MEMORY
“A memory is a pattern of strengthened synapses among allocated neurons activated by learning
episode”.
TYPES OF MEMORY
Types Definition Example Brain Area
Involved
Declarative Conscious recollection of Names, dates.
Memory or information. (factual Recalling the name of Hippocampus
explicit memory Information) old friend.
Tests of recall and
recognition are
included in it.
Subtypes
Autobiographical Memory of personal life events Remembering Hippocampus,
Memory and experiences that form a childhood. prefrontal cortex,
coherent sense of self-history and medial
temporal lobe,
Episodic recollection of specific events, Remembering 7th Hippocampus,
Memory experiences, and personal birthday. prefrontal cortex,
episodes from one's past Recalling your first
occurred at particular time and day at university or a
place, details of events including vacation you took.
time and place or context. It is
basically memory for
experiences.
Also emotions,
Semantic Recollection of general like who won the Temporal and Pre
Memory knowledge, rules and deducing Civil War frontal cortex
facts and meanings.
Non-Declarative Recall which do not involve
Memory or conscious recollection.
implicit memory
Subtypes
Procedural Memory for skills and habits. Riding a bicycle. Basal Ganglia,
Memory Cerebellum and
Motor Cortex
Priming When prior exposure to a If a person sees the
stimulus influences how you word "yellow", they
respond to it later. will recognize the
word "banana"
faster than an
unrelated word like
"chair". This
happens because the
brain has already
activated related
concepts, making
recognition quicker.
Flashbulb Memories related to specific, Remembering 9/11
Memory imp, surprising, emotionally attack
charged events that are easily
recalled with vivid imagery. you
also remember what you were
doing at that time.
Flashbacks are different, it is as
if you are reliving that moment
and it’s a major symptoms of
PTSD.
Implicit Memory Remembering something with One person happens Basal Ganglia
which we are not consciously to use an unusual and Amygdala
ware of but it can improve word during a
subsequent performance. conversation, such as
It is an influence of recent ‘exquisite’ (extremely
experience on behavior, even if beautiful) or
one does not recognize that ‘fortuitous’
influence. (Happening by
chance), and shortly
afterwards a different
Things that people don't person will use that
purposely try to remember are same word without
stored in implicit memory. being aware of having
copied it.
Other example,
jumping out of a path
of an automobile.
Neural mechanism of memory
Learning and memory go hand in hand.
When we encounter a sensory information, it goes to respective cortex. This sensory
information becomes a conscious experience when it becomes part of working memory.
Neural mechanism behind each stage of memory:
1. Encoding: A subset of cortical neurons respond to the learning episode, some will be
allocated to a memory trace or in other words will be allocated to form a memory. It can
be termed as allocation.
2. Storage: With plasticity, the storage part begins. After learning event neurons in
hippocampus are more strongly connected. Cortex is a slow learner. Less plasticity
among cortical neurons and these traces are weak. The activated hippocampal neurons
undergo a growth process that strengthens their connections to each other. Hippocampal
neurons are very good at responding to a single learning event. Neural plasticity is the
basis of learning and memory. A brain without hippocampus cannot link and make a
unified memory.
The HC memory trace is like an INDEX that is connected to the cortical memory traces of the
event. The index represents the pattern of cortical activity that occurred during the learning
episode.
3. Retrieval: Because cortical memory traces are weak at this time (why weak because
cortical neurons show less plasticity compared to hippocampal neurons), the HC memory
trace is required for memory retrieval. If at this time, HC damage no system
consolidation can take place and as a result cortical memory traces can’t be stronger.
Because HC neurons are strongly linked, activation of one neuron re-activates the
ENTIRE memory trace. This is called pattern completion. The activated inde can be
used to re-activate the cortical memory traces. In retrieval, the sensory information
activate cortical traces which then send to hippocampus and as it is index so the pattern is
completed. This re-activates the cortical memory trace. During retrieval information
flows from hippocampus back to cortex to activate cortical memory trace. The reverse
information flow occurred during encoding. At day time it is a learner, and at night it is a
teacher to cortex.
Note about retrieval stage: After only one learning event, retrieval might fail if cortical
memory traces are not successfully re-activated. The hippocampal memory trace might also be
weak if the student was not paying attention during the learning episode. The quality of
hippocampal memory traces is influenced by several factors.
When cortical memory traces are successfully reactivated, the entire memory is reconstructed.
4. Activated neurons in the cortical memory traces send information to working memory
system producing the conscious experience of memory retrieval.
SYSTEM CONSOLIDATION
System consolidation refers to the process by which newly acquired memories, initially
dependent on the hippocampus for storage and retrieval, are gradually reorganized and
transferred to long-term storage in distributed cortical networks. Over time, this makes memories
less reliant on the hippocampus and more stable across the brain. For example, When you first
learn a new phone number, you need your hippocampus to remember it. But after a few weeks of
repeating it, the memory becomes stored in your cortex, and you can recall it easily without
much effort — that's system consolidation.
How this happens? With Repetition and Sleep.
Why sleep? Because ongoing perceptual experience may interfere with memory consolidation.
During sleep the cortex is not being activated by the senses. Repeated study sessions give the
brain multiple chances for system consolidation. Cortical memory traces can get stronger and
stronger. Spaced out in time, give your brain time to grow strong synapses.
System Consolidation re-organizes the memory by making the cortical memory traces
stronger, and so less dependent on the HC for retrieval.
Finally after cortical memory traces becomes stronger, they are linked in a SEMANTIC
MEMORY so that partial activation of the network can re-activate the entire network. Now it no
longer need HC for retrieval.
The key to LTM is making cortical traces stronger.
After sufficient system consolidation, the hippocampal ‘index’ is no longer needed to re-activate
the cortical memory traces. Frontal cortex retrieval systems can activate information stored in
semantic memory
Encoding; Allocation Storage; Plasticity Retrieval; Re-activation
A population of neurons is A subset of activated neurons For retrieval, the memory trace
activated by the learning grow stronger synapses, neurons must be re-activated.
event. forming a memory trace (MT).
Attempted re-activation of MT
Allocated neurons will be Biological growth of synapses neurons, re-creating the pattern
the ones changed by the of activity during learning.
learning event and used to Growth of stronger connections
store the memory. between allocated neurons is Because of plasticity, allocated
the formation of a memory neurons form a network that can
trace. be re-activated … thus re-
creating a pattern of neuron
The activated hippocampal activity similar to what occurred
neurons undergo a growth process during the original learning
that strengthen their connections to event. If we successfully
each other. reactivate the network we will
successfully retrieve a memory.
Here system consolidation is
needed to form stronger cortical
traces.