real life situations. 3-D Models can be built using CAD, e.g. for planning stores.
Advantages of modeling
- No equipment is damaged
- People are not put in any danger
- Expensive prototypes don't need to be built
- Time can be sped up or slowed down
- Models can be run and re-run over and over

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- Modifications can easily be made and re-tested quickly

Disadvantages of Modeling

- The results depend on how good the model is and how much data was used to create it in the first place.
- Models and simulations can't ever completely re-create real-life situations.
- Not every possible situation may have been included in the model.
- The equipment and software are expensive to purchase.
- Staff need to be trained how to use the software and equipment.

Simulation
Simulation is the study of the behaviour of a system using models in order to predict future real life events,
like population growth, flight simulator, etc. It involves feeding values into a model to see how the model
behaves.
In simulation, past and present data, as well as models are analysed in order to predict the future. Simulation is
used in the following areas:
Training (e.g. pilots, drivers, medical doctors, etc.), running/testing chemical plants and nuclear plants, trying
out equipment to be used under sea or in outer space, crash testing cars, financial simulations (e.g. stock
market predictions based on various scenarios), population growth (i.e. predict how the world’s population
will increase based on a number of different scenarios), queues (e.g. simulating queues at supermarket
checkouts), weather forecasting
Advantages of simulation
- saves cost (rather than doing the real thing)
- safer (scenarios tried out on the simulation first before used in reality)
- possible to try out various scenarios in advance
- Some environments make simulations the only way to carry out a task beforehand (e.g. outer space, under
sea, chemical processes, nuclear reactors, etc.)
- faster (no need to build and test real system, so it is possible to get results more quickly)

Flight Simulator
- Flight simulators are used to train pilots how to fly aircraft.
- They can also be used to test new aircraft before they are actually flown for the first time.
- Flight simulators are expensive to buy but are much cheaper than actual aircraft.

A landing simulation with ice on the runway, thick fog and only one of the four engines working would really
test the pilot’s ability
Flight simulators enable pilots to experience turbulence, snowstorms, thunderstorms, fog, etc, without leaving
the ground.

Simulation At Road Junction

The following is a series of traffic lights at two busy junctions:

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In this simulation it is necessary to consider
- In this simulation it is necessary to consider:
- how and what data is gathered
- how the simulation is done
- how the system would work in real life
- why simulations are done
How data is gathered
To make this as realistic as possible, data needs to be gathered over a long period of time. This can be done by
sensors in/near the road, using cameras or manual data collection. Data gathered includes:
- number of vehicles passing in all directions at each junction
- number of vehicles passing in all directions at each junction at a particular time of the day
- Number of cars build up at a junction before lights change
- is it a week day or weekend or public holiday
- how long it takes to clear vehicles at a junction
- other data (e.g. pedestrian crossings)
- time taken for largest/slowest vehicle to pass through a junction
- other factors (e.g. filtering of traffic to the right or left)

How simulation is done

The data is entered into the computer and the simulation is run. The following scenarios may be tried out:
- timing of lights is varied to see how the traffic flow is affected
- build up number of vehicles stopped at a junction and change timing of lights to see how it affects the traffic
flow
- increase/decrease traffic flow in all directions to see how the traffic is affected
- try out the impact of accidents
- consider passage of emergency vehicles
- effect of adding in pedestrian crossings
- once the simulation is run, the timing of the lights is determined and how they interact so that the maximum
traffic flow is achieved;
- fault scenarios (e.g. an accident) and their impact are considered

How the system works in real time

- Sensors in/near the road gather data (these can be light/infra-red sensors, induction loops, pressure sensors,
etc.)
- the data is usually number of vehicles passing a particular point
- the data is sent to a control box or computer system
- the gathered data is compared to data stored in the system (the stored data is based on simulation runs, how
the number of vehicles at a junction at a particular time of day affects the traffic flow, etc.)

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- the control box or computer “decides” what course of action to take and sends signals to the traffic lights to
change timing if necessary
- as with any system involving sensors, ADC and DAC interfaces may be needed

Simulation in Weather Forecasting

Another example of simulation is predicting weather (i.e. a weather forecaster).
How and what data is collected
- Super computers are used since they control satellites in orbit.
- sensors measure the following variables in analogue form
 pressure, temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and wind direction

- sensors are placed in weather balloons and/or weather stations

- information is also got from satellites
- pilots also send in information regarding weather conditions during long flights
- The data collected by the data loggers will be in analogue form and the ADC device converts this to discrete
values (digital) for the computer to accept.
How the simulation is done
- Data and information from the sensors/satellites is sent to computer for processing
- This data is compared to information stored on files which contain known weather patterns from the past
- predictions are made based on these comparisons
- Calculations are made to produce expected minimum and maximum temperatures, pressure, moisture
content, rainfall patterns, etc
- The computer produces weather maps showing isobars, temperatures, etc.
- computer can show graphically how weather (e.g. cloud formations) will change with time (i.e. predict
weather patterns) – this is often presented as a computer generated video showing how clouds build up, how
temperature and pressure changes over, for example, the next 7 days, wind speeds etc.
- It is also possible to do statistical analysis and predict the percentage probability that certain weather
conditions will occur.

How future environment/climate changes can be predicted

- Weather forecasting uses the concept of simulation and modelling i.e. predicting the weather by studying a
mathematical weather model.
- The measurements are then entered into a mathematical weather model which then makes complex
calculations to come up with the weather reports.
- based on changes in weather patterns, the processor carries out a statistical prediction
- model is able to change parameters to see how future climate can be affected
- there is need to review a lot of previous data over a number of years to check if changes are genuine, for
example 20 years, predictions compared to actual climate conditions to validate/further refine the model
- can make use of spread sheets and statistical software packages for other calculations

Output:
- Information obtained is displayed on the computer screen ready for presentation on televisions
- Information can be printed documents.
- Tables and graphs are produced
- Rainfall maps and isobars are produced.
- Expected minimum and maximum temperatures are produced
- Areas of pressure change with time so it is possible to predict rainfall, strong winds, etc. in advance
- Show how the clouds patterns will change with time so it is possible to predict rainfall

Advantages of this automatic weather forecasting system include:

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- Computer can take readings during weekends and public holidays without the presence of human beings.
- Computer readings are more accurate.
- Readings can be taken more frequently.
- Readings can be taken any time of day or night.
- Graphs can be produced more easily.
- Readings can be taken more reliably.
- Humans can be more productive if not collecting data.

Simulating Queuing in a Supermarket

Collecting data for the model:
- Sensors count number of people at checkouts points at each time of day and each day of the week
- count how many people build up at the checkouts on either is it a weekday, weekend or bank holiday
- determine how long it take to serve a customer

Carrying out the simulation

- number of checkouts opened and see how flow of people affected
- Build up number of customers at checkout, open extra checkouts and see how it affects time to be served,
etc.
- Increase/decrease number of customers and observe the affect
- Once simulation is run, number of checkouts needed is determined and interaction with customers is
determined so that optimum throughput is achieved
- Look at fault scenarios (breakdown of equipment etc.)

Embedded Web Technology (EWT)

- This is a new technology that uses the Internet in real time to control/interact with a device which contains
an embedded microprocessor.
- The user needs to be authorised to do this and can control a device anywhere using a web browser (e.g. from
a computer or even a mobile phone which is web-enabled).
- Example: An oven contains an embedded processor. The owner can use a web ready mobile phone anywhere
to control the oven remotely.
- By accessing a web site one is able to send instructions to control the oven.
- It is possible to control any device in this way if it contains an embedded processor e.g. television, DVD
player/recorder, washing machine, scientific experiments in remote areas such as outer space

Global Positioning Satellites (GPS)

GPS - A navigational system involving satellites and computers that can determine the latitude and longitude
(position) of a receiver on earth by computing the time difference for signals from different satellites to reach
the receiver.

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- GPS systems are used to determine the exact location of a car, airplane, ship or any form of transport which
travels from one place to another.
- In vehicles these systems are called Satellite Navigation Systems (sat nav).
- Satellites in outer space transmit signals to the Earth.
- Computers in vehicles (e.g. car, airplane or ship) receive and interpret these signals.

- Positioning depends on very accurate timing – atomic clocks are used because of their accuracy to within a
fraction of a second per day.
- Each satellite transmits data indicating its position and time.
- The computer in the vehicle calculates its location based on the information from at least three satellites as
shown below:

- In motor vehicles the system is called satellite navigation (sat nav).

- The on board computer contains pre-stored road maps.
- The vehicle’s exact location, based on satellite positioning, can be shown on the map; the driver can then be
given verbal directions e.g. “turn left into Josiah Tongogara Road” OR a screen output showing the vehicle
moving on the map
How satellite navigation systems can be used to calculate a vehicle’s position
- satellites in outer space transmit signals to the Earth
- computers in the bus receive and interpret these signals
- the satellite relies on very accurate timing (atomic clocks)
- each satellite transmits data indicating position and time
- computer in bus calculates its position based on received satellite data
- at least three satellites are used to give the vehicle’s exact position

How the drivers uses the satellite navigation system:

- the computer has a number of pre-stored maps
- bus location shown on appropriate map
- directions are given verbally or on-screen output (on a map)

Advantages
- It is far safer since a driver of a vehicle doesn’t have to consult maps whilst driving.
- it also removes error (e.g. going the wrong way down a one-way street).

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- Satelite navigation systems can also give additional information such as position of speed cameras, estimate
time of arrival, etc.
- GPS can monitor a vehicle’s position if it has broken down or has been stolen (vehicle tracking system).
- In airplanes GPS can pinpoint its exact location in case of an accident which enables search teams to quickly
respond to the incident.

Disadvantages
- maps may not up to date therefore instructed to turn into a road which no longer exists
- road closures due to accidents or road works may cause problems to a sat nav system
- signal loss can cause problems with GPS systems
- potential interferences from external sources (major problem on aircraft)
- incorrect start and end point entered into system can cause problems

Closed-Circuit Television (CCTV)

- Closed-circuit television is the use of one or more video cameras to produce video signals that are not
broadcast, but displayed on a monitor screen. The images may be recorded.
- The camera may be remotely controlled by an operator or by a computer that receives data from sensors
signalling an event of interest in a particular area.
- The computer’s software could react by tilting and zooming the CCTV camera onto the area protected by the
sensor and starting to record the camera’s video stream.
- Mostly used in shops to record all transactions, e.g. capturing video of customers. It can be easy to identify
shoplifters and thus reducing theft of goods in shops.
- CCTV is now being used even to record street events. This has been triggered by rise in terrorist activities
especially in Western countries and the United States.

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 67

DATA REPRESENTATION
Data refers to row facts or figures awaiting processing
Data also refers to the symbols that represent people, events, things, and ideas.
Data can be a name, a number, the colors in a photograph, or the notes in a musical composition.

Data Representation refers to the form in which data is stored, processed, and transmitted.

Devices such as smart phones, iPods, and computers store data in digital formats that can be handled by
electronic circuitry.

DATA REPRESENTATION USING BINARY

Computers store all data as patterns of 0's and 1's. Information systems using 0's and 1's are collectively
known as binary information systems.

Each 0 or 1 in a binary value is called a bit, which is short for binary digit.

A collection of 8 bits is called a byte. A byte is a very common unit of storage for electronic memory. It is
usually the smallest chunk of data that programs process, although many languages support processing
individual bits as well. Processing data smaller than a byte is generally not as easy as processing whole bytes.

A collection of 4 bits is called a nybble.

A word is the maximum amount of data a CPU can process at once, and is usually 1, 2, 4, or 8 bytes (8 to 64
bits).

Numeric data is stored using several different binary number formats, all of which use a finite number of
binary digits (bits), and therefore are subject to overflow and round-off.

Denary, also known as "decimal" or "base 10," is the standard number system used around the world. It uses
ten digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9) to represent all numbers. Denary is often contrasted with binary, the
standard number system used by computers and other electronic devices.

The first two letters in denary ("de") are an abbreviated version of "dec" which is a Latin prefix meaning
"ten." The Latin prefix "bi" means two. Therefore, the denary system contains ten digits, while the binary
system only contains two (0 and 1). Both systems can be used to represent any integer.

CONVERT NUMBERS FROM ONE BASE TO ANOTHER

DECIMAL BINARY
Base 10 (Decimal) — Represent any number using 10 digits [0–9]
Base 2 (Binary) — Represent any number using 2 digits [0–1]

NUMBE BINARY
R
0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 68

6 0110
7 0111

Example 1

Convert 1012 to decimal

Answer:
22 21 20
1 0 1

1x 22 + 0 x 21+ 1 x 20
4 + 0 +1
=5

Example 2

Convert 1011 to decimal

Answer
23 22 21 20
1 0 1 1

1 x 23 + 0 x 22 + 1 x 21 +1 x 20
8 + 4 + 2 + 1
=15

Example 3
Covert 5 to binary

Answer
Deviser Decimal Remainder
2 5
2 2 1
2 1 0
0 1

Answer = 10012

Example 4
Convert 15 to binary
Answer
Deviser Decimal Remainder
2 15
2 7 1
2 3 1
2 1 1
0 1

OCTAL
Base 8 (Octal) — Represent any number using 8 digits [0–7]

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 69

Octal to binary conversion

To convert octal to binary, replace each octal digit by its binary representation.

Example: Convert 518 to binary:

58 = 1012
18 = 0012

Therefore, 518 = 101 0012.

Binary to octal conversion

The process is the reverse of the previous algorithm. The binary digits are grouped by threes, starting from the
least significant bit and proceeding to the left and to the right. Add leading zeroes (or trailing zeroes to the
right of decimal point) to fill out the last group of three if necessary. Then replace each trio with the equivalent
octal digit.

For instance, convert binary 1010111100 to octal:

001 010 111 100

1 2 7 4

Therefore, 10101111002 = 12748.

Convert binary 11100.01001 to octal:

011 100 . 010 010

3 4 . 2 2

Therefore, 11100.010012 = 34.228.

Octal to hexadecimal conversion

The conversion is made in two steps using binary as an intermediate base. Octal is converted to binary and
then binary to hexadecimal, grouping digits by fours, which correspond each to a hexadecimal digit.

For instance, convert octal 1057 to hexadecimal:

To binary:
1 0 5 7
001 000 101 111

then to hexadecimal:
0010 0010 1111
2 2 F

Therefore, 10578 = 22F16.

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 70

Hexadecimal to octal conversion

Hexadecimal to octal conversion proceeds by first converting the hexadecimal digits to 4-bit binary values,
then regrouping the binary bits into 3-bit octal digits.

For example, to convert 3FA516:

To binary:
3 F A 5
0011 1111 1010 0101

then to octal:
0 011 111 110 100 101
0 3 7 6 4 5

Therefore, 3FA516 = 376458.

HEXADECIMAL
Base 16(Hexadecimal) — Represent any number using 10 digits and 6 characters [0–9, A, B, C, D, E, F

The hexadecimal system is Base Sixteen. As its base implies, this number system uses sixteen symbols to
represent numbers. Unlike binary and octal, hexadecimal has six additional symbols that it uses beyond the
conventional ones found in decimal. But what comes after 9? 10 is not a single digit but two… Fortunately,
the convention is that once additional symbols are needed beyond the normal ten, letters are to be used. So, in
hexadecimal, the total list of symbols to use is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, and F. In a digital
display, the numbers B and D are lowercase.

When counting in hexadecimal, you count 0, 1, 2, and so on. However, when you reach 9, you go directly to
A. Then, you count B, C, D, E, and F. But what is next? We are out of symbols! When we run out of symbols,
we create a new digit placement and move on. So after F is 10. You count further until you reach 19. After 19,
the next number is 1A. This goes on forever.

Hexadecimal 9 A B C D E F 10 11… 19 1A 1B 1C… 9F A0

Decimal 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 25 26 27 28 159 160

Digits are explained as powers of 16. Consider the hexadecimal number 2DB7.

163 162 161 160

2 D B 7
8192+3328+176+7
11703

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 71

 Hexadecimal
Denary Octal Binary
(base 10) (base 8) (base 2)
(base 16)
0 0 000 00000000
1 1 001 00000001
2 2 002 00000010
3 3 003 00000011
4 4 004 00000100
5 5 005 00000101
6 6 006 00000110
7 7 007 00000111
8 8 010 00001000
9 9 011 00001001
10 A 012 00001010
11 B 013 00001011
12 C 014 00001100
13 D 015 00001101
14 E 016 00001110
15 F 017 00001111

BINARY OPERATIONS

Addition Binary Numbers

Rule to follow when binary numbers are added:
 0+0=0
 0+1=1
 1+0=1
 1 + 1 = 0 (with a carry of 1)

Example - Adding Binary and Decimal Numbers

Decimal Binary
5 101
+6 + 110
= 11 = 1011
15 1111
+ 20 + 10100
= 35 = 100011
3.25 11.01
+ 5.75 + 101.11
= 9.00 = 1001.00

Subtracting Binary Numbers

Rule to follow when binary numbers are subtracted:

 0-0=0
 1-0=1
 1-1=0
 0 - 1 = 1 (with a borrow of 1)

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 72

Example - Subtracting Binary and Decimal Numbers
Decimal Binary
9 1001
-5 - 101
=4 = 0100
16 10000
-3 - 11
= 13 = 01101
6.25 110.01
- 4.50 - 100.10
= 1.75 = 001.11

Multiplication of Binary Numbers

Rule to follow when binary numbers are multiplied:

 0x0=0
 0x1=0
 1x0=0
 1x1=1

Division of Binary Numbers

Rule to follow when binary numbers are divided:

 0/1=0
 1/1=1

CONVERT KEYBOARD CHARACTERS TO ASCII CODE

Character encoding is the American Standard Code for Information Interchange, and is the US precursor to
ISO 646 (internationally defined character sets). ASCII is a 7-bit code, meaning that 128 characters (27) are
defined. The code consists of 33 non-printable and 95 printable characters and includes both letters,
punctuation marks, numbers and control characters.

What is ASCII?

ASCII is a standard used to represent characters on electronic devices. To understand how it works, you first
need to be familiar with how a calculator functions: in a computer, the computational processes are always
based off a binary system, meaning that zeroes and ones determine the processes. That is the reason why
ASCII is also built on this system. The original ASCII standard defines different characters within seven bits –
seven digits that indicate either a 0 or a 1. The eighth bit, which is one full byte, is traditionally used for
checking purposes. The ASCII-based extended versions use this exact bit to extend the available characters to
256 (28).

Each character corresponds to a seven-digit sequence of zeroes and ones, which can then be represented as a
decimal number, or as a hexadecimal number. The ASCII characters can be divided into several groups.

 Control Characters (0–31 & 127): Control characters are not printable characters. They are used to
send commands to the PC or the printer and are based on telex technology. With these characters, you
can set line breaks or tabs. Today, they are mostly out of use.

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 73

  Special Characters (32–47 / 58–64 / 91–96 / 123–126): Special characters include all printable
characters that are neither letters nor numbers. These include punctuation or technical, mathematical
characters. ASCII also includes the space (a non-visible but printable character), and, therefore, does
not belong to the control characters category, as one might suspect.

 Numbers (30–39): These numbers include the ten Arabic numerals from 0-9.

 Letters (65–90 / 97–122): Letters are divided into two blocks, with the first group containing the
uppercase letters and the second group containing the lowercase.

ASCII
Bin. Hex. Dec. Explanation Group
Symbol
Control
0000000 0 0 NUL The null character prompts the device to do nothing
Character
Control
0000001 1 1 SOH Initiates a header (Start of Heading)
Character
Ends the header and marks the beginning of a message. (start of Control
0000010 2 2 STX
text) Character
Control
0000011 3 3 ETX Indicates the end of the message (end of text)
Character
Control
0000100 4 4 EOT Marks the end of a completes transmission (End of Transmission)
Character
Control
0000101 5 5 ENQ A request that requires a response (Enquiry)
Character
Control
0000110 6 6 ACK Gives a positive answer to the request (Acknowledge)
Character
Control
0000111 7 7 BEL Triggers a beep (Bell)
Character
Control
0001000 8 8 BS Lets the cursor move back one step (Backspace)
Character
TAB A horizontal tab that moves the cursor within a row to the next Control
0001001 9 9
(HT) predefined position (Horizontal Tab) Character
Control
0001010 A 10 LF Causes the cursor to jump to the next line (Line Feed)
Character
The vertical tab lets the cursor jump to a predefined line (Vertical Control
0001011 B 11 VT
Tab) Character
Control
0001100 C 12 FF Requests a page break (Form Feed)
Character
Moves the cursor back to the first position of the line (Carriage Control
0001101 D 13 CR
Return) Character
Control
0001110 E 14 SO Switches to a special presentation (Shift Out)
Character
Control
0001111 F 15 SI Switches the display back to the normal state (Shift In)
Character
Changes the meaning of the following characters (Data Link Control
0010000 10 16 DLE
Escape) Character
Control characters assigned depending on the device used Control
0010001 11 17 DC1
(Device Control) Character
0010010 12 18 DC2 Control characters assigned depending on the device used Control

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 74

 ASCII
Bin. Hex. Dec. Explanation Group
Symbol
(Device Control) Character
Control characters assigned depending on the device used Control
0010011 13 19 DC3
(Device Control) Character
Control characters assigned depending on the device used Control
0010100 14 20 DC4
(Device Control) Character
Control
0010101 15 21 NAK Negative response to a request (Negative Acknowledge)
Character
Synchronizes a data transfer, even if no signals are transmitted Control
0010110 16 22 SYN
(Synchronous Idle) Character
Marks the end of a transmission block (End of Transmission Control
0010111 17 23 ETB
Block) Character
Makes it clear that a transmission was faulty and the data must be Control
0011000 18 24 CAN
discarded (Cancel) Character
Control
0011001 19 25 EM Indicates the end of the storage medium (End of Medium)
Character
Control
0011010 1A 26 SUB Replacement for a faulty sign (Substitute)
Character
Initiates an escape sequence and thus gives the following Control
0011011 1B 27 ESC
characters a special meaning (Escape) Character
Marks the separation of logical data blocks and is hierarchically
Control
0011100 1C 28 FS ordered: file as the largest unit, file as the smallest unit.(File
Character
Separator, Group Separator, Record Separator, Unit Separator)
Marks the separation of logical data blocks and is hierarchically
Control
0011101 1D 29 GS ordered: file as the largest unit, file as the smallest unit.(File
Character
Separator, Group Separator, Record Separator, Unit Separator)
Marks the separation of logical data blocks and is hierarchically
Control
0011110 1E 30 RS ordered: file as the largest unit, file as the smallest unit.(File
Character
Separator, Group Separator, Record Separator, Unit Separator)
Marks the separation of logical data blocks and is hierarchically
Control
0011111 1F 31 US ordered: file as the largest unit, file as the smallest unit.(File
Character
Separator, Group Separator, Record Separator, Unit Separator)
Special
0100000 20 32 SP Blank space (Space)
Character
Special
0100001 21 33 ! Exclamation mark
Character
Special
0100010 22 34 Only quotes above
Character
Special
0100011 23 35 # Pound sign
Character
Special
0100100 24 36 $ Dollar sign
Character
Special
0100101 25 37 % Percentage sign
Character
Special
0100110 26 38 & Commericial and
Character
0100111 27 39 Apostrophe Special

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 75

 ASCII
Bin. Hex. Dec. Explanation Group
Symbol
Character
Special
0101000 28 40 ( Left bracket
Character
Special
0101001 29 41 ) Right bracket
Character
Special
0101010 2A 42 * Asterisk
Character
Special
0101011 2B 43 + Plus symbol
Character
Special
0101100 2C 44 , Comma
Character
Special
0101101 2D 45 - Dash
Character
Special
0101110 2E 46 . Full stop
Character
Special
0101111 2F 47 / Forward slash
Character
0110000 30 48 0 Numbers
0110001 31 49 1 Numbers
0110010 32 50 2 Numbers
0110011 33 51 3 Numbers
0110100 34 52 4 Numbers
0110101 35 53 5 Numbers
0110110 36 54 6 Numbers
0110111 37 55 7 Numbers
0111000 38 56 8 Numbers
0111001 39 57 9 Numbers
Special
0111010 3A 58 : Colon
characters
Special
0111011 3B 59 ; Semicolon
characters
Special
0111100 3C 60 < Small than bracket
characters
Special
0111101 3D 61 = Equals sign
characters
Special
0111110 3E 62 > Bigger than symbol
characters
Special
0111111 3F 63 ? Question mark
characters
Special
1000000 40 64 @ At symbol
characters
Capital
1000001 41 65 A
letters
Capital
1000010 42 66 B
letters

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 76

 ASCII
Bin. Hex. Dec. Explanation Group
Symbol
Capital
1000011 43 67 C
letters
Capital
1000100 44 68 D
letters
Capital
1000101 45 69 E
letters
Capital
1000110 46 70 F
letters
Capital
1000111 47 71 G
letters
Capital
1001000 48 72 H
letters
Capital
1001001 49 73 I
letters
Capital
1001010 4A 74 J
letters
Capital
1001011 4B 75 K
letters
Capital
1001100 4C 76 L
letters
Capital
1001101 4D 77 M
letters
Capital
1001110 4E 78 N
letters
Capital
1001111 4F 79 O
letters
Capital
1010000 50 80 P
letters
Capital
1010001 51 81 Q
letters
Capital
1010010 52 82 R
letters
Capital
1010011 53 83 S
letters
Capital
1010100 54 84 T
letters
Capital
1010101 55 85 U
letters
Capital
1010110 56 86 V
letters
Capital
1010111 57 87 W
letters
Capital
1011000 58 88 X
letters
Capital
1011001 59 89 Y
letters

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 77

 ASCII
Bin. Hex. Dec. Explanation Group
Symbol
Capital
1011010 5A 90 Z
letters
Special
1011011 5B 91 [ Left square bracket
character
Special
1011100 5C 92 \ Inverse/backward slash
character
Special
1011101 5D 93 ] Right square bracket
character
Special
1011110 5E 94 ^ Circumflex
character
Special
1011111 5F 95 _ Underscore
character
Special
1100000 60 96 ` Gravis (backtick)
character
Lowercase
1100001 61 97 a
letters
Lowercase
1100010 62 98 b
letters
Lowercase
1100011 63 99 c
letters
Lowercase
1100100 64 100 d
letters
Lowercase
1100101 65 101 e
letters
Lowercase
1100110 66 102 f
letters
Lowercase
1100111 67 103 g
letters
Lowercase
1101000 68 104 h
letters
Lowercase
1101001 69 105 i
letters
Lowercase
1101010 6A 106 j
letters
Lowercase
1101011 6B 107 k
letters
Lowercase
1101100 6C 108 l
letters
Lowercase
1101101 6D 109 m
letters
Lowercase
1101110 6E 110 n
letters
Lowercase
1101111 6F 111 o
letters
Lowercase
1110000 70 112 p
letters

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 78

 ASCII
Bin. Hex. Dec. Explanation Group
Symbol
Lowercase
1110001 71 113 q
letters
Lowercase
1110010 72 114 r
letters
Lowercase
1110011 73 115 s
letters
Lowercase
1110100 74 116 t
letters
Lowercase
1110101 75 117 u
letters
Lowercase
1110110 76 118 v
letters
Lowercase
1110111 77 119 w
letters
Lowercase
1111000 78 120 x
letters
Lowercase
1111001 79 121 y
letters
Lowercase
1111010 7A 122 z
letters
Special
1111011 7B 123 { Left curly bracket
characters
Special
1111100 7C 124 l Vertical line
characters
Special
1111101 7D 125 } Right curly brackets
characters
Special
1111110 7E 126 ~ Tilde
characters
Deletes a character. Since this control character consists of the
same number on all positions, during the typewriter era it was Control
1111111 7F 127 DEL
possible to invalidate another character by punching out all the characters
positions (Delete)

EXAMPLE:
CONVERT ASCII CHARACTERS

In ASCII, the system converts binary numbers into printable and non-printable characters according to a
specified standard, as listed in the table above. Users can also perform these computational processes without
any aids. All you have to do is understand how to calculate in binary or hexadecimal. In a number system,
each digit corresponds to the power on a particular basis: in the decimal system, the base is 10. The base is 2
for binary and 16 for hexadecimal systems. Multiply the value of the digit by the value of the digit.

Digit values in the decimal system:

Decimal system
100 101 102 103 …

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 79

1 10 100 1000 …

Therefore:

7304 = 7 * 10³ + 3 * 10² + 0 * 10¹ + 4 * 10⁰

This also works analogously in the other two systems:

Binary system
20 21 22 23 …
1 2 4 8 …

However, there are only two digits, so:

1011 = 1 * 2³ + 0 * 2² + 1 * 2¹ + 1 * 2⁰ = 11

Hexadecimal system
160 161 162 163 …
1 16 256 4096 …

There are 16 characters, therefore:

F1A9 = 15 * 16³ + 1 * 16² + 10 * 16¹ + 9 * 16⁰ = 61865

With this information and the ASCII table, ASCII strings can be converted into any number system. See this
example, using the term “Digital”:

„D“ corresponds to the decimal value of 68 in the ASCII table, therefore:

68 = 1 * 2⁶ + 1 * 2² = 1000100

68 = 4 * 16¹ + 4 * 16⁰ = 44

“i” corresponds to the decimal value of 105, therefore:

105 = 1 * 2⁶ + 1 * 2⁵ + 1 * 2³ + 1 * 2⁰ = 1101001

105 = 6 * 16¹ + 9 * 16⁰ = 69

“g” corresponds to the decimal value 103, therefore:

103 = 1 * 2⁶ + 1 * 2⁵ + 1 * 2² + 1 * 2¹ + 1 * 2⁰= 1100111

103 = 6 * 16¹ + 7 * 16⁰ = 67

“i” corresponds to the decimal value of 105, therefore:

105 = 1 * 2⁶ + 1 * 2⁵ + 1 * 2³ + 1 * 2⁰= 1101001

105 = 6 * 16¹ + 9 * 16⁰= 69

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 80

“t” corresponds to the decimal 1106, therefore:

116 = 1 * 2⁶ + 1 * 2⁵ + 1 * 2⁴ + 1 * 2²= 1110100

116 = 7 * 16¹ + 4 * 16⁰ = 74

“a” corresponds to the decimal value 97, therefore:

97 = 1 * 2⁶ + 1 * 2⁵ + 1 * 2⁰= 1100001

97 = 6 * 16¹ + 1 * 16⁰ = 61

“l” corresponds to the decimal value 108, therefore:

108 = 1 * 2⁶ + 1* 2⁵ + 1 * 2³ + 1 * 2² = 1101100

108 = 6 * 16¹ + 12 * 16⁰ = 6C

Accordingly, the example word can be represented as such:

Symbol D i g i t a l
Dec 68 105 103 105 116 97 108
Bin 1000100 1101001 1100111 1101001 1110100 1100001 1101100
Hex 44 69 67 69 74 61 6C

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 81

ASCII CODE: BENEFITS AND AREAS OF APPLICATION

ASCII is still widely used today, even though UTF-8 has become more important when presenting a text.
However, Unicode has only been displacing the old character encoding method used during the early days of
the internet since 2008. The advantage of using UTF-8 is that the code is almost backwardly compatible:
ASCII is a subset of UTF-8, so the first 128 characters are identical. Since ASCII can be considered the lowest
common denominator of most new encoding forms, the old encoding method is still used in emails and URLs.

In addition, ASCII has long been used for artistic purposes as well as technical ones: ASCII art uses
exclusively printable ASCII table characters to produce creative works. The spectrum ranges from lettering, to
simple stick figures, to real paintings. ASCII artists use the different brightness levels of individual characters
to create light and shade in their artworks.

LOGIC GATES
- A logic gate is a device that produces signals of 1 or 0 when the input logic requirements are met and are
used in manipulating binary information.
- Logic gates are the building blocks of digital technology. A logic gate is a device (or electrical circuit) that
performs one or more logical operations on one or more input signals. Its output represent Boolean (T or F) or
binary values (1 or 0) as voltages.
- They can be used in applications like:
 Building computer chips, Programming traffic signals, Chips for automatic alarm systems, Chips for
automated control systems, etc
- Electronic circuits operate using binary logic gates.
- Logic gates process signals which represent TRUE or FALSE, ON or OFF , 1 or 0

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 82

Main Logic Gates
The main logic gates are:
(a) OR gate
(b) AND gate
(c) NOT gate
(d) NOR gate
(e) NAND gate

Logic gates are used with truth tables.

 A truth table is a table which shows how a logic circuit's output responds to various combinations of the
inputs, using logic 1 for true and logic 0 for false.
 A truth table is a table that describes the behaviour of a logic gate.
 It lists the value of the output for every possible combination of the inputs
 Truth tables contains 1s and 0s and are an integral part of logic gates functionality.
 Truth table and logic gates use the following:
- 1 (True, ON, Not False)
- 0 (False, OFF, Not True)

The number of rows in a truth table shows the number of combinations of the inputs of a particular circuit.
The number of rows for each gate is found using the following formulae: rows = 2n , n being the number of
inputs in the gate or circuit. For example, a gate or circuit has the following rows corresponding to the number
of input (excluding column headings):
- 1 input = 21 = 2 rows
- 2 inputs = 22 = 4 rows
- 3 inputs = 23 = 8 rows

Graphical Representation of Gates and their Truth Tables

Each logic gate has its own unique graphical representation, which can be in general form or in standard form.

(1) General form

Each logic gate has a circle and the name of the gate to differentiate it from the rest as given below:

The name inside the gate gives us the type of the gate
(2) Standard Representation

In standard form, each logic gate has its own unique diagram. Even if the name of the gate is not written, one
knows what it stands for because of the shape. The following are the logic gates and their shapes in standard
form.
(a) OR gate

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 83

This represents two inputs entering the gate and one output from the gate. The inputs can be represented by
any alphabetic characters, e.g. A and B, while the output can be X, given as follows:

: Logic Gate Diagram Truth table

Standard Form General Form

- X= A OR B
- The output (X) is true if the INPUT A OR INPUT B are true.
- Thus if any one of the inputs is 1, the output is automatically 1
- Output only becomes 0 if all inputs are 0

(b) NOR gate

- This is an OR gate with the output X inverted.

Logic Gate Diagram Truth table
Standard Form General Form

- The output (X) is true if NOT (INPUT A OR INPUT B) are true.

- Thus X = NOT (A or B)

(c) NOT gate

Logic Gate Diagram Truth table
Standard Form General Form

The NOT gate has only one input and one output. The input is negated. Thus if input is 1, output is 0, and vice
versa.
The output (X) is true when the INPUT A is NOT TRUE.
The output (X) is False when the INPUT A is TRUE.

(d) AND gate

This is represented as follows:
Logic Gate Diagram Truth table
Standard Form General Form

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 84

The output (X) is only true if the INPUT A AND INPUT B are both true. If any one of the inputs is 0, then
the output becomes 0 also. Thus X = A AND B.

(e) NAND gate

Logic Gate Diagram Truth table
Standard Form General Form

This is an AND gate with the output X inverted. The output is true if INPUT A AND INPUT B are NOT
both True. It translates to NOT (A and B)

Combinational Logic Gates

A combination of logic gates, which may be different, gives a logic circuit as given below:

Boolean Expressions
Boolean Expressions are equivalent expressions of the logic state of gates. For example, the Boolean
expression for:
a NOT gate with input A and output C: C = NOT A
NAND and NOR gates are known as universal gates because they are inexpensive to manufacture and any
Boolean function (AND, OR, NOT) can be constructed using only NAND or only NOR gates. Even NAND
and NOR gates can be used as each other’s alternatives in a circuit.
Expressions and Logic Gates
Expressions using mathematical symbols can be used to represent logic gates. One may be required to draw
logic gates using such mathematical expressions Such symbols and their meaning are as given below:

1. Plus sign (+)

- This means OR, e.g.
- C= A + B

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- This is an OR gate, which means C = A OR B.
2. Multiplication Sign
- This represents an AND gate
- E.g C = AB,

- C = AxB,

- C = A.B

- C= (AB)(AC)

- C = (A.B).(A.C)
- All these are various versions of the AND gate.
3. Complement sign (‘ or – above an input)
- This represents a NOT gate
- For example: NOT A can be given as any one of the following:
 A’
 _
A
Logic Gate Problems:
Question: Worked Example
A steel rolling mill is to be controlled by a logic network made up of AND, OR and NOT gates only. The mill
receives a stop signal (i.e. S = 1) depending on the following input bits:

A stop signal (S = 1) occurs when:

Either: Length, L > 100 metres and Velocity, V < =10 m/s
Or Temperature, T <=1000 C and Velocity, V >10 m/s
Draw a logic network and truth table to show all the possible situations when the stop signal could be
received.

Answer
Step 1: Deduce and Write the logic statement
- The first statement can be re-written as: (L = 1 AND V = NOT 1) since Length > 100 metres corresponds to
a binary value of 1 and Velocity <=10 m/s corresponds to a binary value of 0 (i.e. NOT 1).
- The second statement can be written as (T = NOT 1 AND V = 1)
- Both these statements are joined together by OR which gives us the logic statement: if (L = 1 AND V = NOT
1) OR (T = NOT 1 AND V = 1) then S = 1
- The above statement can be written as: S = 1 if (L = 1 AND V = NOT 1) OR (T = NOT 1 AND V = 1)

NB: the Student should first of all write the following logic statement before coming up with a truth
table or logic circuit as this has some marks awarded to it., i.e.

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S = 1 if (L = 1 AND V = NOT 1) OR (T = NOT 1 AND V = 1)

Step 2: Logic Circuit

- Using the logic statement above, one can now draw the logic circuit as given below:

Step 3: Truth Table

- One can now draw the truth table, basing from the logic statement in Step 1.

Questions
1. A computer will only operate if three switches P, S and T are correctly set. An output signal (X = 1) will
occur if R and S are both ON or if R is OFF and S and T are ON. Design a logic network and draw the truth
table for this network.
2. A traffic signal system will only operate if it receives an output signal (D = 1).
This can only occur if:
Either (a) signal A is red (i.e. A = 0)
Or (b) signal A is green (i.e. A = 1) and signals B and C are both red (i.e. B
and C are both 0)
Design a logic network and draw a truth table for the above system.
3. A chemical plant gives out a warning signal (W = 1) when the process goes wrong. A logic network is used
to provide input and to decide whether or not W = 1

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A warning signal (W = 1) will be generated if
either : (a) Chemical Rate < 10 m /s
or (b) Temperature > 87 C and Concentration > 2 moles
or (c) Chemical rate = 10 m /s and Temperature > 87 C
Draw a logic network and truth table to show all the possible situations when the warning signal could be
received
4. A power station has a safety system based on three inputs to a logic network. A warning signal (S = 1) is
produced when certain conditions occur based on these 3 inputs:

A warning signal (S = 1) will be generated if:

Either : (a) Temperature > 120C and Cooling Water <= 100 l/hr
Or (b) Temperature <= 120C and (Pressure > 10 bar or Cooling Water < 100 l/hr)
Draw a logic network and truth table to show all the possible situations when the warning signal could be
received.
5. Draw a circuit diagram for δ = (xy' + x'y)z
6. Device a suitable Boolean expression and truth table for the circuit below:

7. Draw circuits for following Boolean statements.

a. If A AND B are on AND C AND D are on then output is on.

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b. If A OR B are on AND C OR D are on then output is on.
c. If A OR B is on then output is off.
d. If B AND C is off OR A is on then output is on.
e. If A is off AND B OR C is on AND D is off then output is on.
f. If A is on AND B AND C are off AND D is on then output is on.
g. If smoke detector (S) is on OR fire alarm (F) is on then sprinkler (W) is on.
8. a. Simplify the following logic equations by using the rules of Boolean algebra.

a. A • C + A • B • C

b. (A + B) • (B + Ā)

c. A • (Ā + C) + C
b. For each of the previous questions, create a circuit for the Boolean expression before simplification.

COMMUNICATION NETWORKS AND INTERNET TECHNOLOGIES

Definition of Terms
Network: A connection of computers for them to share data, files and resources like a printer.

Advantages of Networking
- Expensive peripherals like printers and scanners can be shared between users.
- Messages can be sent easily and faster between users whether on WAN or LAN.
- Avoids duplication of information as users can access the same file on the network.
- Network software can be purchased cheaply than buying individual packages for each computer.
- It is possible to access data or programs from any terminal or workstation.
- Data and programs can be stored centrally making it easier to maintain and backup.
- Users can be easily prevented from accessing files not intended for them.
- Allows sharing of files, software and data held in computers.
- Allows emails to be send between users.

Disadvantages of Networking
- Sophisticated equipment is needed, which may be expensive to buy.
- Security of data can be a problem due to hacking.
- Wiring can be expensive both to buy and to install; wiring can be sunk on the ground to avoid trailing cables.
- If a server breaks down, the whole network becomes unusable.
- Networks need experienced network managers, who will be highly paid to keep the network running.

Types of Networks
- Computer networks are grouped into Local Area Networks (LAN) and Wide Area Networks (WAN).
- However we also have WLAN (Wireless Local Area Networks), MAN (Metropolitan Area Networks)
and PAN (Personal Area Networks); and these are described below.

1. Local Area Networks (LAN)

This is the connection of computers over a very small geographical area, like in a single room, for user to
share files, data, software and hardware like printers. Other LANs can link different departments (e.g. Sales,
Accounts, Warehousing, Despatch, etc) within an organisa+tion’s complex. A LAN is usually owned by one
organisation. However, if an organisation uses internet service within its restricted private Local Area
Network, such a network is called an Intranet (private network).
NB: Intranet is a private organisation’s network that uses internet technologies for the benefits of such an
organisation.

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Extranet: an extension of the intranet giving authorized outsiders controlled/limited access to the intranet.

Requirements for a LAN Connection

A. Hardware Requirements
1. Host computer / Server: This is the main computer that control and manage other computers on the
network.
2. Workstations/Terminals: These are computers that are on the network and are linked to each other.
Workstations are computers that can work on their own as standalone computers. Terminal are controlled by
the host computer. If the terminal has its own processing and storage capabilities, it is called an intelligent
terminal. However, if the terminal does not have its own processing and storage facilities and relies on the
host computer for it to work, it is called a dump terminal.
3. Network cables: These act as pathway for data from one computer to another. Cables can be coaxial, fibre
optics, twisted pair, etc.
4. Hub/switch: a device used as a connection point for devices and computers on a Local Area Network.
Usually used when connecting computers to a star network.
5. Network cards for each computer/terminal: - a device that identifies computers to the network, where
network cables are plugged on the computer
NB: A bridge can also be connected to link a Local Area Network to another network and is an optional
requirement.
However, some networks are now using wireless technology and these are called Wireless Local Area
Networks (WLAN). WLAN uses radio signals and therefore no cabling is required.
The diagram below shows the structure of a LAN that can be connected to another network.

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Software Requirements for A LAN Connection
a. Communication software like TCP/IP – Transmission Control Protocol Internet Protocol. A protocol is a
set of rules followed by devices when they are communicating.
b. Network operating system: manages the network and network devices
2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
A network similar to a LAN, but usually extends to a larger geographical area, usually the whole city and is
owned by a consortium of users. The network is only accessed by a group of users as defined by the
organisation, e.g students of a certain university. It enables users to do researches, share files, libraries, local
email and video conferencing.
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)
Refers to the connection of computers over a large geographical area, often over 1 km, e.g. covering the whole
district, province or different countries. Internet is also part of WAN. WANs can also be wireless.

Hardware Requirements for a WAN

a. Modem (Modulator Demodulator):- a device that converts analogue data from the telephone line to
digital data that can be understood by the computer and vice versa; often for internet connection using a
telephone line. They can be used as gateway for connecting LAN to a WAN
b. Communication link: Acts as a transmission media for data, e.g. telephone line, satellite transmission, etc.
c. Network cards for each computer:- a device that identifies computers to the network, where network cables
are plugged on the computer

Software Requirements for a WAN

i. Communication Software like TCP/IP – Transmission Control Protocol Internet Protocol.
ii. Web Browser: refers to software used for opening web pages on the internet, for example Microsoft
Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator, Mozilla Firefox, etc. it is used by users to hook to the internet.
iii. Network operating system: manages the network and network devices.

4. PAN (Personal Area Network)

This a very much limited network, usually used by one person. This can also be Wireless Personal Area
Network (WPAN), for example connection through Bluetooth. Bluetooth connects different devices, usually
over a short distance.
A PAN enables user to transfer files from a laptop to a PDA, camera or Personal Computer.

Network Topology (Configuration)

This refers to the shape/configuration of the network. Common network topologies are Ring, bus, star and
mesh network topologies.

1. Ring Network:

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- Computers are connected together to form a circle and uses a token when transferring data.
- Data/information travels in one direction only.
- Information moves around the ring in sequence from its source to its destination.
- As data passes from one computer to another in the ring, each computer removes any data relevant to itself
and adds any data it wishes to send.

Advantages of Ring Network

- Data processing is faster as each computer processes its own processor.
- Has very high data transfer rates.
- Uses a token to avoid data collision or loss
- it is possible to create large networks using this topology
- If one computer breaks down, others will remain working as they have their own processors and storage
facilities.
- Performs better than star network when traffic is very heavy.

Disadvantages of Ring Network

- If one computer breaks down, the whole network is disrupted.
- a faulty connection between two stations can cause network failure
- Its requirements are expensive, that is buying several computers with processors and storage facilities.
- It is difficult to link the computers together.
- Difficult to add another computer without disrupting the networking.
- Only the computer with the token is allowed to send data at a given time. One may not send data when
another node (computer) is still sending its own data.
- System is less secure as token together with data has to pass through other nodes that do not concern it.

2. Star Network:
Computers form a star shape with host computer at the centre.
The Server (host computer) manages all other computers/terminals on the network.
If the terminals are not intelligent, they have to rely on the host computer for everything.
This network is as shown below:

Advantages of Star Network

- If one terminal breaks down, the network is not disrupted.
- It is cheap in terms of requirements since only the host computer can have a processor and storage facility.
- It is very easy to install.
- Management of data is easier as this is done centrally.
- It is very fast to process data.

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- Easier to add new workstation without disrupting the network.
- No problem of collision of data since each terminal has its own cable to the host computer.
- Gives consistent performance even when the network is heavily utilised.
- More secure than other network topologies
- it is easier to identify faults using this type of topology

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- It is easy to expand this type of network
- If one terminal breaks down, others will remain working.

Disadvantages of a Star Network

- If the host computer breaks down, the whole network will be disrupted.
- If the host computer is down, all the terminals will not work as they depend on the host for processing and
storage.
- It requires a lot of cabling, which might be expensive.
- Can be slower if overloaded

3. Mesh Network
- A network in which each computer serves as a relay point for directly sending information to any other
computer on the network.
- No central device oversees a mesh network, and no set route is used to pass data back and forth between
computers.
- Thus, if any one computer is damaged or temporarily unavailable, information is dynamically rerouted to
other computers—a process known as self-healing

Advantages of Mesh Network

- If one computer breaks down, others will remain functional.
- If one computer breaks down, the network is not disturbed.
- Computers have their own storage and processing capabilities.

Disadvantages of Mesh Network

- Expensive to buy computers with their storage and processing facilities.
- Too much cabling is involved, which may be expensive.

4. Bus (Linear/Multi-drop) Network:

Computers are connected together through one main cable and all computers all signals transmitted by any
computer connected to the network

Definition of Terms

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(a) Bus/Backbone: the dedicated and main cable that connects all workstations and other computer devices
like printers.
(b) Nodes: these are connection points for workstations and the bus.
(c) Terminator: devices that prevent data in the bus from bouncing back, causing noise and prevents data
from getting lost.
Advantages of Bus network
- If one workstation breaks down, others will remain functional.
- If one workstation breaks down, the network remains working.
- All computers have processing and storage capabilities.
- It is cheap to install due to less cabling.
- Easy to add workstation without disrupting the network.
- Requires less cabling than a star network.
- Less expensive network than the other systems

Disadvantages of Bus Network

- Computers cannot send data at the same time nor while there is data being transferred in the bus.
- Can cause collision of data during transmission.
- It is slow in transferring data.
- Its requirements are expensive, that is computers with their own processors and storage facilities.
- The system will be down if the main cable (bus) is disrupted at any point.
- Less secure.
- Performance worsens as new stations added

NB: Point – to-Point Connection: Point-to-point topology is the simplest connection, consisting of two
connected computers.
Peer-to-Peer Networks
- A peer-to-peer network is the one which does not have a server.
- All computers have an equal status.
- Each workstation can use resources from any other workstation and communicate directly with every other
node on the network without using a server.
- Used when users do their own work and share data.
- Storage facilities are distributed throughout the network
- It can be difficult to remember which files are located in which computer
- Each computer has its own software
- Less expensive
- Less difficult to administer
- Appropriate for small businesses
- Security is not centralised
- Backup is a responsibility of individual computer user
- Cheap to use
- No need for special network operating system

Diagrams:

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Server based Networks
- These are networks with a server which stores data or monitors and control other computers on the network.
This could be a file server, print server, etc.

THE INTERNET
It is a global connection of computer networks.
Hardware Requirements for an Internet Connection

 Modem (Modulator Demodulator):- a device that converts analogue data to digital form and vice
versa, often for internet connection using a telephone line. Alternatively one may acquire a GPRS
(general packet radio service) modem.
 Communication link: Acts as a transmission media for data, e.g. telephone line, satellite
transmission, etc.
 Network cards for each computer:- a device that identifies computers to the network, where network
cables are plugged on the computer.

Software Requirements for an Internet Connection

 Communication Software like TCP/IP - Transmission Control Protocol Internet Protocol.

 Web Browser (Search engine): refers to software used for finding and opening web pages on the
internet, for example Microsoft Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator, Mozilla Firefox, etc.
 Network operating system: manages the network.

Other requirements

 An internet account: a unique personal identifier given by the Internet Service Provider (ISP).
An ISP is an organisation that links users to the internet, for example, Mweb, Ecoweb,
Africaonline, Yahoo and Google.

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The internet has become a source of a wide range of information globally.

ADVANTAGES OF THE INTERNET AS A SOURCE OF INFORMATION

 Can be accessed from anywhere in the world. Information on the internet is up-to-date.
 Multimedia can be used. Huge amounts of information can be accessed; e.g., magazines,
encyclopaedia, dictionaries, newspapers, textbooks, etc. Search engines are available to assist in finding
information. Using emails you can access experts from all over the world on certain subjects.

DISADVANTAGES OF THE INTERNET AS A SOURCE OF INFORMATION

 Equipment and connections needed are very expensive (computers, modems (ISDN adapters).
 ISP, telephone). One needs knowledge to perform searches effectively. Problem of hackers.
 Breaches of copyrights are very common.
 Rampant spread of rumours on the internet.
 Spread of pornography to young people.
 Leads to loss of privacy.
 Some people become internet addicted and tend to interact with computers more than with human
beings.
 Credit card fraud is rampant.
SERVICES PROVIDED BY THE INTERNET
Electronic Mail (E-Mail): These are written messages send electronically over networked computers. In-
order to send and receive e-mails, the following is needed:
(a) An internet connection
(b) An E-mail Address: This is a unique identifier of the storage location of a person’s mailbox. An e-mail
address is made up of two parts that are separated by the “@” symbol, for example, kapondenit@[Link].
The first part (kapondenit) is the username and is used to identify the name of the person or organisation that has
the mailbox. The username is unique. The second part (gmail) is the domain name and is used to identify the
server where the person has a mailbox. The other part (the one after the dot (.) indicates the domain type e. g
.com - commercial organisation
. edu - educational organisation
. org - non-profit making organisation, etc
An e-mail address should be known by many people so that they will know the address where to send the emails.
Every mailbox is protected from illegal access by use of password. A password is a secret group of
alphanumeric characters used to protect a document from unauthorised access.
NB. When creating an e-mail, one is requested to enter the password twice in order to verify if it is the one
you intend to use.
Mailbox: - An electronic folder used to store electronic mails. It contains the inbox which contains
incoming mails and the outbox, which is used to save outgoing messages.
When sending an email, the user first logs on to email address, compose the message and then send it by
clicking on the send button. The computer processes involved after the user presses the send button are as
follows;

 The message is transmitted to the sender’s ISP/central host computer. The message is stored on a central
host computer. The message is transmitted to intermediate computers. The message is stored on the
intermediate computers. The message is received by the addressee’s host computer/ISP. The addressee
logs in to a local computer and receives the mail.

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Advantages of e-mails as compared to ordinary mails

 it is very fast in sending messages (can be delivered promptly while ordinary mails can take days to
reach their destination).
 It is very cheap to send e-mails since there is no need for envelopes, stamps, paper and pen, which are
needed in conventional mail.
 They are reliable since e-mails rarely get lost.
 E-mails are time independent as they can be send any time of the day other than conventional mails
which can be send during the normal working hours.
 E-mails allow multiple addressing, that is, one e-mail message can be send to several recipients
simultaneously without having to retype it.
 E-mails can be saved for future use or reference. E-mails are more convenient to use as there is no need
to travel to the post office or to shops to buy stamps and envelopes.
 In e-mails, attachments in form of reports, scanned documents, pictures and curriculum vitae can easily
be attached to the e-mail.

Disadvantages of e-mail

 Not everyone has equipment to send e-mails. Junk mail (spam) is a problem.
 You waste a lot of time looking through mails that are just adverts.
 E-mails are not as secure as traditional mails.
 The system relies on people checking their mails regularly.
 Old people feel left out as they consider themselves too old to learn.
 Equipment used to send and receive e-mails is very expensive as compared to traditional
methods.

However, despite the increase in the use of e-mail, there has been a sharp increase in the amount of paper used.
This is because: People print copies for meetings and then destroy them afterwards, but if needed again, print
out another copy. Some people find it difficult reading large amounts of text on the screen. People often e-
mail colleagues rather than use the phone who then print out the document.

Teleconferencing: A method of conducting discussion with several people in different locations using the
telephone.

Video conferencing: Conducting meetings with several people in different locations and seeing each other on
the screen of networked computers. Delegates do not need to leave their homes or work places.

Video conferencing requires the following:

 A computer with a codec, Video cameras, Microphone, Speakers, Large and high resolution
monitor.
 An integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) line with a high bandwidth to transmit video data at fast
speed.
 Sound card.
 Video card

Advantages of tele and video conferencing

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  It cuts transport cost incurred in travelling to the venue of the meeting. Reduces costs involving paying
hotel bills and meals for the delegates.
 Saves time spend in travelling to the venue of the meeting.
 It becomes safer for employees since no travelling is done (no travelling accidents).
 There is no need for delegates to leave home/office.
 It becomes easier for several delegates to take part simultaneously.

Disadvantages of video and tele-conferencing

 Communication expenses are very high.

 Hardware and software requirements are expensive.
 People will lack personal contact and will socialize less.

View data (videotext) systems: These are interactive systems on which users view data when they access
specialized databases like Prestel. The requirements include the telephone line or cable TV, specialized
keyboard and a Television set. Information on the database is provided by companies that advertise their
products like news, weather reports, and so on. View data systems have the advantage that they are interactive
and the service is provided for free to the public. However, its requirements are expensive.
Teletext: It is a broadcast service that comes as a television transmission. It is cheaper than the internet service.
However, it is non-interactive.
Facsimile (Fax): A method whereby output from a scanned document is send over telephone line and
reproduce on a fax machine on the receiving end.
Fax method has the following advantages:

 It is very cheap to send messages.

 It is very easy to use.
 It is a very fast method of sending messages.

However, it has the following disadvantages:

 Its requirements are expensive (fax machine).

 There must be a person at the receiving end to attend to the fax when receiving messages.
 The use of fax, e-mail, view data, teletext, teleconferencing and video conferencing in an office brings
about an electronic (paperless) office.
 An electronic office is an office in which the storage and processing of data as well as communication
are done electronically.

An electronic office is efficient because:

 Communication is easier and faster.

 Less paperwork is involved.
 Current and up-to-date information is provided.
 Ensures a clean office environment.

However, it is very expensive to setup and maintain an electronic office.

*NB- The use of computers to perform all clerical and office duties is called Office Automation.

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Tele and video conferencing as well as networking bring about tele-commuting (tele-working).
Telecommuting is carrying out work without leaving home. Communication is done through networked
computers.

Requirements for telecommuting include:

 modem,
 very fast communication links (for example telephone line),
 computers,
 internet services, etc

Benefits of telecommuting

 Easier to concentrate on work in a quiet environment than in a noisy office.

 It saves time spent in travelling to the work place thereby increasing productivity.
 It cut costs involved in travelling to work place.
 The employer saves costs of office space and overheads like water and electricity.
 People can be recruited from a wide geographical area. People with disabilities like the
handicapped can be employed.
 People in different locations can work as a team.

Disadvantages of tele-commuting

 Workforce not in office is difficult to control.

 Workers would not understand corporate goals and will not be loyal to the organisation.
 Employees feel isolated and miss the environment of an office full of colleagues.
 People may find it difficult to work in teams.
 It is difficult to separate work from home duties while at home.
 Unions find it difficult to mobilise workers for demonstrations and strike.
INTERNET ACCESS SOFTWARE AND SERVICES

1. Web browser (search engine) - software used to search, download and view web pages from the World
Wide Web (www). A web page is a site on the internet that provides information about
an organisation. The World Wide Web (www) is a group of websites on the internet. Web pages
can be created using any of the following software: HTML (editor), word processing, desktop
publishing software, web publishing software, presentation software.

The web developing software should have the following features:

 Feature for changing the background colour or background image on a page.

 Feature for formatting text (size, font, colour, bold, italic, underline etc.) or frames.
 Able to work with tables.
 Features for inserting graphics/pictures/sound clip/video clip/animations.
 Features for working with links/creating buttons/list box.
 Features for switching to a browser to check the appearance of a page. use templates. use auto
tags.

NB. Hyperlink :- an HTML page on the World Wide Web

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The websites must be stored on a server provided by the Internet Service Provider (ISP)

2. File Transfer Protocol (FTP): program that allows users to transfer files from host computers on the
internet to their personal computers.
3. News groups: a global electronic bulletin board system in which users exchange information on different
topics.
4. Entertainment: the internet provides an option for users to download and listen to music,
newspapers, radio stations, etc.
5. Internet Shopping: (Internet buying, electronic commerce, online shopping): The internet
provides a facility for customers to purchase products from the internet without visiting shops. Credit cards are
used in internet buying.

ADVANTAGES OF BUYING FROM THE INTERNET

To the customers
 Programs are available to search for the cheapest products on offer.
 Customers have more time to choose.
 Shopping is done any time of the day, thus providing a 24 hour service.
 A wide choice of products is available. Shopping can be done by setting up a file. It is very convenient
to use as customers do not leave their homes for shopping.
 It cut travelling costs to the shops.
 Customers do shopping without being jostled by crowds.
 There are less cases of impulse buying.
 Product reviews are obtainable before purchase.
 Goods and services usually cheaper on the internet.
 Customer need not to go to shop and therefore save travelling time

To businesses/shop managers
 Business is carried out any time of the day (provides a 24 hour shopping service).
 Increases sales due to greater number of customers from all over the world.
 No wastage space for goods is involved.
 Ensures huge saving on overheads like rent, warehousing, employee facilities.
 More goods can be made available.
 It is cheaper to use as there are no leaflets, pamphlets, etc.
 Can reduce the number of shops on the streets.
 Organisations can employ fewer workers thereby cutting labour costs.
 No need to travel to the shop as business can be run from home.

Disadvantages of buying from the internet

To customers
 There are chances of losing money through credit card fraud and hacking.
 Customers lack interaction with others.
 Customers fear of rogue companies (customers may not receive the goods).
 Customers cannot see the goods first. Not everyone has a computer and is connected to the internet.
 Not everyone has credit cards.
 Problem of spam (Unwanted e-mail, usually of a commercial nature sent out in bulk).

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  Customers cannot have the goods immediately.

b. To businesses
 Increase in cases of industrial espionage. Industrial espionage involves selling of company secrets
by employees to rival companies and the use of destructive methods by competitors to destroy other
organisations.

c. Effects of e-commerce to the community

 Loss of jobs as some traditional shops and banks close.
 Lower profits for companies that do not engage in e-commerce.
 Decline in leisure shopping as goods are bought on-line.
 City centres become deserted as shops and banks close down.
 The gap between the rich and the poor widens as the rich get savings from shopping on-line.
 More people choose to interact with computers rather than with other people.
 Increase in small businesses.
 Less pollution.
 Less travelling

The cashless Society

This refers to the use of electronic commerce thereby reducing handling of hard cash amongst
individuals. However, it seems impossible to completely have a complete cashless society.

A cashless society has the following benefits:

 More convenient to pay bills, mortgage loans, gas, phone and electricity bills since these are paid
automatically.
 Customers no longer need to carry large sums of money thereby reducing cases of robbery.
 Customers no longer need to queue on banks to get cash.

However, a cashless society will have the following problems:

 Credit is normally given only to those who are working and have a steady source of income.
 People will spend more than they can afford thereby getting into debt.
 Wrong information about individuals is kept as more information about people is kept in computers for
their credit rating.
 It is difficult for individuals to track how much they spent.

E-COMMERCE

Short for electronic commerce, e-commerce is any business or transactions that results in profit made over
the Internet.

FORMS/TYPES OF E-COMMERCE

1. Business-to-Business (B2B)
2. Business-to-Consumer (B2C)
3. Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C)

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 4. Consumer-to-Business (C2B).
5. Business-to-Administration (B2A)
6. Consumer-to-Administration (C2A)

1. Business-to-Business (B2B)
Business-to-Business (B2B) e-commerce encompasses all electronic transactions of goods or services
conducted between companies. Producers and traditional commerce wholesalers typically operate with this
type of electronic commerce.
2. Business-to-Consumer (B2C)
The Business-to-Consumer type of e-commerce is distinguished by the establishment of electronic business
relationships between businesses and final consumers. It corresponds to the retail section of e-commerce,
where traditional retail trade normally operates.
These types of relationships can be easier and more dynamic, but also more sporadic or discontinued. This
type of commerce has developed greatly, due to the advent of the web, and there are already many virtual
stores and malls on the Internet, which sell all kinds of consumer goods, such as computers, software,
books, shoes, cars, food, financial products, digital publications, etc.
When compared to buying retail in traditional commerce, the consumer usually has more information
available in terms of informative content and there is also a widespread idea that you’ll be buying cheaper,
without jeopardizing an equally personalized customer service, as well as ensuring quick processing and
delivery of your order.

3. Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C)
Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C) type e-commerce encompasses all electronic transactions of goods or services
conducted between consumers. Generally, these transactions are conducted through a third party, which
provides the online platform where the transactions are actually carried out.

4. Consumer-to-Business (C2B)
In C2B there is a complete reversal of the traditional sense of exchanging goods. This type of e-commerce is
very common in crowd sourcing based projects. A large number of individuals make their services or products
available for purchase for companies seeking precisely these types of services or products.
Examples of such practices are the sites where designers present several proposals for a company logo and
where only one of them is selected and effectively purchased. Another platform that is very common in this
type of commerce are the markets that sell royalty-free photographs, images, media and design elements, such
as iStock photo.

5. Business-to-Administration (B2A)
This part of e-commerce encompasses all transactions conducted online between companies and public
administration. This is an area that involves a large amount and a variety of services, particularly in areas such
as fiscal, social security, employment, legal documents and registers, etc. These types of services have
increased considerably in recent years with investments made in e-government.
6. Consumer-to-Administration (C2A)
The Consumer-to-Administration model encompasses all electronic transactions conducted between
individuals and public administration.

EXAMPLES OF APPLICATIONS INCLUDE:

 Education – disseminating information, distance learning, etc.

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  Social Security – through the distribution of information, making payments, etc.
 Taxes – filing tax returns, payments, etc.
 Health – appointments, information about illnesses, payment of health services, etc.

Both models involving Public Administration (B2A and C2A) are strongly associated to the idea of efficiency
and easy usability of the services provided to citizens by the government, with the support of information and
communication technologies.

ADVANTAGES OF E-COMMERCE
The main advantage of e-commerce is its ability to reach a global market, without necessarily implying a large
financial investment. The limits of this type of commerce are not defined geographically, which allows
consumers to make a global choice, obtain the necessary information and compare offers from all potential
suppliers, regardless of their locations.
By allowing direct interaction with the final consumer, e-commerce shortens the product distribution chain,
sometimes even eliminating it completely. This way, a direct channel between the producer or service
provider and the final user is created, enabling them to offer products and services that suit the individual
preferences of the target market.
E-commerce allows suppliers to be closer to their customers, resulting in increased productivity and
competitiveness for companies; as a result, the consumer is benefited with an improvement in quality service,
resulting in greater proximity, as well as a more efficient pre and post-sales support. With these new forms of
electronic commerce, consumers now have virtual stores that are open 24 hours a day.
Cost reduction is another very important advantage normally associated with electronic commerce. The more
trivial a particular business process is, the greater the likelihood of its success, resulting in a significant
reduction of transaction costs and, of course, of the prices charged to customers.

DISADVANTAGES OF E-COMMERCE
The main disadvantages associated with e-commerce are the following:
 Strong dependence on information and communication technologies (ICT);
 Lack of legislation that adequately regulates the new e-commerce activities, both nationally and
internationally;
 Market culture is averse to electronic commerce (customers cannot touch or try the products);
 The users’ loss of privacy, the loss of regions’ and countries’ cultural and economic identity;
 Insecurity in the conduct of online business transactions.

USES OF COMPUTERS IN BANKS

 Used for storage of client account details like, account name, account number, address, sex, date of birth,
national identification number, balance, withdrawal, deposit, overdraft, interest, etc.
 Used for cash disbursement at the Automated Teller Machine (ATM).

An ATM is a computerised, special purpose cash disbursement machine outside banking halls used even when
banks are closed.

Services offered at the ATM include:

 Balance enquiry,
 mini-bank statement,
 facility to change PIN code,
 cash withdrawal,

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  cash deposit, etc.

PIN (Personal Identification Number) - a secret number used by individual account holders to access his bank
account and get service at the ATM. The account holder needs a debit card for him/her to access bank services at
the ATM.

The Account holder inserts the debit card into the hole on the ATM, which in turn request the user’s PIN.
The user enters the PIN and then presses enter. The ATM validates the PIN, and if it is correct, allows the
user to select service required from the list of options available. If the user enters the wrong PIN for three
consecutive attempts, the ATM would not eject the debit card, assuming that you are not the owner of the card and
no service shall be given.
Clearance of cheques : The main branch receives cheques from other branches and processes them using the
batch processing method. MICR is used to read data from the cheques into the computer.

Electronic Funds Transfer at Point of Sale (EFTPOS): This is a method of transferring money from one
account to another electronically without handling of cash at the Point of Sale terminal in shops. The Point of
Sale terminals will be online the bank’s database, enabling the shop to deduct cash from the customer’s account
and transfer it to the shop’s account. For this to occur the customer is supposed to produce the debit card, which is
wiped on the card reader which in turn requests the client to enter the PIN. Some cash back is available at the
POS.

Electronic banking (e-banking): the process of carrying out all bank transactions electronically on the internet
(internet banking) and by use of cell phones. This is almost similar to tele-banking. For Internet banking, credit
cards are required for clients to get access to the bank accounts.

Data about credit cards is stored on the magnet strip and this includes:

 Date of issue,
 Bank code,
 Branch code,
 Account number,
 Card number and
 Expiry date.

Information entered by a client to access banking services from home includes:

 Account Number,
 Account name
 password.

In home banking, users can :

 stop a cheque,
 enquire their account balances,
 transfer money between accounts,
 pay bills,
 order a cheque book,
 look at account transactions for a given period,
 request a change of pin or password,
 amend or create standing orders/direct debits,

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  print statements and change personal details.
 It is impossible to withdraw cash or pay in cash.

In home banking, the following advantages are realised by customers:

 Do not have to waste time travelling long distances to banks.
 Do not have to spend money on travelling expenses travelling long distances to banks.
 No embarrassment of having to ask for loans face to face.
 Can do bank transactions even when banks are closed.
 Do not have to waste time waiting for a response to telephone banking.

However, home banking has the following disadvantages:

 Less personal touch is involved hence no socialisation with friends and neighbours.
 More expensive phone bills are to be paid.
 Lack of exercises as user just sits on the computer.
 Hackers can access personal details and transfer money to their accounts.
 You have to have a computer and an Internet access of which less people can afford.
 Users are unable to withdraw cash

When purchasing the goods, the supermarkets and any other shops check the following on the
credit card:

 Check if the card is valid.

 Check if credit limit is not exceeded.
 Check if credit card is not reported as stolen.
 Check if expiry date has not been exceeded

The introduction of ATMs, EFT and electronic banking, including internet banking has the following
advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages to Bank workers

 Their workload is reduced, for instance the burden of counting cash and service many clients can
be done by the ATM.
 Reduction in mistakes, for instance counting cash and updating wrong accounts as the computers
validate details during entry.
 Reduction in working hours.
 Increased salaries. Better working conditions

Disadvantages to Bank Workers

 Some lose their jobs due to computerisation.

 Leads to de-skilling where some jobs are taken as redundant, for example clerical jobs. Some
workers will be transferred

Advantages to Bank clients

 Customers get faster service as they are served quickly.

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  Customers save time spend in travelling to banking halls by use of cell phones and internet bank.
 Customers no longer carry around large amounts of cash as all payments are done electronically and
this reduces robbery cases.
 Clients get bank services at ATMs even during public holidays, weekends and after hours.
 Customers are provided with 24 hour services.
 Customers save money used to pay travelling expenses to banks.

Disadvantages to Bank clients

 Customers can lose money through credit card fraud.

 Customers may forget their PIN and fail to get service at ATM.
 Debit cards and credit cards can be stolen and used illegally thereby customers will lose their
money.
 There are cases of phantom withdrawals: unexplained cash withdrawals from bank accounts.

SOCIAL NETWORKING
Alternatively referred to as a virtual community or profile site, a social network is a website that brings
people together to talk, share ideas and interests, or make new friends. This type of collaboration and sharing
of data is often referred to as social media. Unlike traditional media that is often created by no more than 10
people, social media sites contain content that has been created by hundreds or even millions of different
people. Below is a small list of some of the biggest social networks used today.

EXAMPLES OF SOCIAL NETWORKS

 Bebo ( [Link] ) - A popular social networking site where users can share photo's,
stories, their journal, and more with friends and family privately or publicly on the Internet.
 Classmates ( [Link] ) - One of the largest and most used websites that brings
together and allows people who graduated from high school and allows you to keep in touch with them
and any future reunions.
 Facebook ( [Link] ) - The most popular social networking websites on the
Internet. Facebook is a popular destination for users to setup their own personal web pages, connect
with friends, share pictures, share movies, talk about what you're doing, etc.
 Friendster ( [Link] ) - A popular social network that brings together friends,
family, and allows you to meet new people who share similar interests to you from all over the world.
 Google+ ([Link] - The latest social networking service from Google.
 LinkedIn ( [Link] ) - One of the best if not the best locations to connect with
current and past co-workers and potentially future employers.
 MySpace ( [Link] ) - One of the most popular social networks and one of the most
viewed website on the Internet. See the MySpace definition for further information about this service.
 Orkut ( [Link] ) - A popular service from Google that provides you a location to
socialize with your friends and family, and meet new acquaintances from all around the world.

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  Path ( [Link] ) - A mobile only social network that allows you to keep in contact with your
closest friends and family.
 Pinterest ( [Link] ) - An upcoming and popular picture and sharing service that
allows anyone to easily share pictures, create collections, and more.
 StumbleUpon ( [Link] ) - Another very popular community of Internet users
who vote for web pages they like and dislike and allows users to create their own personal page of
interesting sites they come across. See the Stumble Upon definition for additional information about
this service.
 Twitter ( [Link] ) - Another fantastic service that allows users to post 140 character
long posts from their phones and on the Internet. A fantastic way to get the pulse of what's going on
around the world.
 Yik Yak - Smartphone social network that connects users who are in close to each other.
 YouTube ( [Link] ) - A great network of users posting video blogs or Vlog's and
other fun and interesting videos.

Warn: Due to their increased popularity amongst children and teenagers, some social networking sites have
become a popular location for online predators. Parents should always be active with their children and aware
of what they are doing while online.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SOCIAL NETWORKING

Social networking is a relatively new advancement in technology. They are different platforms or websites
that people can create personal profiles, share pictures, videos, and text updates to their friends, family, and
people from all over the world. News, trends, videos, pictures, and just about anything else can go “viral” in a
matter of hours, which makes you wonder, what is all of the craze about? It is very easy to get carried away
with the attention and interactions you can have twenty four hours a day on websites like Facebook, Twitter,
and Instagram, but what are the pros and cons that these social networking sites are having on our society?

ADVANTAGES OF SOCIAL NETWORKING

1. Staying Connected
The main purpose of social media is to be able to stay connected to friends and families in today’s fast paced
and ever changing worlds. You are able to rekindle old friendships, share family photos, and special events in
your life with just about everyone you know, at the same time.
2. Finding People With Common Interests
Social networking is also a great way to meet entirely new people. You can seek out groups that are focused
towards your special interests and hobbies and connect with local people that share the same interests. Online
and social media dating is almost more common than traditional dating is in today’s world.
3. Invaluable Promotional Tool
Companies, artists, and musicians can reach an impossibly large and diverse amount of people using social
media sites. This allows them to promote and market themselves and their products in a way that has never
been seen before.
4. Information Spreads Incredibly Fast
Breaking news and other important information can spread like wildfire on social media sites. Important

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 108

things like recalls, storm information, or missing children are all communicated and taken seriously very
quickly.
5. Helps To Catch And Convict Criminals
People often do not think of the consequences of what they post of these social sites. Pictures of themselves
doing illegal things, or even bragging posts about crimes they have committed are all things that law
enforcement use to persecute these criminals. They also use these sites to identify and solve existing cases.

DISADVANTAGES OF SOCIAL NETWORKING

1. Perpetuates False And Unreliable Information

Just like stated above, anything can spread to millions of people within hours or days on social media. This
also, unfortunately, includes things that are false or made up. This information can cause panic and severe
misinformation in society.
2. Causing Major Relationship Problems
Online social interactions with social networking have not only been starting new relationships, but ending
many others. It is very simple to communicate and share pictures or plans with a person on social media and
keep it completely under wraps. This new temptation has been driving wedges into people’s real life, offline
relationships, often time ending them for good. Social networking puts trust to the limit.
3. Cyber Bullying Is A Growing Problem
Having access to people’s lives at all times is not always a good thing. A new trend of cyber bullying is
wreaking havoc all across the world. This is especially true with young kids. They are publicly harassing one
another, and posting mean or slanderous things which are broadcast-ed to the entire cyber world.
4. Used To Profile and Discriminate In The Job World
Just about everyone has a social media account the shows what they look like, the type of life that they live,
and how old they are. Employers are using this to their advantages is some very unsettling ways. Jobs that are
looking for a certain criteria of person, but cannot legally express these criteria, are using social media to
prescreen their applicants.
5. The Addiction Is Real
One of the biggest problems with the social media craze is that people are becoming more and more addicted
to using it. It is the number one time waster at work, in school, and at home. All of this has caused people to
have literal withdraws from their social networks.

Data transmission modes

Data transmission media
Types of Networks
Internet Service Providers
Cloud Services
Mobile technology
Networking Devices
Network Protocols
A protocol is a set of rules that governs how communication between two devices will occur. Such devices
might be computers themselves, between modems.
A network communication protocol: a standard method for transmitting data from one computer to another
across a network. Some of the protocols that we are going to look at are:
i. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol Internet Protocol)

TCP: It ensures that data is transmitted accurately

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 109

IP: It ensures that data is transmitted to its correct address (IP address). Every device on the internet has its IP
address. It also ensures that packets are rearranged to the original message on arrival of their destination.
ii. HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)

This is a protocol that defines the process of identifying, requesting and transferring multimedia web pages
over the internet. It is used for transferring data across the internet, usually between servers and computers on
the internet. It is based on the client –server relationship. It uses TCP/IP to transmit data and messages
iii. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

it is a protocol used to transfer data from one computer to another. It is often used to download software from
the internet, and it uses the TCP/IP protocol in doing this. However, FTP has no security to data as the data is
not encrypted prior to its transmission.
iv. TELNET

This is a network protocol that allows a computer user to gain access to another computer and use its software
and data, usually on a LAN and on the Internet. It allows users to access data stored on servers from their
terminals. Telnet allows computers to connect to each other and allows sharing of data and files. Telnet has
security problems especially on the internet.
v. VoIP (Voice Over Internet Protocol)

It is a method of using the internet to make ordinary voice telephone calls. Thus it is a way of having phone
conversations using the internet as a way of communication. By VoIP, international and long distance calls are
of the same price as local calls and sometimes are for free. However, the system does not offer emergency
calls. An example of VoIP is Skype.

SECURITY AND ETHICS (UNHU/UBUNTU/ VUMUNHU)

Copyright issue
Plagiarism and piracy
Cyber-wellness (Unhu/Ubuntu/Vumunhu
Computer Crime
Data protection measures
Computer Ethics
Privacy and Data Integrity
System security

COMPUTER VIRUSES

A computer virus is a program which replicates itself, damages or corrupts files and memory of the
computer, for example, a Trojan horse. By replication, it means that the virus can multiply itself
(produces several similar copies of itself) when it enters the computer system.

Signs and symptoms of virus attack on a computer

 Reduced system performance (reduced speed of operation),

 The computer displays nasty messages on the screen,
 The computer displays a blank screen,
 The computer system produces wrong results of a process,
 Unexplained and frequent lose of data held in the computer,

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 110

  The hard disk becomes inaccessible (the user cannot access data held in the computer), The computer fails

to boot.
Effects of computer viruses

 Memory of a computer will be used up,

 slows down computer,
 Alters system settings,
 Erases and corrupts files and data on the computer,
 Infects other computers on network,
 Leads to production loss, Leads to financial loss ,
 The hard disk becomes inaccessible (the user cannot access data held in the computer),
 The computer fails to boot,
 The computer system produces wrong results of a process.

Methods by which viruses spread from one computer to another

 By sharing diskettes, compact disks, hard disks, memory sticks, memory cards, Video
compact disks, Digital Versatile Disks, etc, with external users.
 Through networked computers, that is on a LAN, WAN or the internet.
 Can come as e-mail attachments.
 Can come with downloads from bulletin boards
Methods of preventing virus attack on the computer
 Avoiding sharing external diskettes, compact disks, hard disks, memory sticks, memory cards,
Video compact disks, Digital Versatile Disk.
 Stay offline (not connected to any computer or the internet).
 Install the latest antivirus program on the computer and upgrade it frequently.
 Scan the computer with the latest antivirus frequently.
 Avoid software distributed as shareware (freeware) (software produced for distribution free of
charge and can be distributed to others free of charge, e.g. computer games).
 Avoiding downloading software from bulletin boards.
 Installing firewall (software used to protect networked private computer systems from
unauthorised access. ).
 Use disk free work stations.
 Do not open file attachments from unknown sources or download doubtful software from
the Internet.
 Do not use files that come from unknown sources.
 Buy original software and do not buy pirated software.
 Disable able compact disk drives, diskette drives and USB ports of the computer.

Antivirus programs
These are programs that detect computer viruses and reduce the risk of computers being attacked by
viruses for example Norton Antivirus, MacAfee, Avira, Avast, AVG, etc.

TYPES OF COMPUTER VIRUSES

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1. Boot sector Viruses
These viruses affect the booting sector on the hard disk so that the computer fails to boot.
2. Time bomb
Virus attack and destroys computer files at a specific date and time
3. Logic bombs
A type of virus that attacks the computer when a specific event occurs and destroys everything on the
computer disk like the Friday the 13th
4. Trojan Horse virus
These are viruses that appears as programs useful to the user with the intention of soliciting information like user
accounts and passwords or damaging computer system files.
5. WORM viruses
A program capable of reproducing itself and spread from one computer to the next over a network and damage
computer files.
6. File sector Viruses
These viruses destroy files that are created by users on the computer.

ANTIVIRUS INSTALLATION AND UPDATES

Antivirus software must be updated regularly to stay effective against new viruses. Most antivirus software is
designed to update automatically, but you can also update your software manually.
Windows doesn't come with antivirus software, but it can often detect and monitor antivirus software that was
installed by you or your computer manufacturer. The status of your antivirus software is typically displayed in
Action Center.
1. Open Action Center by clicking the Start button , clicking Control Panel, and then, under System
and Security, clicking Review your computer's status.
2. Click the arrow button next to Security to expand the section.
If Windows can detect your antivirus software, it will be listed under Virus protection.
3. Click Update now.
NB: The update now options only appear if Windows detects your antivirus software is out of date. Not all
antivirus software reports its status to Windows.
If your antivirus software isn't displayed in Action Center, go to the downloads section of your antivirus
software provider’s website. Find the update for your version of the software and your operating system, and
then install it. For more information, check the Help for your antivirus software.
Most antivirus software updates are free, but some providers charge a small fee for the updates. If you're using
an older version of the software, you might also have to pay to upgrade to a more recent version to continue to
receive the updates.

LIST OF ANTIVIRUS SOFTWARE

AOL Active Virus Shield(discontinued) Kaspersky Anti-Virus

Avast! Home Edition McAfee VirusScan
Avast! Professional Edition Microsoft Security Essentials
AVG Anti-Virus Norman
AVG Anti-Virus Free Panda Antivirus
Avira AntiVir Personal - Free Antivirus Panda Cloud Antivirus (Beta)
Avira AntiVir Premium PC Tools AntiVirus
AVZ PC Tools AntiVirus Free Edition
BitDefender Sophos Anti-Virus
BitDefender Free Edition Sunbelt SoftwareVIPRE Antivirus +
BullGuard Antispyware
CA Anti-Virus SymantecNorton AntiVirus/Norton 360
Clam
Forms AntiVirus
1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Trend Micro Internet Security Page 112
ClamWin Vba32Antivirus
Comodo AntiVirus VirusBuster
Computer viruses
A computer virus is a small program that can spread across computer and network by making copies of itself,
usually without the user’s knowledge.
To be classed as a virus it must be able to replicate itself. Virus can have harmful side effects.
Unless you use virus detection the first you know that you have a virus is when it activate.
Different viruses are activated in different ways. Some activates on specific days or dates. Viruses may be a
small program but they can destroy your data and cause major problems to your computer system.
Classification of computer viruses
Computer virus can be classified by how they infect the computer.
a) Boot sector Virus

The boot sector virus replace the disks original boot sector with its own, and loads the virus into memory,
once in memory the virus can spread to other disks.
b) File Infector viruses

Adds codes to files that run the programs ,so the virus is activated each time you run that
program. When the virus is activated it spreads to other pro0gram files
a) Trojan Horse
A Trojan Horse virus disguise as a legitimate program .When you run a program infected by a Trojan
Horse Virus ,your computer may be damaged. Trojan Horse viruses are much more likely to damage
files and then other viruses. Files or disks infected by Trojan horse may not be coverable.
Known Virus
Pakistan Israel Boot Malmo Scores Friday 14th Bootworm
th
Peace December 13 Melisa Lehigh Weases Marijuana
Brian

How a computer can acquire viruses

Viruses can be acquired by:
 Using other people’s infected disks, flash disks, memory cards etc.
 Copying illegal software
 Starting the computer with an infected disk in the disk drive
 Opening e-mail messages or attachments which are infected by computer virus
 Downloading infected games
 Downloading infected software from the internet.

What viruses do when they infect a computer?

 Display acute messages
 Wipe out files
 Set bad block on files
 Make excessive file copies
 Destroy hardware

How viruses hide

 Hide in e-mail attachments
 Replacement of valid file name
 Copy themselves at every opportunity but display every 100 times

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  Most common target is the [Link] because its executed frequently

Signs of infection
 Computer takes long time to boot and loading programs
 Different disk noise
 Disk drive loads on at unusual times
 Error messages
 Funny characters displayed on screen/documents
 Change of icons and file sizes
 Different numbers from check disk

Disaster recovery plan

Data backup

SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Systems Analysis is the detailed investigating the current system to determine is problems, requirements and the
best way of solving the problems.
System: A groups of elements working together to achieve a common goal. Systems are of two types:
Physical system: refers to tangible systems like schools, firm, shop, etc
Conceptual systems: these exist in mind or paper and cannot be touched. They just represent a physical system.
This chapter is concerned with the development and maintenance of system like stock control, patient monitoring,
banking and payroll which are part of physical systems.
The systems analyst
This is a person who identifies problems of the existing system and recommends the best solution to such a
problem. The duties of a systems analyst are:
 Identifies the problems of the current system.
 Liaises with system users and determine their requirements.
 Finds out facts important to the design of the new system.
 Determines the human and computer procedures that will make up the system.
 Participates in the process of system implementation.

By performing such duties the systems analyst acts as:

i. A consultant: can be called or hired to identify problems in a system
ii. A supporting expert: draws together professional expertise concerning computer hardware and software and
their uses in business.
iii. An agent of change: bring new ideas into the organisation

Qualities of a systems analyst

 Must have good oral and written communication skills for all managerial levels of an organisation.
 Must be able to work as a team.
 Must be well educated, with at least a degree.
 Must be well experienced in computers and at top managerial levels.
 Must have good managerial skills.
 Must be a problem solver and see problems as challenges.
 Must be self-motivated. Must be well disciplined.
 Must be able to work under pressure and meet deadlines.

Initiation (Origination) Of Systems Analysis

Changes to a system can be triggered by many factors, some of which are:

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i. System users: they may be dissatisfied with the current system since they are the ones who operate it. They will
the sent requests to have a new system or some modification to the existing one.
ii. Top management: they may issue directives in order to meet new organisational objectives. It can also be due
to change in management (new manager), new requirements, etc.
iii. The need for improved operating efficiency: Errors in the existing systems may be intolerable, especially to
customers.
iv. Changes in technology: new hardware and software may force organisations to change their ways of operation.
v. Change of government policies: new government laws and policies can force organisations to change their
systems
vi. The user can change his mind

Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC)

This refers to the stages through which a system develops from ‘birth’ to ‘death’, i.e. from the moment the system
is incepted until it is modified or replaced with a new one.
Can also be referred to as the Waterfall Model
The stages, in their order, include:
 Problem identification,
 Fact Finding
 feasibility study,
 analysis,
 design,
 Development and testing
 Documentation and user training
 implementation,
 Evaluation/review/maintenance.

Below is a diagram that indicates the SDLC stages

Below is an explanation of each of the stages listed above:

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1. Problem identification/Recognition/Definition/Realisation:
This is where the problems of the current system are stated.
These might have been realised by system users or by managers. The system might be producing wrong results.
This includes the general statement of the problems being experienced by the system.
2. Fact Finding/Data Collection/Investigation
This is the stage whereby the analyst collects data from users, management and the stakeholders, about the current
system. Each data collection procedure is appropriate for a given situation, not in all cases. A number of data
collection techniques are employed, including the following: Questionnaire, interview, Record inspection and
Observation.
Some automatic data collection procedures may be used also.
Data Collection Procedures
Terms used in data gathering include:
a. Interviewer: The person who asks questions in order to solicit information
b. Interviewee (respondent): interviewee is a person who is asked questions and is expected to give information to
the interviewer.
c. Population: The average number of people in an area where a research is to be carried out.
d. Sample: Fraction of the population who actually take part in the research.
i. Interview:
This refers to the face-to-face communication between two or more people in order to obtain information.
Interviews can also be done over the phone but the most common ones are face to face. Interviews are done when
you want to collect information from a very small population sample.
Advantages of Interviews
 The researcher can ask for clarification on some points that may not be clear.
 Encourages good rapport between the researcher and the respondent.
 Non-verbal gestures like facial expressions can help the researcher to determine if the respondent is telling the
truth.
 Information can be collected even from the illiterate since the respondent’s language could be used.
 First-hand information is collected.
 The researcher can probe to get more information.

Disadvantages of Interviews
 It is impossible to remain anonymous on the part of the interviewee.
 It is expensive since the researcher has to travel to the interview venue.
 It is time consuming as more time is spent travelling and carrying out the interview.
 Good interview techniques are required as failure may lead to disappointments.
 Biased information can be given since the respondent may not tell the truth.

ii. Record/Document inspection:

 A fact finding method which involves scrutinising system documents in order to solicit information.

Record inspection has the following advantages:

 Accurate information is collected from system records.
 First-hand information is obtained

Disadvantages of record inspection

 It is time consuming to go through all system records.
 Manual files can be tiresome to go through and some of the data may be illegible.
 Confidential files are not given to the researcher

iii. Questionnaire:
A document with carefully crafted questions to be answered by the respondent by filling on the spaces provided.
Questionnaires are used when collecting information from a widely spaced population sample and when collecting

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information from many people. A questionnaire contains open-ended and closed questions. Open-ended questions
are gap filling questions which require the respondent to express his or her own view. Closed questions are guided
questions where the respondent just chooses Yes or No, True or False, or by just putting a tick on given options.
Questionnaires can be distributed personally or by post.
Advantages of questionnaires
 Questions are very simple and faster to answer.
 It saves time as questionnaires can be distributes and then collected later.
 Respondents can fill questionnaires at their own pace.
 Give guarantees confidential of information, thereby encouraging respondents to give accurate information.
 They are cheap to use when collecting data from a very large sample

Disadvantages of questionnaires
 Some questions are left blank.

Some questionnaires may not be returned at all.

 Biased information can be collected as people may lie.
 Respondents usually do not fill the correct information.
 It is difficult to analyse information collect using questionnaires.
 They are expensive to use if the postal system is used.
 Abusive information can be filled by respondents.
 It is difficult to prepare a good questionnaire
iv. Observations:
It is a fact finding method that involves viewing the actual system in operation by the researcher. The researcher
can even take part in operating the system. It is used when the researcher wants to see for himself how the system
operates.
Advantages of observations
 First-hand information is collected.
 Accurate information can be obtained.
 Areas of interest can be observed.
 The researcher can take part in operating the system thereby getting insight on how the system operates.
 the analyst obtains reliable data
 it is possible to see exactly what is being done

Disadvantages of observations
 People work differently if they feel that they are being observed, therefore inaccurate information can be
collected.
 The researcher may not understand some of the activities being observed.
 It is time consuming to collect the required information.
 The researcher may interrupt some of the activities being done.
 if workers perform tasks that violate standard procedures, they may not do this when being watched!!

3. Feasibility Study:
It involves an evaluation of proposals to determine if it possible to construct a new system or just modification of
the existing one. Feasibility can be measured by making the following considerations:
Economic feasibility: determining whether the benefits of the new system will out-weigh the estimated cost
involved in developing, purchasing, assembling requirements, installing and maintenance of the new system. The
cost-benefits analysis is carried out. Benefits can be tangible and quantifiable, e.g. profits in terms of monetary
values, fewer processing errors, increased production, increased response time, etc. Other benefits are intangible,
e.g. improved customer goodwill, employee moral, job satisfaction, better service to the community, etc.
Technical feasibility: determines if the organisation can obtain software, equipment and personnel to develop,
install and operate the system and even to maintain it.

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Social feasibility: a measure of the system’s acceptance by the general public; if it will meet the norms and values
of the society.
Legal feasibility: This is determining if the system can conform to the laws and statutes of the country. This is
done by considering government legislation, e.g. Data processing system must comply with the local Data
Protection Acts
Operational feasibility: determines whether the current work practices and procedures are adequate to support the
system, e.g. effects on social lives of those affected by the system, can it work well with existing hardware, etc
Operational feasibility assessment focuses on the degree to which the proposed system fits in with the existing
business environment and objectives with regard to development schedule, delivery date, corporate culture, and
existing business processes
After carrying out the feasibility study, a feasibility study report must be produced and it contains the following
information:
- A brief description of the business.
- Advantages and problems of the existing system.
- Objectives of the new system.
- Evaluation of the alternative solutions.
- Development timetable.
- Management summary.
- Terms of reference.
- Proposed solution.

4. Analysis stage:
This is the in-depth study of the system to determine how data flows within the system.
Analysis tools used includes:
- Decision trees
- Decision tables
It involves use of flowcharts, data flow diagrams, structure diagrams, decision trees, and others, to describe the
operations of the system in detail. The analysis stage determines whether computerisation will take place or not.
The analysis stage also specifies the hardware and software requirements of the new/proposed system, the
advantages and disadvantages of the proposed solution, etc.
Analysis stage also involves identification of the following:
- Interviewing workers and management
- Alternative solutions: other solutions, not considering the chosen one
- Specification requirements: ( hardware requirements, software requirements), personnel requirements, etc
- Carrying out the Cost-benefit analysis: weighing out costs of developing the new system versus the benefits that
will be realised.
- Determining how data flows within the system using DFDs
- Studying current systems inputs
- Studying current system outputs
- Decides on what the project/system needs to achieve

Dataflow Diagrams
These are diagrams that show how data moves between external sources, through processes and data stores of a
particular system. Dataflow diagrams use the following symbols:

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5. Design Stage:
This stage is concerned with the design of the new computer based solution as specified by the analysis stage.
Design stage involves:
Input Design: includes designing of data entry forms, input methods (e.g. by filling forms, use of barcodes, etc)
and the user interface.
Output Design: Includes design of reports, data output formats, screen displays and other printed documents like
receipts, etc.
File design: Involves designing tables/files, records and validation rules. It also involves determining how data is
to be stored and accessed, the media to be used for storage and the mode of file organisation. Fields in each files
can be designed, their length and data type, e.g.
File Name: Student File
Storage Location: Hard Disk
Mode of Access: Direct/Random

File Structure:

It also involves specifying how data is to be sorted and updated.

Program Design: Involves design of systems flowcharts, structure diagrams, dataflow diagrams, algorithms, etc.
Selection of appropriate hardware: Specify the input hardware, output hardware, processing hardware and speed,
storage media, RAM size, etc. Selection of appropriate software: specifying the type of operating system,
programming language or database package and other application packages to be used.
Design of test plan and strategy, Design of the user manual, Design of the technical documentation
In general, design stage involves the following:
design the data capture forms/input forms

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design the screen layouts
design output forms and reports
produce systems flowcharts and/or pseudocode
select/design any validation rules that need to be used
design a testing strategy/plan
file structures/tables need to be designed/agreed
select/design the hardware requirements for the new system
select/design the software requirements
produce any algorithms or program flowcharts
select the most appropriate data verification method(s)
interface design(Command-line, GUI, form-based, menu-driven, etc

6. Development and Testing

The computer environment is prepared, the programs to be written are done and they are tested to determine if the
run as expected.
Computer environment being prepared: electrical wires, network cables are installed, furniture, air conditioning are
in place. The computers are installed and tested.

It also involves the construction and assembling of the technical components that are needed for the new system to
operate. This includes preparation of the computer room environment, coding of the computer program using a
specific programming language, testing of the coded program,
Testing strategies
- standard (normal) data testing: testing of data within the given range (should be accepted)
- abnormal data testing: testing of data outside the given range (should be rejected). It gives an error message
when entered into the computer system.
- extreme (boundary) data testing: testing of the minimum and maximum values in the given range (should be
accepted)

7. Documentation and User Training

Documentation refers to the careful and disciplined recording of information on the development, operation and
maintenance of a system. Documentation is in two main types: user documentation and technical documentation
(a) User Documentation: It is a manual that guides system users on how to load, operate, navigate and exit a
program (system). User documentation contains the following:
System/program name.
Storage location.
System password.
Instruction on how to install the program.
Instruction on how to operate the system: e.g.
 How to quit the program
 how to load/run the software
 how to save files
 how to do print outs
 how to sort data
 how to do a search
 how to add, delete or amend records
 print layouts (output)
 screen layouts (input)
 the purpose of the system/program/software package
 error handling/meaning of errors
 troubleshooting guide/help lines/FAQs
 how to log in/log out

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(b) Technical Documentation: This is a manual for programmers which aid them in modifying the system and in
correcting program errors. The following are found in technical documentation:
Algorithms of the program,
Program testing procedures and test data,
Sample of expected system results,
Program structure showing modules and their relationships,
System flowcharts,
Programming language used,
Program code,
program listings,
File structures.
Validation rules

Output formats
Bugs in the system
Hardware requirements
Software requirements
User Training:
Once a new system is put in place, existing employees are trained on how to operate the new system, otherwise
new employees are recruited. Users are trained on how to enter data, search records, edit fields, produce reports,
handling errors, etc.
User training can be in the following forms:
i. On the job training: Users are trained at their organisation by hired trainers. This has the following advantages:
Learners practice with actual equipment and the environment of the job.
Learners can engage in productive practices while on training.
This is cheaper for the organisation.
Enough practice (experience) is gained on how to operate the system.
Production does not stop

Disadvantages of on the job training

Distractions occur in a noisy office.
Instructional methods are often poor.
The need to keep up output may lead to hasty teaching
Mistakes by learners can be disastrous for the system

ii. Classroom training: Users are send to other colleges and institutions which offer courses on the subject matter.
This could be expensive to organisations since employees take study leave while being paid at the same time.
Employees can also be trained on aspects that they will not apply when they finish the course. The gap between
what is learnt and what is needed at the job may be too wide.
Considerations when training users:
1. All staff need training that is relevant to their work using the computers. However, others may find it difficult to
learn the new system and may resist.
2. Age problem of trainees-older workers takes long to conceptualise concepts
3. Reluctance of employees to learn (use new system)
4. Computer based system means training on the computer
5. Regular updates means new training each time an upgrade is made
6. The type of training should be chosen carefully as it is important
7. Course type with trainer
o It may restrict learning times
o Can be intimidating to other employees
o Difficult to satisfy all trainees’ demands

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o Gives human contact

8. Implementation/ Conversion (Installation/Changeover)

This also involves putting the new computer system into operation, that is, changing from the old system to the
new one. It involves file conversion, which is the changing of old data files into the current format. Different
changeover methods can be used, and these include:
a. Parallel Run: This involves using of both the old and new system concurrently until the new system proves to
be efficient. It involves operating the new and old systems simultaneously until management is confident that the
new system will perform satisfactorily. Other workers will be using the old system while others use the old system
but doing the same type of job.
Advantages of parallel run
Results for both systems are compared for accuracy and consistency.
If the new system develops problems, it will be easier to revert to the old one.
There is enough time given to determine if the new system produces expected results.
Employees have enough time to familiarise with the new system.

Disadvantages of Parallel run

Running two systems at the same time is very expensive.
Running two systems simultaneously is demanding to employees.
It may be difficult to reach a decision when comparing the two systems.
There is duplication of tasks which in turn stresses employees

ii. Abrupt (Direct) changeover: Involves stopping using the old system on a certain day and the new system takes
over on the next morning. This is suitable for control systems like in chemical plants and for traffic lights.
Advantages of Direct Changeover
Reduces cost as of running two systems at the same time.
Faster and more efficient to implement.
There is minimum duplication of tasks.
Enough resources can be allocated to make sure that the new system operates successfully.

Disadvantages of Direct Changeover

It will be difficult to revert to the old system if the new system fails.

iii. Phased / Partial conversion: This is whereby the old system is gradually removed while the new system is
gradually moved in at the same time. This can be done by computerising only one department in an organisation
this month, then the next department in two months’ time, and so on until the whole system is computerised.
Advantages of phased conversion
Avoids the risk of system failure.
Saves costs since the new system is applied in phases.
It could be easier to revert to the old system if the new system fails since only one department will be affected.

Disadvantages of phased conversion

It could be very expensive since the organisation will be running two systems but in different departments.

iv. Pilot conversion: This is whereby a program is tested in one organisation (or department), and is applied to the
whole organisation if it passes the pilot stage. It serves as a model for other departments. A pilot program can then
be applied in phases, directly or using the parallel run method.
NB: Implementation also involves the following activities:
- Acquisition of the necessary equipment / hardware and software
- Identifying and specifying modules to be used
- Identifying the main data structures within the program
- Identifying the main modules / algorithms to be used
- Installation of hardware

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- Software installation
- Designing office layouts
- Cabling/trunking

- User training, etc

9. Maintenance/review/evaluation Stage:
This stage is concerned with making upgrades and repairs to an already existing system. Certain sections of the
system will be modified with time.
Maintenance can be to Perfect the system, to Correct some errors or to make it adapt to changing needs, e.g.
change in government laws. Maintenance involves the following:
 update hardware as new items come on the market or the company changes in any way which requires new
devices to be added/updated
 update software if necessary if company structure changes or legislation is introduced which affects how the
company operates

Evaluation involves the following:

- compare final solution with the original requirement
- identify any limitations in the system
- identify any necessary improvements that need to be made
- evaluate the user’s responses to using the new system
- compare test results from new system with results from the old system
- compare performance of new system with performance of old system

Assessing the effectiveness of the new system:

- compare final solution with original requirements
- identify any limitations in the system
- identify any necessary improvements that need to be made
- evaluate user responses to using the new system
- compare test results from new system with results from old system
- compare performance of new system with performance of old system
- effectiveness of the hardware
- effectiveness of the software

(a) System Flowcharts

An example of a systems flows cart is as follows:

a) A systems flowchart for a payroll processing system that uses batch processing
b) A systems flowchart that is used to update a stock master file when stock items are purchased.

a) b)

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A systems flowchart is a diagram used to show how all the components in a system link
together (e.g. input, storage, output, processing, etc.). They are very different to normal
flowcharts since they don’t go into detail of how something is actually done – they are a
general overview. It shows the overview of the system, tasks carried out by the system, whether manual or
computer, devices, output media and files used, etc.

Common symbols for designing systems flowcharts are as follows:

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Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 125
*NB: Meanings of these symbols are not universal and mean a different thing to others. Some symbols are
borrowed from program flowcharts.
Review Questions
1. (a) A systems analyst was brought in to computerise a paper -based car sales system. What methods could be
used to gather data about the existing system? Give reasons for your choice.

(b) What would need to be done before the new computerised system become ‘Live’?
(c) Why would PILOT and PARALLEL change over methods be suitable in this application?
2. A program is written to input daily temperatures. Name three types of test data that could be used. Give
examples of each type of test data which could be used and discuss the outputs you would expect to get.
3. Name five tasks that would be carried out at the DESIGN stage in systems analysis.
4. Name four methods used to change over from a manual system to a new computerised system. Discuss the
relative advantages and disadvantages of these four methods.
5. Describe how the effectiveness of a new computer system can be assessed
DATA CAPTURE / COLLECTION
Data capturing can be either automatic or manual.
Manual methods are slow in entering data and are also prone to errors, e.g. typing 2.3 instead of 3.2. Manual data
capturing techniques includes the following:
- keyboards/keypads to type in data
- touch screens to select data/options

Automatic data capturing techniques are more accurate and faster but are more expensive and involves use of the
following:
(a) Data logging: this technique involves collecting data automatically using sensors; mostly used when doing
scientific experiments or monitoring a control system
(b) Barcode readers: these take data from printed barcodes and allow automatic stock control in, for example,
supermarkets.
(c) Radio Frequency Identification (RFID): this method involves using small electronic devices containing a
microchip and antenna; they work in a similar way to bar codes but can be read from a distance of 5 metres; often
used to track livestock, vehicles, library books and goods sold in shops.
(d) Biometrics: this involves obtaining data and identifying characteristics automatically in security systems e.g.
use of finger prints, palm prints, facial images and iris prints
(e) Magnetic Strips: these contain information/data stored on magnetic material often on the back of a credit/debit
card; the information is automatically read by swiping the magnetic stripe past a reading head (reading device).
(f) Optical character recognition (OCR): information on paper is automatically read by a scanner and is then
analysed/processed by OCR software and stored in an electronic format.
(g) Voice recognition: these systems recognise spoken words e.g. for disabled people who can’t use keyboards
where they speak commands instead of having to type
(h) Smart cards: these contain embedded microchips and receive power from the card readers; the microchip is
made up of RAM, ROM and 16-bit processor and the stored data is automatically read by the card reader; used in
credit cards, security cards, loyalty cards, etc.
(i) Optical Mark Recognition (OMR): OMR technology scans a printed form and reads pre-defined positions
(where specific fields have been filled in e.g. ●─● or ▄); the system records where marks have been made so can
automatically determine responses to, for example, a questionnaire.

Data Entry Errors

Data can be entered incorrectly into the computer and this can have the following effects:
- A company can be prosecuted under the Data Protection Act if incorrect information causes a person or
organisation some loss.
- Wrong decisions can be made by managers due to wrong information given.
- Customers may be angry if they are sent wrong bills.
Types of Errors

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1. Transcription Errors: These are mistakes due to misreading or mistyping of data, e.g., confusing the number 5
with the letter S, 0 (zero) instead of the letter O, etc. This can also be caused by bad handwriting.
2. Transposition Errors: These are mistakes caused by swapping 2 letters or digits, e.g. typing ‘ot’ instead of ‘to’,
5721 instead of 7521. Transposition errors occur mostly when typing at very high speeds.
3. Error of Omission: Some information might have been skipped from being entered.

Avoiding Data Entry Errors

The following procedures can be used to avoid / reduce data entry errors:
1. Verification: Involves checking whether what has been entered into the computer is similar to what is on the
input document. Also done data is copied from one medium to another, e.g. from paper to disk. Verification is done
manually by the user of the computer. Verification is carried out to determine errors that cannot be detected by the
computer.
NB:-Verification can also be used to determine if data has been correctly transferred from one place to other (e.g.
between devices or on a network).
Verification can be done in the following forms:
(a) Double entry:
 In this method, data is entered twice (using two different people); the data is only accepted if both versions are
similar.
 Double entry is often used to verify passwords by asking them to be typed in again by the same person twice.

(b) Visual Checking

 This is checking for errors by comparing entered data with the original document (NOTE: this is not the same as
proof reading!!). If the entered data is similar with the source document, then it has been entered correctly.

2. Validation: A process done by the computer to detect if data entered is valid, correct, complete, sensible and
reasonable. For instance the height of a person entered as 12 metres is incorrect, is not sensible, neither is it
reasonable, and therefore the computer should reject this. Validation is a process of checking if data satisfies
certain criteria when input i.e. falls within accepted boundaries. Validation is done by the computer.
Types of Validation Checks on Data
(a) Character type check: A validation check for detecting if the correct characters have been entered, for
example can detect and reject alphabetic letters where numbers are needed. The computer should also reject if a
digit is entered where a name is needed, e.g. John5 is wrong since there is a wrong character in the name, i.e., 5.
(b) Range Checks: Are validation checks performed on data to make sure they lie in a specified range. For
example, you are required to enter a number between 5 and 20, and you enter 51, the computer should
automatically reject this since it lies outside the required range.
(c) Limit Check: this is similar to a range check except only ONE of the limits (boundaries) is checked e.g. input
data must be > 10.
(d) Presence checks: check that data is actually present and not missed out e.g. in Student form, somebody’s
Student Surname may been left out yet it is a required field name. The computer does not allow the user to
continue until an entry has been made in a required field name.
(e) Length checks: These are validation checks used to determine if data entered is of the required number of
characters. For example, if a student number has 5 digits, the computer should reject if a number with 4 or less
digits or even more digits is entered.
(f) Format Check: this checks that data is in a specified format (template) e.g. date should be in the form
dd/mm/yyyy.
(g) Consistence (Cross Field) Check: this checks if fields correspond with the other, e.g. if one enters ‘MR’ on
Title field, the Sex field must contain ‘Male’ or ‘M’. If one enters the title as Mr and then on sex enters Female,
there is no correspondence on the two fields and therefore the computer must reject this.
(h) Spell Checkers: These are validation checks that determine if accurate text has been entered especially in word
processing. Spell checkers use custom dictionaries to check spelling mistakes in documents. If a word is typed in, it
is checked if it is in the custom dictionary, if not, it is treated as an error. Spell checkers cannot be used in case of
names of people, places, computer jargon, new slang words, etc.

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(i) Data Type check: This is used to check if data entered is of the correct data type. For example, Quantity of
Items bought is an integer data type, therefore it must reject fractions. Thus the correct data type is considered in
this situation. Data types includes Boolean, integers, char, etc.
(j) Check Digits: A check digit is an extra digit appended to the right -end of an original number for error
checking purposes and is calculated from the original block of data using modulus 11.
*NB: - Check digits are used where data is entered automatically as in using barcode readers and are
important for checking for transposition errors (swapped digits)
Calculating Check Digits
Using the Modulus 11 method: Suppose a product number has been entered as: 151211323; the following
procedures will be used to calculate its check digit.
We have 9 digits. Working from the right, the first digit is multiplied by 2, second number by 3, third number by 4
and so on. We start at 2 because position 1 is for the check digit. The results are added together, e.g.
(1x10) + (5x9) + (1x8) + (2x7) + (1x6) + (1x5) + (3x4) + (2x3) + (3x2) = 112
The total (112) is divided by 11 and the remainder is noted; e.g., 112 divided by 11 = 10 remainder 2.
The remainder is subtracted from 11 to give the check digit: 11 – 2 = 9
9 becomes the check digit. Therefore the number will be transmitted as 1512113239
*NB: -
(1) If the check digit found is 10, an X is used as the check digit.
(2) If, upon dividing the total by 11 and the remainder is 0, then 0 is the check digit. This is obtained as, 11-0=11.
Divide 11 by 11 and take the remainder, which is 1 remainder 0, thus 0 becomes the check digit.
(3) Check digits are used to detect where digits have been swapped
NB: thus the procedure of calculating check digits is summarised as follows:
- Allocate weights for digits from right going to the left, starting as 2.
- Multiply each digit with its weight and add them.
- Divide the total by its modulus (11 in our case) and get the remainder.
- Subtract the remainder from the modulus (11)
- The result will be the check digit.
- However, some authors go further by saying that, divide the answer (obtained after subtracting from 11) by its
modulus (11) and take the remainder. The remainder is the check digit.

Proving whether the given check digit is correct or not.

This is done using two methods, which are:
(1). Remove the given check digit, calculate your own check digit. If they are similar, then the check digit is
correct. If they are not similar, then the given check digit is wrong.

(2) Re-calculate without removing the given check digit using the example given below:
Example:
The ISBN to check is given as with X as the check digit: 0 - 1 3 1 5 - 2 4 4 7 – X
Remember X means 10, so 10 is the check digit in the example above.
Here, the check digit is on position 1. So the numbers and their positions is as follows:
Position 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Digit 0 1 3 1 5 2 4 4 7 X

Multiply each digit with its position and add the results, thus giving:
(10x0)+(9x1)+(8x3)+(7x1)+(6x5)+(5x2)+(4x4)+(3x4)+(2x7)+(1x10) = 132
Divide 132 by modulus (11) and get the remainder. This gives us 12 remainder 0.
Therefore the check digit is correct.

NB: If the remainder obtained is 0, then the check digit is correct, if not, then the check digit is wrong.

Differences between verification and validation

Verification Validation
Check whether data entered in the Checks for correctness, completeness,

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computer is similar to that on input sensibleness of data.
document.
Done well after data has been entered Done during data entry.
into the computer.
It is a manual process /done by the user. It is an automatic process/done by the
computer

Questions
1. Describe 4 methods of automatic data capture, giving an application of each method
2. A record contains the following fields:
- Title (Mr/Mrs/Miss) and Sex (Male or Female)
- Date of birth (written in the form dd/mm/yyyy)
- Pay Number (which is made up of 8 digits)
- Telephone Number
- Pay

Give a different validation check for each of the above fields and explain why it is used.
3. (a) Which of the following numbers have the correct check digit?

(i) 0 – 5 5 5 – 2 1 6 2 2 – 5
(ii) 0 – 1 2 1 – 9 0 0 2 1 – X
(b) Calculate the check digit for the following number:
0 1 5 0 2 4 6 2 2 ………
(c) Discuss the types of errors that check digits can identify.
4. (a) Give 2 different ways of carrying out verification checks.

(b) Give 2 examples of situations where verification would be used.

SOFTWARE
Software refers to a set of instructions written in computer language that tell a computer to perform a specific task,
e.g. word processor, spreadsheet, etc. Without software, a computer will be useless. Software is grouped into
systems software and application software. The diagram below illustrates branches/groups of software:

Systems Software: Refers to programs that control and manages the performance of all computer systems.
Systems software comprises of: (a) operating systems (b) Utility programs (c) Translators (d) Device drivers.
1) Operating System: - refers to the programs that supervise, control and manage the performance of the computer
hardware and software in accordance with set objectives, for example, Windows 7. Examples of operating systems
include: Windows 95/98/2000/XP/ VISTA/ Windows 7/Windows 8, Microsoft Disk Operating System (MS-DOS),
Unix, Linux, OS/2, Ubuntu, etc.

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The operating system is loaded onto the computer by the bootstrap loader. Programs stored on ROM chip runs first
and this checks if all hardware components are working normally. It also checks the CPU and the Basic Input
output System (BIOS) for errors. If there are no errors, the BIOS will activate the disc drive. The operating system
is then found and the computer can boot. Booting refers to the process of loading the Operating system into
memory so that it takes control over hardware and software resources of the computer.
Functions of the operating systems:
- Controls movement of data to and from peripherals.
- Acts as a background on which application programs can run.
- Device management/Input-Output management: manages hardware components
- Handling of interrupts
- Manage software resources of the computer
- Memory management : Manages memory resources of a computer
- Acts as an interface between the user and the computer.
- Scheduling of tasks
- Loading and running of programs
- Provides a log of users for the computer.
- Handling of errors and correcting them where possible. (error handling and reporting)
- Protect hardware, software and data from improper use.
- Control over the selection and operation of input, output and storage devices of the computer.
- Used for spooling
- Maintain user accounts
- Booting and properly shutting down the computer.
- File management

NB: Household equipment like refrigerator do not have an operating system since the processor has one task to
perform, no multiple devices and tasks to handle, hence they are cheap.
Features (characteristics) of operating systems:
- Must be reliable in terms of being free from errors and handling of all jobs.
- Must be efficient, that is should be able to use resources fully ensuring good job processing, response time,
turnaround time, etc.
- Must be maintainable.
- Must be small in terms of storage space on the disk.

*NB: Response time – the time that elapses from the moment an instruction is given to the computer and the time
that instruction is carried out.
Turnaround time – the time taken from the moment a document is produced by a computer and the moment it is
used as an input document to that computer again.
Turnaround Document: a document produced by the computer and later used as an input document to the same
computer, e.g. electricity bill
NB. Most operating systems are written in low level language. This is for them to quickly coordinate computer
activities since they will not be converted as they are already in machine language or less time is needed for
conversion if the operating system is written in assembly language. The following must be considered when buying
an operating system:
- Hardware type and computer design e.g. windows operating system works well on IBM compatible machines.
- Applications intended for the computer e.g. accounting, stock taking, etc.
- Method of communicating with the computer, that is, use of few or many peripherals and terminals.
- Method of operating the computer e.g. multi-access, multi-programming, etc

Types Of Operating Systems

1. Single User Operating Systems: These are operating systems that allow one computer user at a time in an
interactive mode, for example MS-DOS, CP/M, OS/2, etc.
Advantages of Single user operating systems are:

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- They are cheap to buy.
- They are interactive, that is, they allow a two way communication between the user and the computer in a
conversational mode.
- They ensure better security to data since they only allow one user at a time.
- They provide simple command language.

Disadvantages of Single user operating systems are:

- They are very slow in processing data.
- Most of the computers are dedicated to one task.
- The commands are difficult to learn and to use.
- Commands are difficult to master.

NB- Control Programs: These are programs that monitor hardware operation on the computer.
- Monitor (supervisor) programs: - These are programs that supervise and manage hardware and software
elements of the computer
2. Time sharing operating systems: This type of operating system allows many users to use the same processor at
a time, using the round robin method by use of time slices. In ‘O’ Level Computer Studies Notes-ZIMSEC Syllabus
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Round Robin, each user is given a fraction of a second (time slice) to use the processor so that all users seem not to
be sharing the processor.
*NB: - Time slice: A brief period of time during which a particular task (or computer) is given control of the
microprocessor in a time-sharing multitasking environment. A computer's processor is allocated to an application,
usually measured in milliseconds. Time slice is also called quantum.
Multitasking: It is the concurrent execution of two or more programs on the same computer by use of time slices,
doing the same job. For example, copying a graph from Microsoft Excel to Microsoft Word. Thus the two
programs will be running concurrently, doing a related or same job.
3. Multi Access / Multi user operating systems: It is when many online users access one processor at the same
time to make use of multi-programming.
4. Multi-programming: This is whereby two or more programs (tasks) are being processed (run) at the same time
on one computer by use of time slices, for example playing music while typing a document. Programs may take
turns to make use of the processor, thus when one is using the CPU, others will be using the peripherals. It uses
interrupts to pass control from one program to another.
5. Multiprocessing: A type of operating system that allows one computer to have two or more processors but
sharing the same memory, e.g. dual core computers.
6. Batch Processing System: - A system in which data is collected over a long period of time, put in groups and
processed at one go, without user interaction from start to finish, as in payroll processing. Jobs can be entered at a
remote terminal, that is, on a terminal far away from the host computer. Thus batch processing promotes Remote
Job Entry (RJE): which is the entering of data into the computer through a terminal far away from the host
computer.
- For instance, a central computer can process batches of cheques collected from different branches, mostly during
the night. If there are errors, the results will also be wrong. Batch processing is very cheap to operate and easy to
run. Users can also perform some other tasks while batch processing takes place.
- In batch processing, there is minimum or no human intervention during data processing period. It is used where
large amounts of data is processed and where processing does not need to be done immediately, e.g. in Payroll
processing, water billing, electricity billing, telephone billing, clearance of cheques, etc).
Payroll Processing
These calculate wages and print payslips. It is the following inputs, processes and outputs:
Inputs: employee details (rate of pay, tax code, bank name, bank account number, etc), number of hours worked,
over time, etc.
Processing: Calculation of Gross Salary, Net Salary, deductions, updating master file, etc.
Outputs: printed payslips, updated master file, transfer to bank account, etc.
Billing systems
Used to create bills and invoices to customers. It has the following inputs, processing and outputs:
Inputs: customer details (names, address, account numbers, etc), charge, previous readings, new readings, bank
account details, etc
Processing: calculating the number of number of total units, total cost, monthly payments made, outstanding
amount, etc.
Output: printed bill showing all details, updated customer file, etc. ‘O’ Level Computer Studies Notes-ZIMSEC Syllabus
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Advantages of batch processing are as follows:
- It is less expensive to use.
- jobs can be processed when computer resources are less busy (e.g. during the evening or at night);
- Processing does not need to be done with anyone present.
- Users do not need to be specialists in computers. It allows remote job entry.

Disadvantages of batch processing are as follows:

- Batch processing systems are not interactive.
- Data is processed after a long period of time.
- No action can be taken if anything wrong happens during processing.

b. Translators: - These are programs that convert source code to object code. Translators are in three forms, which
are interpreters, assemblers and compilers. These will be covered in more detail under Programming Languages.
c. Utility Programs:
These are programs used to perform specific, useful and frequently needed task in a computer system. They usually
have one single task to perform on the computer system. Utilities include the following:
i. Virus Scan Utility: These are programs that protect computers from virus attacks, for example Norton Antivirus,
AVG, Avast, Esat NOD32, MacAfee, etc.
ii. Sort Utilities: These are programs used to arrange data, files and records into a specific ordered sequence, for
instance in ascending or descending order of a given key.
iii. Debuggers: These are utilities used for assisting in correcting errors in programs.
iv. Dump Utilities: These are programs that assist in copying data from main storage to output devices and to other
storage devices like the hard drive.
v. Editors: These are programs used to make changes to data already held in the computer.
vi. Peripheral Transfer Utility: These are programs used to transfer data from one peripheral device to another.
vii. System Status Utilities: These are programs that provide information on the state of files, memory, users and
peripherals.
viii. File Maintenance Utilities: These are programs used to reorganise programs and to update them.
(d) Device Drivers: Programs that allows a device, e.g. printer to work on a given operating system/computer. ‘O’
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Application Software
This refers to programs and their documentation, designed to perform a specific task for the user in daily life, like
payroll processing, word processing, etc.
Integrated Package (Application suite) - a collection of application programs purchased as one package, for
example Microsoft Office 2010. It is a collection of a word processor, spreadsheet, database and presentation
packages bought as one package, for example, Microsoft Office 2010.
Advantages of Integrated Packages are:
- It is cheap to buy as compared to buying single application programs at a time.
- Programs have been tried and tested and therefore are free from errors.
- Programs are designed in a similar way, making it easier to learn others if you are able to use one of them.
- Programs are easier to use and to learn, for example, when designing a database using Microsoft Access.
- Regular updates are provided on the internet or on disks.

Disadvantages of integrated packages are as follows:

- The user is forced to buy the incorporated packages even if he/she needs only one of them.
- They are not tailored for individual user requirements.
- Organisations purchasing them have little or no control over their use.
- The packaged programs can only be modified by the programmers (owners).
- Most of the need regular updating, which may be expensive.
- They have many features that the users might never use yet they buy them.

Methods of Acquiring Software

1. Off-the-Shelf/Generic: This refers to buying generalised software like Microsoft Word from software vendors.
Generalised (generic) software refers to application programs designed for use in a number of organisations
without problems, for example Microsoft Word. A software vendor is an organisation that specialises in selling
generic software.
Advantages of generic (Off-the-shelf) software:
- Cheaper than custom written (tailor made) packages as development costs are spread over many users.
- the package is available immediately – no need to wait for development period
- Allows large scale sales which bring in considerable revenue which can be used to enable a lot of development to
be done.
- They are immediately available in shops.
- They are tried and tested and therefore are free from errors.
- Documentation is always provided in form of manuals, user guides and tutorials that may be in soft or hardcopy.
- Training courses can be available from other end-users.
- Technical support is always available from other users and from the internet.
- Other users of the package can be consulted before purchasing or when a problem occurs.
- Upgrades are always available every year or two.
- It is easy to share files produced by the software with others as chances are they also have the software available
to open the file
- sharing of files with other packages is usually easier since they are likely to be compatible (e.g. Excel and Word)

Disadvantages of Generic Software:

- May not meet the individual needs of an organisation.
- May not run on the organisation’s hardware.
- May not interface with other software already in use in the organisation.
- Organisations purchasing them have little or no control over their usage.
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- Organisations purchasing them have no right to modify them.
- The software can be very sophisticated and will usually include large sections that you will never use (e.g. Excel
or Word)
- may be very complex to learn because of the complexity caused through having unwanted features

2. Tailor-made Software (bespoke/user application software): These are programs specifically designed to meet
the unique needs of only one organisation, for example a bank. The organisation would employ or hire an analyst /
programmer who will first asses the needs of the organisation before designing a program that will solve the
problems of the organisation.
Advantages of Tailor-made software
- Easier and more intuitive to use.
- Much better customer support since they will be in direct contact with the software designers.
- Specifically designed for the application and therefore more efficient and will only contain the features wanted by
the user.
- can be customised to interface with all other software within the company thus preventing software clashes
- easier to use since very specific and the writers of the software can also be involved in the training of staff which
will be geared towards their requirements
- can be modified/updated as the company’s requirements change

Disadvantages of Tailor-made software:

- It is very expensive to develop.
- They take too long to develop and to implement.
- If you pick the wrong developer you could end up with an application that is unstable, unreliable and full of bugs
- very dependent on the suppliers of the software; if they go out of business there will be little or no support if
problems occur
- less likely to be as well developed/tested as off-the-shelf software
- difficult to tell how good the final software package will be

*NB: A programmer is a person who specialises in designing, coding and testing computer programs.
Software House is an organisation that specialises is developing software; this includes both generic and tailor-
made.
Special Purpose Application Software: - These are programs designed for one specific business purpose, for
example Pastel for accounting purposes.
Advantages of Off-the-Shelf Software Over tailor-made software:
- Off - the - self software is cheaper to buy while tailor-made software is expensive.
- Off-the-Shelf software has been tried and tested hence free from errors while tailor-made software may have
some errors.
- Off-the-Shelf software is easier and faster to implement while tailor made software takes long to implement.
- Off-the-Shelf software is used by many organisations; therefore users can share information on its usage while
tailor-made software is only used by one organisation.
- Off-the-Shelf software has regular updates available for download on the internet while tailor-made software does
not.

Advantages of tailor made software as compared to Generic Software:

- Tailor-made software is designed to meet the requirements of an organisation while Off-the-Shelf software might
not meet the needs of an individual company.
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- Organisations have full control over tailor-made software as compared to off-the-shelf software which is
controlled by the programmers.

Types of Application Software:

These include:
1. Word Processing Packages:
These are application packages used for creating, editing and formatting text documents like letters and reports.
Examples of Word Processing packages include Microsoft Office Word, WordPerfect, WordPro, Notepad, etc.
Word processing packages have the following advantages over the typewriter:
- Produces more attractive documents.
- Word processors are less noise than typewriters.
- Documents can be edited and formatted before printing, which reduces spelling and other typing mistakes on
printed documents.
- Typed documents can be stored in the computer for future use.
- Document layout can be viewed on the screen before printing and can be changed easily.
- A word processed document can be printed more than once.
- Other text and diagrams can be added without the need to retype the document.
- Word processors can move some parts of text to another part of the document easily (using copy/cut and Paste
feature).
- They have the ability to delete words, sentences and paragraphs neatly.
- They are less manual than typewriters.

Features of Word processing Packages

- ability to set the page size and page orientation (portrait/landscape)
- ability to change font style and font size (e.g. arial, courier, times new roman, etc.)
- ability to change margins (top, bottom and sides)
- page format (e.g. paragraphs, columns, etc.)
- importing text, graphics and pictures into the document body from other packages like Microsoft PowerPoint and
Excel.
- inserting and deleting text
- cut and paste/copy and paste (to prevent the need to re-type sections of text or to move/remove text)
- search and replace words
- word wrap (e.g. auto adjust a line to fit into paragraph alignment such as straight
- file management (create/delete/move/search for files)
- headers and footers and the automatic numbering of pages
- graphics (embed drawings and graphs into the document)
- use macros
- merge (merge text files from one file into another e.g. mail merge)
- ability to send documents to a printer
- carry out a word count on the document
- add and manipulate tables in the main body of the document
- windows (edit 2 or more documents at the same time)
- WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get) – preview document to see how it will look when printed
- spell checkers, language check and thesaurus
- Simple translation from one language to another; for example, from English to French.

*NB: Editing: the process of correcting mistakes in a document, for example, spelling mistakes. ‘O’ Level Computer
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Formatting: making a document look more attractive by bolding, underlining, inserting borders, etc
2. Spreadsheet Packages: These are application programs used to manage and analyse statistical, numeric and
financial data, for example Microsoft Office Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, SuperCalc, etc. The structure of a spreadsheet is as
follows:

Features of Spreadsheet packages

- Can format text (Bold, underline, …)
- Can change font size and font type
- Uses functions/ formulae to make calculations on data. The functions can be user-defined or in-built functions
- Ability to inset boards on cells
- Can import and export text
- Can create graphs on given data, e.g. column graphs, pie charts, etc
- it is made up of columns and rows; each row is identified by a number and each column is identified with a letter
(or letters)
- can use Autofill feature
- Each cell is identified by its column id and row id e.g. A4, ET300 etc. Cells can be given as cell ranges, e.g A4:
G4.
- a cell may contain a label (text entry such as Surname, Date Of Birth,..) or a value (which can be a number, a
date, a formula, result of a calculation, or currency)
- the cursor identifies the current cell selected; it is possible to click on to a cell and a “+” sign appears in the
bottom right hand corner; by dragging the formula down it is possible to replicate it in other cells
- etc……

Problems Associated With Spreadsheets:

- capacity (i.e. maximum number of rows and columns) can be limiting when dealing with large data sets
- security issues in some spreadsheets (i.e. if you can open a spreadsheet you can also change any part of it; this
can lead to fraud
- lack of concurrency; usually only one person can work on a spreadsheet at any given time (databases are better in
this aspect since they can usually be opened by more than one user at a time)
- because of their structure it is easy to enter an error (whether on purpose or by mistake) by entering data in the
wrong cells or dependencies among cells incorrectly applied
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3. Presentation Packages:
- These are programs used for designing slides for a presentation to an audience, for example Microsoft Office
PowerPoint, Lotus Smart Suite, etc.
- Presentation packages include text, pictures, sound, animation, graphics and tables, thus being multimedia.
- Presentations are colourful and attractive.
- Speakers and projectors are needed.
- Presentation packages have the following features:
 Have Clip art. Can accommodate images and graphics.
 Can use sound, video and animation.
 Incorporate Word Art.
 Have facility to insert charts and graphs.

*NB: Animation: - Creating illusion of moving sequence using a series of still images as done in movies and
cartoons.
4. Database Packages (DBMS): Refers to programs used to create and maintain databases for a specific
application area.
They are used for maintaining and providing interface been users and the database and to interface the database and
other application programs.
Examples of database packages include Microsoft Office Access, Oracle, Dbase IV, MySQL, etc
Properties/features of databases
Most database packages have the following features:
(a) Tables: These are equivalent to files and therefore are used to store data. The data is stored in rows and
columns. Each row in a table is called a record which is made up of a number of fields (columns in the table). The
data type in the fields is usually either text, numeric or date/time. Most databases contain a number of tables which
are usually linked together in some way.
(b) Forms: Forms are commonly called data entry screens since they are the user interface which allows data in
the tables to be viewed, entered or edited. Forms permit the control of how other users interact with the information
in the database e.g. only allow certain fields to be seen or only allow certain operations to be carried out . This
subsequently helps the protection of the information and also ensures it is entered correctly
(c) Reports: Reports are produced as a result of questions such as “date>=01/01/1975”. The data on report is
extracted from queries or tables as per user requirement. They display certain required data as needed by the user,
e.g. after searching or filtering of data. Reports can be printed out as hardcopy, or viewed on the screen or exported
(e.g. to a word processor, an email message, etc.).
(d) Queries: Queries are questions that request certain data from tables, e.g, Amount <200. It can also be an
instruction to search data which meets a certain criteria from table and display it on the screen in form of another
table created from the original table. Most commonly allow information to be retrieved from tables. They also
allow filtering so only the records required are seen.
(e) Macros

A macro is a name or key that represents a series of commands or key strokes. Many applications allow single
word or single nominated key on a keyboard to perform a whole series of actions. Macros can be either written as
required and then stored or stored in a library for future use. Macros can be very sophisticated and save the
operator a lot of time. For example, the name and address in a word processor could be set up by pressing key F1
and the system brings information from a related database ‘O’ Level Computer Studies Notes-ZIMSEC Syllabus
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5. Graphics Packages: Refers to programs used to create and edit graphs, diagrams, drawings, charts and plans for
buildings, for example Microsoft Paint, Harvard Graphics, Corel Draw, Real Draw, etc. Computer graphics are
images designed for logos, commercial and news inserts during television advertisements or transmission.
6. Communication Software: These are programs that allow users to communicate on networked computers and
to log on to the internet, for example TCP/IP software, Client – server software, e-mails, etc.
*NB: - Log On: to provide a username and password for the user to gain access to a computer or computer
network.
7. Desktop Publishing (DTP) Packages: It is an extension of word processors that incorporates images and text
for creation of attractive and professional documents for publication purposes. Examples of DTP packages include
Microsoft Publisher, PageMaker and QuarkXPress. DTP is used to create brochures, magazines, wedding cards and
newsletters.
Features of DTP include:
- They have a graphic program for inserting graphics in the document.
- They have a page composition program.
- They incorporate columns on one page.
- They have frames for positioning texts and graphics.
- They have templates used for recording document properties like page size, margins, etc.
- They have style sheets used for making consistent main texts, headings and subheadings.

Requirements for DTP:

(a) A Scanner: - for capturing images or hand drawings on paper, for example photographs
(b) High Resolution Monitor with graphics capabilities: - For viewing publication during design stage.
(c) Colour Printer: For printing high quality and colourful documents.
(d) Digital camera/webcam/cell-phone with a camera: - for taking and storage of photographs that will be
incorporated into the computer.
(e) Keyboard: For typing in text
(f) Mouse: - For adjusting size of pictures and for drawing purposes.
(g) Desktop Publishing (DTP) software.
Advantages of Desktop Publishing:
- Users have more control over text layout compared to word processors especially over formatting and layout of
text and images.
- Lots of different files can be brought together on the same document.
- Produces colourful and attractive documents for commercial purposes like brochures.

Differences Between DTP and Word Processors

- most word processors force users to work on a document in a linear fashion (i.e. paragraph by paragraph and page
by page); with DTP it is possible to place elements on the page and then move them around as you wish to create
the desired product.
- elements repeated throughout a document (e.g. a company logo) can be placed in master pages rather than setting
up each page individually as would be the case with a word processor.
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- Text is usually imported from a word processor or is typed into the document directly using a frame. This allows
you to create the layout first, link the frames together and add the text into the frames later (e.g. in newsletters and
magazines where layouts are created before any of the actual text becomes available).

8. Authoring Packages (Authorware): Software that can be used to write interactive, hypertext or multimedia
computer programs without the technically demanding task of computer programming. Also used in multimedia
presentations. These programs can be used for developing databases and material for Computer Aided Instruction
(CAI).
Authoring tools require less technical knowledge to master and are usually used for applications that present a
mixture of text, graphics, and audio/music files. Authoring tools usually allow the creation of the actual required
application by linking together objects which can be text, graphics, music file, etc. By defining the relationship
between objects it is possible to produce very useful and eye catching applications.
(9) Web Browsers: Software used to open web pages on the internet, examples are: Mozilla Firefox, Microsoft
Internet Explorer, Safari, Opera, etc.
(10) Search Engines: These are packages used for searching data for the user from the internet, e.g. Google,
yahoo, etc.
*NB: - Specialist Packages for Business: These are packages for use in a specific business environment, for
example, Pastel for accounting purposes.
*NB: - Install: - to add programs to the computer. Therefore to uninstall is to remove programs from the computer.
Factors to consider when purchasing an application package:
- Application intended for.
- Easiness of installation.
- Mode of processing (single user, multi user, etc).
- User friendliness.
- Availability of support personnel.
- Availability, readability and clarity of documentation.
- Memory requirements.
- Hardware requirements.

Types of Systems
1. Real Time Processing System: - An online system in which individual, discrete transactions are processed as
they occur to influence the activity currently taking place, as in airline reservation. Results of the process are
produced immediately. The system response quickly and give feedback of a request. Thus the system is interactive
in nature. Such systems include airline reservation systems, hotel reservations, stock control, etc.
Real Time Processing System can also be called Transaction Processing System (or Real Time Transaction
Processing Systems): this is a real-time (or pseudo-real-time) transaction processing system whereby only
individual items of data need immediate processing, results and files are updated instantly e.g., airline reservation,
balance enquiry at an ATM, etc. Response to a query needs to be very fast and once a seat is booked it needs to
marked as “not available” immediately to avoid any risk of double booking.
Using this example of booking seats on a flight, the following sequence of events would take place:
- customer/travel agent contacts the airline
- the customer/travel agents types in the day/time of flight and number of travellers
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- the customer/travel agent types in the departure airport and the destination airport
- the airline database is searched and availability of seats checked
- if seats are available on the required day/time then a booking is made
- the database/file is updated immediately to indicate that these seats are no longer available and prevents double
booking from occurring
- if no seats are available a message is sent back to the customer/travel agent
- this uses real time (transaction) processing since the files are updated in real time; interrogation of files will have
access to totally updated information

Transaction processing’s requirements include:

- A large quantity of hardware support.
- Large and fast main storage, over 1 GB.
- Large and fast backing storage like hard drives of about 300 GB.
- Efficient communication equipment like fibre optics, satellites, etc. Efficient, secure and reliable operating
systems.
- However, transaction processing systems are very expensive to run.

2. Real time process control

This is a real-time system which uses sensors and feedback loops (i.e. the output can influence the next input to the
system.). Used in safety critical situations like patient monitoring, monitoring and control in nuclear power
stations, etc. It uses actuators, sensors, DAC, ADC to continuously and automatically monitor physical quantities
like temperature in a system. It differs with real time (transaction) processing system in that: In real time
(transaction) processing system, files are often updated in real time (e.g. when booking flights on an airplane); but
in real time process control, physical quantities (such as temperature) are continuously monitored and the input is
processed sufficiently quickly to be capable of influencing the data source
3. On-Line System: A system that is directly linked to the host computer for real-time communication and
provides interaction between the user and the job, as in POS terminals in supermarkets. In networked computers,
the terminals must be directly linked to the host computer. Examples include ATM systems in banks, airline
reservation systems. Online systems can just be for information retrieval. Information retrieval systems are there
for users to access certain information promptly as on the internet. In contrast, offline systems are computer
systems that work without being directly connected to the host computer.
4. Network Systems: - A system in which processing is carried out independently in more than one location but
with shared and controlled access to some common facilities like file storage.
5. Control System: - A system in which one or more computers are used to monitor the operations of some non-
computer equipment like in oil refineries. Control systems involve monitoring and logging of physical quantities,
provide an analysis of performance and allows some user interaction. Feedback is an essential element as well as
timing. Most control systems are real-time systems, e.g. oil refining, chemical processing, traffic control, etc.
6. Automated Systems: - These are control systems that are dedicated to one particular task and lack the ability to
collect and analyse data as in digital cameras. They do not allow for or act on user interaction, e.g. washing
machines, cameras, watches. Most control systems have embedded computers systems inside them.
7. Multimedia Systems: - Are computer systems that enable representation of data in a number of formats like
sound, pictures, films, video, etc. Multimedia systems are used in ‘O’ Level Computer Studies Notes-ZIMSEC Syllabus
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commercial applications (advertising, journalism, presentations, etc.), entertainment (special effects, video games,
fine arts, etc.), education (CBT training, uses in virtual reality training, etc.). A computer that can be referred to be
a multimedia system should have at least the following:
- a CD – ROM/DVD-ROM drive,
- speakers, large RAM size,
- large disk storage space,
- sound card
- video card and
- multimedia software like Windows Media Player and
- other software like sound drivers.

8. Distributed (decentralised) Systems: A system whereby processing is done independently in more than one
location but with shared and controlled accessed to common facilities, like file storage as applied in departmental
shops. These systems are normally found in departmental shops, bank branches that will be linked together, etc.
Advantages of distributed systems:
- Users feel more involved and responsible and this increase motivation.
- Systems often meet user specific needs and requests for changes are more readily met.
- Costs of physical and electronic movement of data are reduced.
- The total breakdown of information processing disappears.

Disadvantages of distributed systems:

- There is often lack of coordination and control.
- It is difficult to impose standardisation, adequate security measures and sharing of data and know-how.
- Difficult to obtain integrated information for top management. Duplication of data is rampant.
- Excessive investment in hardware, software and personnel is involved.

9. Centralised systems: This is whereby processing is carried out at one central location for an organisation with a
number of branches. Users in other locations can view data and utilise it but with limited capabilities. Centralised
processing has the following advantages:
- Hardware within the organisation will be compatible and can be linked.
- The organisation gets better deals in terms of maintenance contracts. Employees do not have to learn new systems
when they move from one department (or branch) to another.
- It is easier to coordinate staff training courses using the same software and hardware for all departments (or
branches).
- There is better control over use of unlicensed software.
- Data can be exchanged easily between similar types of hardware and software

Disadvantages of Centralisation:
- Requires high initial capital investment of sophisticated equipment, operating systems, well developed
communication systems and complex application packages.
- Requires highly qualified and experienced personnel to run it.
- A system failure will paralyse the entire system unless expensive backup system is provided.
- Users feel not being fully involved and therefore are not motivated.
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The choice of processing depends on:
- Cost of hardware: online systems are more expensive to install, including installation of communication systems
like telephones and satellites.
- Volume of data involved: batch processing is appropriate where very large data is handled.
- Frequency of data change: banks need online systems for customer data changes more frequently than in
payroll processing systems.
FILE HANDLING
Types of files
1. Master File: It is a permanent file that is kept up-to-date by applying transactions that occur during business
operations. It contains permanent (static) and semi-permanent data. Static data stored in database files can include
Surname, First names, Date of birth, etc.
2. Transaction Files: These are temporary files that contain data that can change regularly, e.g. on daily bases and
it is used to update the master file. This includes sales per day, student mark in a weekly test, etc. Transaction files
are used to update master files.
3. Reference files: These are files that contain permanent data which is required for viewing purposes only. The
file can be displayed on the screen or printed without altering it in any way. This includes data on tax bands,
formulae, etc. No changes to files are done.
4. Data file: A set of related records (either written or electronic) kept together.
A. Fixed Length Records
These are records that allocate a specific amount of space for data, mostly a specific number of characters. For
instance, a school keeps student records in a fixed length record. The student number has 6 characters, Surname
was assigned 10 characters, First Name is given 10 characters, Date of Birth has 6 characters, sex has one
character and class has 2 characters only in that order in the computer database file. In total, the length of each
record is 35 characters.
The following student details are to be entered into the computer:
Student Number: 012999, Surname: Kapondeni, First Name: Tungamirirai
Date of Birth: 7th of February 1978, Sex: Male, Class: Form 4A
When entered into the database, the record will appear as follows:

From the table above, it can be noticed that:

- The Sex field is coded to accommodate only the letters M or F. This is shorter and therefore faster to enter data
into the computer and to search records than entering the words Male or Female.
- The Surname Kapondeni is shorter than the allocated 10 spaces. The other spaces will remain idle (unoccupied).
- The First Name Tungamirirai is too long than the allocated spaces and therefore extra characters will be cut.
Fixed length records have the following advantages:
 Entering data is faster as records are shorter and less typing is required.
 Easy to search data
 Less data entry errors are encountered.
 It is faster to carry out searches.
 Faster to do validation checks and procedures.
 They are easier for programmers to work with than variable length records.
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 They allow an accurate estimate of disk storage requirements. Thus disk storage space can be easily managed as
records occupy a specific number of characters.
 They are very easy to update

However, fixed length records have the following disadvantages:

 Can lead to wastage if disk storage space if used to store variable length data. For example, not all surnames are
of the same length.
 Some spaces may lie idle as data entered will be shorter than the space allocated.
 Some data to be entered may be too long for the space allocated and therefore will be cut.
 Not flexible to work with

B. Variable Length Records

These are records that allow data to occupy the amount of space that it needs. They allow data with varying
(different) number of characters or sizes. The number of fields may also vary. They usually show where the field or
record starts and ends, for example:

NB:- * Indicates the end of field marker, and the ≈ indicates the end of record marker
Variable length records have the following advantages:
 They are more economical in terms of usage of disk storage space as they do not allow spaces to lie idle.
 Data entered will not be cut but appears as entered no matter how long it is.
 may reduce time taken to read file/transfer data
 enables as many fields as possible to be added to a file

However, variable length records have the following disadvantages:

 End of field and end of record markers occupy disk storage space that might be used to store data.
 Difficult to update (add or delete) as the transaction and master files might have different lengths.
 more complex to use
 more complex to manage
 Hard to search data in the files

File Organisation
Refers to the way in which records in a file are stored, retrieved and updated. This affects the number of records
stored, access speed and updating speed. The most common methods of file organisation are: Serial File
Organisation, Sequential File organisation, indexed – sequential file organisation and random (direct) file
organisation.
1. Serial File Organisation: This is whereby data is recorded one after another as they occur, without any definite
order, as supported by magnetic tapes. Data is stored according to arrival time. Data is read from the first record
until the needed data is found. New records are added to the end of the file. Serial file organisation is not
appropriate for master files since records are not sorted and therefore are difficult to access and to update. It is
faster to find records at the beginning of the file, but takes too long to find records towards the end of the file.
Serial files are suitable for temporary transaction files since records are not sorted.
Serial files promote Serial Access: whereby records are accessed by reading from the first until needed record is
found in an unordered file, e.g on magnetic tape.
2. Sequential File Organisation: This is whereby records are sorted into a key sequence, that is, in ascending or
descending order of a given key filed as on magnetic tapes. Sequential files organisation is appropriate for files
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processing. They are suitable for master files since they are ordered. However, it takes too long to access records
towards the end of the file since the records are accessed by reading from the first record until the required data is
found. However, searching of records at the beginning of files is very fast. Adding of new records is difficult as
this is done by re-entering the data and the new record is inserted at its right position. It is time consuming to
update such records. Suitable for master files since records are sorted. This is used where all records need
processing, e.g payroll.
Sequential Files promote sequential Access: Sequential Access is whereby records are retrieved by reading from
the first record until the needed record is found in an ordered list of records, e.g. on magnetic tape. Sequential
access occurs where records are ordered using a key field.
3. Indexed-Sequential Files: This is whereby records are ordered in sequence based on the value of the index or
disk address as supported by hard disks. This is used for storing master files records since the records are ordered.
It is also suitable for real time processing applications like stock control as it is fast in accessing records and in
updating them. It provides direct access to data as on hard disks, diskettes and compact disks.
4. Random (Direct/hash/relative) File Organisation: This is whereby records are stored in no order but accessed
according to their disk address or relative position, as supported by hard disks and compact disks. The address of
the record is calculated using the hashing algorithm. It is appropriate where extremely fast access to data is
required as in airline reservation. Updating of records is in situ, very simple and very fast. Hard disk, compact
disks and diskettes promotes random file organisation.
Random File organisation promotes Random/Direct Access to records: Direct access is hereby records are
retrieved randomly by going straight to the needed record by using address of data, as supported by hard disks,
compact disks, memory sticks, etc.
File Processing
Refers to any form of activity that can be done using files. This includes: file referencing, sorting, maintenance and
updating.
1. File Referencing/Interrogation: This involves searching of record and displaying it on the screen in order to
gain certain information, leaving it unchanged. The record can also be printed.
2. Sorting: Refers to a process of arranging (organising) records in a specific ordered sequence, like in ascending
or descending order of the key field.
3. Merging Files : This is the process of combining two or more records into one. Below is an example of how
records can be merged:

Record A (sorted) Record B (unsorted)

12 34 71 78 101 103 67 3 90 12

Record C (Merged and sorted for records A and Record B)

3 12 34 67 71 78 90 101 103

4. File maintenance: This is the process of reorganising the structure of records and changing (adding or removing
or editing) fields. This can be due to changes due to addition or deletion of records.
5. File Updating: Updating is the process of either adding new record, deleting unwanted records or modifying
existing records. It involves making necessary changes to files and records. Mostly master files are updated and
they must be up-to-date (contain accurate and most recent information).
For updating to occur, any one of the following must have occurred:
 A new record has been entered.
 Deletion of an unwanted record.
 An amendment (change) to the existing data has been made, e.g. change in date of birth only.
The most common methods of file updating are: Updating in situ and Updating by copying.
a. Updating by copying
This happens in sequential file updating process. This is done through the following steps:
- A record is read from master file into memory.
- A record is read from transaction file into memory.
- Record keys from each file are compared.
- If record keys are the same, the master file is updated by moving fields form transaction file to the master file.

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In sequential file updating, it is recommended to keep at least three master file versions that will be used for data
recovery in case of a system failure or accidental loss of data. The first master file is called the Grandfather file,
the second master file is called the father file and the third master file is the son file. This relationship is called the
grandfather-father-son version of files. The process of keeping three versions of master files (grandfather-
father-son) as a result of sequential file updating is called File Generations. Thus the first master file
(grandfather file) is called the first generation file, the second master file (father file) is called the second
generation file and the third master file (son file) is the third generation file. The following diagram illustrates the
sequential file updating process:

*NB: - Always create data backups on compact disk or hard disks and re-run the old master file with the transaction file
if the computer system fails or if data is lost. This is a data recovery method that works well.
*NB:- A backup is a copy of file(s) on an alternative medium like CD-ROM which is kept in separate location in case
the original file is damaged or lost and will be used for recovery purposes. The original files could be deleted
accidentally, deleted by hackers, corrupted by system failure or could be corrupted by hackers

b. Updating by overlay (in situ):

In this case, a record is

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  accessed directly,
 read into memory,
 updated and then
 written back to its original position (in situ).

This occurs in random and indexed-sequential files, thus on devices like hard discs and memory sticks

PROGRAMMING CONCEPTS
Definition of terms:
- Program: a set of detailed and unambiguous instructions that instructs a computer to perform a specific task, for
example, to add a set of numbers.
- Programming: A process of designing, coding and testing computer programs
- Programmer: A person who specialises in designing, coding and testing computer programs
- Problem: any question or matter involving difficulty or uncertainty and is proposed for solution.
Programming Languages
A programming language is a set of symbols in computer language that are used in coding computer programs. A
programming language is a specially written code used for writing application programs e.g C, Pascal, COBOL,
BASIC, C++ and Java.
Programming languages are of the following types:
1. Low Level Languages (LLL): These are programming languages used to write programs in machine code, that
is in zeros and ones or in mnemonic codes. Low level language is in two forms: Machine Language and
Assembly Language.
a. Machine Code (Language) is the language used to write programs in binary form (zeros and ones). Machine
language has the following advantages:
(i) Programs run faster since they are already in computer language. There is no need for conversion as programs
are in machine language.
(ii) Programs occupy very small disc storage space by storing just 1s and 0s.
Disadvantages of Machine Language:
 They are very difficult to learn.
 They are difficult to understand.
 Very difficult to use and takes too long to find an error in a program.
 It takes too long to develop working programs.
 They are machine dependent (they can only work on type of computer designed for and not work on other
computers)

b. Assembly Language: These are programming languages that use mnemonic codes in coding programs.
Mnemonic codes are abbreviations used in coding assembly language programs, for example, LDA for Load, ADD
for Addition, etc. Mnemonic codes are very close to machine code, hence are low level language assembly
language codes
Advantages of Assembly language:
 One assembly language instruction corresponds to one machine code instruction and therefore translation
is easier and faster.
 Programs run faster since they are close to machine code.
 They occupy very small disk storage space hence are economical to use.
 Easier for a programmer to use than machine language.

Disadvantages of Assembly Language

 They are very difficult to learn.
 They are very difficult to understand.
 Takes too long to develop working programs.
 They can be machine dependent.
 Longer code due to 1:1 relationship to machine code
2. High Level Languages (HLL): These are programming languages that use English-like statements in coding
programs, for example COBOL, Pascal, BASIC, etc. There are so many high level languages because each

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language is designed for a specific problem to be solved in our daily lives. For example BASIC was designed for
learning purposes, COBOL for business applications, FORTRAN for scientific purposes, etc. Below is an example
of a BASIC program that accepts two numbers entered through the keyboard, adds them and display the result on
the screen:
INPUT “ENTER FIRST NUMBER.”, A
INPUT “ENTER SECOND NUMBER.”, B
SUM = A + B
PRINT SUM
END
Programs written in High Level Language are first converted to machine code before running.
Advantages of High Level Languages:
 They are easier to understand since they are written in English-like statements which are more readable.
 They are easier to learn.
 It is easier to debug.
 They are portable (run on any machine)
 Have shorter code due to 1 : many relationship to machine code
 They are problem oriented and therefore can be used on any computer (not machine dependent)

Disadvantages of HLL
 Takes long to run since they need to be first converted to machine code.
 They occupy a lot of disk storage space as compared to low level languages.

Factors to consider when choosing a programming language

 Nature of the application.
 Availability of needed facilities in the programming language for system implementation.
 Availability of compatible hardware.
 Availability of expertise of the programmers.

Translators
These are programs used to convert source code into machine code, and are in two types, which are interpreters,
compilers and assemblers, which are further explained below:
1. Interpreters
These are programs that convert (translate) and run one instruction of a program at a time before going to the next,
until the end of the program, e.g. the BASIC interpreter. They do not produce the machine code version of a
program; hence conversion is repeated when you run the program again. Thus interpreters retain source code. The
interpreter must be present in the computer for the program to run.
Functions of Interpreters
 They check syntax error in a program statement.
 They translate an instruction into machine language and run it before going to the next.
 Allocates storage space to variables.

Advantages of interpreters
 It is easy to find and correct syntax errors in interpreted programs.
 It is very fast to run programs for the first time.
 It is very fast to run small programs.
Disadvantages of interpreters
 They are very slow in running very large programs.
 They do not produce an object code of a source code and hence difficult to use.
 The interpreter must be present in the computer for the program to run.

2. Compilers
These are programs that convert a high level language program into its machine code equivalent at one go and then
run it, e.g. the COBOL compiler. Thus it translates the entire program before running it. Once compiled, the
program no longer needs conversion since the machine code version is the one that will be run, until some changes

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are made to the program code. Thus a compiler produces an object code of the program. The computer must have a
compiler for translation.
Functions of Compilers
 They check syntax errors in program statements.
 They allocate storage space to variables.
 Translate the whole program into machine code at one go.
 Run an object code of the program.
 Produces a program listing which indicates position of errors in a program.

Advantages of Compilers
 Compiled programs runs faster since the object code is run.
 Compilers indicate the line numbers with syntax errors and therefore assist programmers in debugging
programs.
 They are appropriate even for very large programs.

Disadvantages of Compilers
 Slower than interpreters for running programs for the first time.
 The compiler must be present for the translation process to occur.
 They can cause the computer to crash.
 Difficult to find errors in compiled program.

*NB: Source Code refers to the program written in English-like statements (High Level Language) by the
programmer.
Object Code refers to a machine code version of a source code. All programs written in source code must be
converted to object code for the computer to understand them.
3. Assemblers: These are programs used to convert assembly language instructions into machine language. Other
uses of assemblers include:
 They generate machine code that is equivalent to assembly language.
 They are used to check the validity of instructions, that is, checking for syntax errors in an instruction.
 They also assign memory locations to variables.

Difference between High Level Languages and Low Level Languages

High Level Language Low Level Language
1 Written in English like statements Written in 1s and 0s (machine code) or in mnemonic codes.
2 Easier to work with Difficult to work with
3 Easier to understand Difficult to understand
4 Are problem oriented Machine oriented
5 Slower in execution since they need Faster in execution since they are in machine code already.
to be first converted to machine
code before running

6 Occupy large disk storage Occupy small disk storage space on the computer
space on the computer

7 They are machine independent They are machine dependent

8 They are portable Not portable

Top-Down Program Design

Refers to the splitting of a program/task/problem into simpler subtasks called modules which will be easier to
solve. A complex problem is split into several smaller sub-problems that are easier to tackle. For example, a
program can be split into modules to Accept Number, Add, Divide, Subtract and to Display Results. Modules are

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also called procedures, routines, sub-routines or functions. The splitting of a problem into a series of self-contained
modules is called modularisation (modular programming).

Advantages of modularisation (modular programming)

 Programmer can concentrate at one task at a time.
 Modules are simpler and easier to understand and to solve.
 Modules are easier to test and to debug.
 Program modification is easier since changes are isolated with specific modules.
 More experienced programmers can be assigned complex modules.
 It saves programming time by sharing tasks.
 A large project will be easier to monitor. It is easier to update (modify) modules

However,
 It may be difficult to link the modules together.
 There could be problems of usage of variables as similar variable names may be referring to different sets of
data. They may also vary in scope.

*NB: Library programs: this refers to a collection of standard programs and subroutines that are stored and
available for immediate use by other modules in the system. Library programs are referenced by most modules in
the systems.
*NB: Stepwise refinement: a technique used in developing a system by breaking it into modules and then work on
the internal working of a module.
*NB: The difference between a procedure and a function is that a procedure is a sub-program that do not return a
value while a function is a sub-program that returns a value.

Algorithms
A set of instructions describing the steps followed in performing a specific task, for example, calculating change.
Algorithms are not necessarily written in any specific language. Algorithms can be illustrated using the following:
Descriptions, Flowcharts, Pseudocodes, Structure diagrams.

Advantages of algorithms
- not biased towards any programming language
- easy to convert to a program code or flowchart
- easy to determine logic errors
- has finite steps which lead to a solution

Disadvantages
- time consuming to design, i.e. first convert to flowchart, then to program code
- most people find them difficult to learn

a. Descriptions: These are general statements that are followed in order to complete a specific task. They are not
governed by any programming language. An example is as follows:

Enter temperature in oC
Store the value in box C
Calculate the equivalent temperature in oF
Store the value in box F
Print the value of box C and F
End the program.

b. Pseudocodes: These are English-like statements, closer to programming language that indicate steps followed in
performing a specific task. They are however independent of any programming language. An example is as
follows:

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Enter centigrade temperature, C
If C = 0, then stop.
Set F to 32 + (9C/5)
Print C and F
End

Variables
Definition: A variables is a memory location that can store a value that can change during program execution.
Naming variables: Each programming language has its own way of naming variables. However, the following
conventions are common:
- a variable should not be a reserved word. A reserved word is a word with a specific meaning / function in that
programming language, e.g. Print, else, are reserved words in BASIC
- Variables must start with an alphabetic character, not with digit.
- It is wise to name a variable using the data it stores, e.g. surname (to store surnames), DOB (to store a date of
birth), etc. Thus it must be meaningful to avoid confusion
- Must not be too long
- Must be one word

Control Structures in Pseudocode

A number of control structures are used in designing Pseudocodes. These includes: simple sequence, selection and
iteration (looping/repetition).
i. Simple sequence: This is whereby instructions are executed in the order they appear in a program without
jumping any one of them up to the end of the program. Statements are executed one after another in the order they
are. It is simple and avoids confusion. Example:
Enter first number, A
Enter second number, B
C=A+B
Print C
Stop

ii. Selection Structure:

This allows one to choose the route to follow in order to accomplish a specific task. Selection is written using the
IF ....THEN...ELSE statement or the CASE statement.
IF...THEN ...ELSE statement: A programming structure that allows the user to choose one from at least two
routes of solving a problem. The following Pseudocodes compares two numbers entered through the keyboard and
determines the bigger one.

Enter first Number, A Enter first Number, A Enter first Number, A

Enter second number, B Enter second number, B Enter second number, B
IF A>B THEN IF A > B THEN IF A>B THEN Print A is bigger
Print A is bigger Print A is bigger IF A<B THEN Print B is bigger
ELSE ENDIF IF A=B THEN Print Numbers are
IF A<B THEN IF A < B THEN equal
Print B is bigger Print B is bigger
ELSE ENDIF
Print Numbers are equal IF A = B THEN
ENDIF Print Numbers are equal
ENDIF ENDIF
END END
The above 3 Pseudocodes produces the same result.
CASE Statement: This is an alternative to the IF...THEN...ELSE statement and is shorter. For example:
Enter first Number, A
Enter second number, B
Enter operand (+, -, * /)

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CASE operand of:
“+”: C = A + B
“-”: C = A-B
“*”: C = A*B
“/”: C = A/B
ENDCASE
Print C
END

CASE Statement: This is an alternative to the IF...THEN...ELSE statement and is shorter. For example:
Enter first Number, A
Enter second number, B
Enter operand (+, -, * /)
CASE operand of:
“+”: C = A + B
“-”: C = A-B
“*”: C = A*B
“/”: C = A/B
ENDCASE
Print C
END

b. Repeat...Until Structure: This is a looping structure that repeatedly executes the loop body when the condition
set is FALSE until it becomes TRUE. The number of repetitions may not be known in advance and the loop body
is executed at least once. The syntax is as follows:
Repeat
Statement 1
Statement 2 loop body
................
Until {Condition}
For example
Sum, Average, Count = 0
Repeat
Enter Number (999 to end)
Sum = Sum + Number
Count = count + 1
Until Number = 999
Average = Sum / count
Print Sum, count, Average
End

In the above program:

- Count records the number of times the loop body executes.
- 999 is used to stop further data entry through the keyboard and thereby ending the loop. Such a value that stops
further data entry through the keyboard thereby terminating a loop is called a Rogue value or sentinel.
- The condition here is {Number = 999}. The loop exits when the number 999 is entered. If 999 is part of the
number to be entered in this program, then the user has to split it into two numbers, that is 999 = 990 + 9, therefore
can be entered separately as 990 and 9.
- A flag is also used to control the loop. In this case 999 is also a flag.

NB. As for the Repeat...Until loop, the condition is tested after the loop body has been run at least once, even when
the condition is true from start. This is rather misleading.
c. While ... Do Statement: A looping structure in which the loop body is repeatedly executed when the condition
set is TRUE until it becomes FALSE. It is used when the number of repetitions is not known in advance. The

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condition set is tested first before execution of the loop body. Therefore the loop body may not be executed at all if
the condition set is FALSE from start.

The syntax of the WHILE…END WHILE structure is as follows:

WHILE {condition}
Statement 1
Statement 2 loop body
................
ENDWHILE

An example of the program is as follows:

Sum, Count, Average = 0
WHILE Count < 6 DO
Enter Number
Sum = Sum + number
Count = count + 1
ENDWHILE
Average = Sum/count
Display sum, count, average
END

The word WEND can be used to replace the word ENDWHILE in some structures and therefore is acceptable.
The word Do, after the condition is optional.

Differences between the Repeat...Until and the While…ENDWHILE structures

Repeat Until Loop While Endwhile Loop

1 Loop body is executed when the condition set is FALSE until it becomes Loop body is executed when
TRUE the condition set is TRUE
until it becomes FALSE
2 Loop body is executed at least once Loop body may not be
executed at all
3 Condition is tested well after execution of loop body Condition is tested before
execution of loop
c. Flowcharts
It is a diagram used to give details on how programs and procedures are executed. Flowcharts are drawn using
specific symbols, each with its own meaning, as given below:

Symbol Explanation
Process Symbol - Indicates where some form of processing
occur
Arrow -Shows directional flow of data (data flow
symbol)
Input /output - Parallelogram in shape. Indicates where
data is entered and output form, either screen
display or printout.
Terminal - Oval in shape. Indicate the start and stop of
a program. Therefore it is written either
Start/Begin/Stop/End.
Connector - Circular in shape. Denotes the start and end
of a subroutine. Nothing should be written
inside it.
Pre-defined process Indicates a module/subprogram/procedure
inside another program

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Decision Represents a selection stage. Often used
where a condition is, especially in repetition
and selection structures.

Illustrations of flowcharts for programs

1. Using Simple Sequence Structure

Flowchart equivalent to the pseudocode on the right

Start
Enter number, A
Enter number, B
Sum = A + B
Display Sum
Stop
Pseudocode for the flowchart on the left:

2. Using Selection Structure

Flowchart

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Pseudocode equivalent

Enter first Number, A

Enter second number, B
IF A>B THEN
Print A is bigger
ELSE
IF A<B THEN
Print B is bigger
ELSE
Print Numbers are equal
ENDIF
ENDIF
END

3. Using Iteration
(a) Repeat ... Until Structure

Flowchart

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Pseudocode equivalent
Sum, Average, Count = 0
Repeat
Enter Number
Sum = Sum + Number
Count = count + 1
Until Count > 10
Average = Sum / count
Display Sum, count, Average
End

b) WHILE...WEND Structure and the FOR...TO...NEXT Loop

Flowchart

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 Pseudocode equivalent
Sum, Average, Count = 0
WHILE Count <=10
Enter Number
Sum = Sum + Number

Count = count + 1
WEND
Average = Sum / count
Display Sum, count, Average
END

Use of the Pre-defined Symbol and the connector

This is used when drawing flowcharts of subprograms as given below.

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 Start Module Accept Numbers
Enter First Number, A
Enter Second Number, B
Enter Third Number, C
End Module

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a. Flowchart for whole program b. Flowchart for module Accept Numbers c. Pseudocode for module Accept
Numbers

Flowchart (a) above indicates modules named Accept Numbers, Add numbers Multiply Numbers and Display
Results. Flowcharts for individual modules can then be designed as given in diagram (b) above, only the first
module is indicated. Can you do the rest?
d. Structure Diagrams: These are diagrams that show relationships between different modules as given below.

Start
Sum, Product = 0
Enter First Number, A
Enter Second Number, B
Sum = A + B
Product = A * B
Display Sum, Product
End

The structure diagram above indicates five sub-programs of the program Process Numbers, namely Initialise,
Accept Numbers, Process Numbers, Display Results and Exit. The module Process Numbers has its own sub-
programs, which are Add Numbers and Multiply Numbers. Modules are appropriate for very large programs. Can
you write pseudocode for individual modules? The program can be written as a continuous single program as
indicated on the right side of the diagram.
Interpreting and Testing Programs
Dry running (desk checking): the process of manually testing the logic of a program on paper before coding on
the computer. Dry running is done to determine the logic of a program (to check if it gives intended results.)
Debugging: The process of finding and correcting errors in a program. Bugs are errors in a program. A debugger is
a program used in aiding the finding and removal of errors in a program.

Programming Errors
Programming errors are grouped into:
i. Syntax error: this is an error of violating the grammatical rules governing sentence construction in a certain
programming language, for example, leaving a semi-colon at the end of each line in Pascal. Syntax errors are
detected by the computer. A program cannot run with syntax errors.
ii. Logic error (Semantic error): refers to an error in the sequencing of instructions, modules and specifying
wrong formulae that will produce undesirable results. For example, instructing the computer to display result
before any processing has been done. Logic errors cannot be detected by the computer. The user just finds wrong
and unintended results of a process.
iii. Runtime (execution) error: These are errors that occur during program execution and can be generated when
the computer tries to read past an end of file marker or by dividing a number by zero.

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Data Testing
After a program has been coded, it must be tested with different data types to determine if intended results are
produced. The types of test data that can be used include:
i. Extreme Data (boundary data/border line data): Refers to the minimum and the maximum values in a given
range. For example, a computer program requires the user to enter any number from (between) 1 to 20. 1 and 20
are extreme data and the computer must accept these. Thus extreme data is accepted by the computer.
ii. Standard (normal) Data: This refers to data that lies within (in-between) a given range. In our example above,
the numbers from 2 to 19 are standard data and are accepted by the computer.
iii. Abnormal Data: This refers to data outside a given range. As to our example above, the number 0, -1, -50 and
all number from 21 and above are abnormal data. The computer system gives/displays an error message if
abnormal data is entered.
Testing Strategies (Types)
First step involves testing of the programs and various modules individually, e.g.
- Top-Down testing: program is tested with limited functionality, starting from the complex problem, going to its
smaller sub-problems. Most functions are replaced with stubs that contain code. Functions are gradually added to
the program until the complete program is tested.
- Bottom – up testing: Each function is tested individually and then combined to test the complete program.
Testing starts with the lowest, easiest modules, combining them and test as a more complex system until the whole
system is tested.
-Unit testing: the process of testing each program unit (sub-routine/module in a suite) singly to determine if it
produces expected results.
- Integration Testing: testing to see if modules can combine with each other and work as expected. The whole
program is tested to determine if its module integrate perfectly
- System testing: the testing of the whole program after joining the modules to determine if it runs perfectly.
- User acceptance testing: determining if users of the new system are prepared to use it. Usually the final step. It
enables identification of some bugs related to usability. User gain the confidence that the program being ushered
meets their requirements

ALGORITHM DESIGN AND PROBLEM-SOLVING

Sequence Construct
Introduction to Algorithm Tools
Algorithm Tools
Interpreting and Testing Algorithms
Algorithm Tools
Algorithm Design

PROGRAMMING
Programming Concepts
Programming Concepts
Functions
Testing and Debugging
Interface design
Interface design
Visual Programming
Testing and Debugging
Errors
Testing and Debugging
Coding programs

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DATABASES
Database Creation
File structure elements
Database objects and views
Database objects and views
Data manipulation methods
Data analysis
Database security
Database objects and views
External data sources
Database security
Advanced Queries
Database connection
Database security

WEB DESIGN
Web content development
Web page templates
Web content development
Web page templates Content management systems (CMS) Web site templates
Web Content Development
Testing and Debugging
Plugins and Extensions
Graphic design
Ads
Web Security
Plugins/ Extensions
Web development
Web Securuty
Testing and Debugging

TECHNOPRENEURSHIP

Technopreneurship it is a simple entrepreneurship in a technology intensive context. It is a process of merging

technology prowess and entrepreneurial talent and skills.

Technopreneur is the person who destroys the existing economic order by introducing, new products and
services, by creating new forms of organizations and by exploiting new raw materials. It is someone who
perceives an opportunity and creates an organization to pursue it. A person who undertakes risks that has the
chance of profit. Technopreneurs distinguishes themselves through their ability to accumulate and manage
knowledge, as well as their ability to mobilized resources to achieve a specified business or social goal.

Entrepreneurship is a way of thinking and acting that is opportunity obsessed, holistic approach and leadership
balanced for the purpose of wealth creation. Searches for change , responds to it, and exploits it as an
opportunity. Innovation is the specific tool of entrepreneurs, the means by which they exploits change as an
opportunity for a different business or a different service. Entrepreneurship pursuit of opportunity without
regard to the resources currently under one’s control.

ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL

Business Ethics (Unhu/Ubuntu/Vumunhu)

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Marketing and business strategies
Technology innovation and design thinking
Environmental technopreneurship components
Intellectual Property Right
Laws and policies on technopreneurship
Market research
Finance and funding

Forms 1 to 4 Computer Science Syllabus Notes Page 162