Chapter 7

Site management
Production and operational work practice hazards

Chapter objectives

This chapter examines event work practice hazards in event production and operations
phases, in particular:

Site construction
Communication systems
Staff stress and vulnerability
Ergonomics and protective clothing
Hazardous machinery and equipment.
The implementation of an event plan is conducted in three distinct phases, each phase has
its own distinctive set of hazards:

Production: the setting up of the event equipment and facilities involving technical staff and
contractors on a site or venue closed to the public.
Operations: the conducting of the event involving performances and activities with the public
on-site or in the venue.
Shut Down: the closing of the event, dismantling of the site, return of equipment and clearing
and cleaning the event location.
A crucial factor in assessing hazards is the event environment itself, not just the individual
hazards. A site or venue may be inherently hazardous through a combination of elements
that in themselves may not be individually hazardous. It may be that a particular task or
piece of equipment may be safe in one location and dangerous in another, or is safe in
daylight, but hazardous on a dark and stormy night.

Work practices are a major safety issue. A task may be safely performed if the worker has
the appropriate protective clothing, equipment and training, but perilous if these are absent.
Consider, for instance, traffic controlling. In a safe environment staff directing traffic should
be wearing hi-vis vests, communications headsets, hats and boots, have glow stick
directional wands, and operate in a well-lit area that has signage, cones and barriers. Yet it is
common to see the task performed by people in ordinary day clothing standing in the middle
of a road simply waving a torch, with no signage, no lighting and no safety.

Production – overseeing and coordinating the site/ venue set-up

The site production phase of an event is the construction of the festival site or the movement
of equipment into a venue (bump-in) and organising appropriate storage and handling of
physical elements where required. This phase requires the managing of an efficient and safe
receipt and distribution of resources throughout the event site. Facilities and equipment must
be correctly arranged in correct working order and in accordance with production plans and
sub-contractor agreements. This in turn requires control of resource deliveries, arrivals and
departures of service suppliers.

A key task is to monitor safety issues, at regular intervals through ongoing liaison with
contractors and other stakeholders to ensure that work is carried out in accordance with
instructions, and identifying the need for adjustments and organising appropriate changes to
maintain the integrity and quality of the event production procedures.

This will require the monitoring of the construction of temporary structures or installation of
equipment to check that all sub-contractors meet their obligations to make certain that all
safety issues have been addressed in accordance with relevant legislation and
organisational procedures.

Although the following list is not comprehensive, and not applicable to all events, it gives an
idea of what should be considered when site managing a location for an event:

on-site services and facilities

sub-contractor personnel on the site
storage considerations
technical facilities
logistics of setting up
capacity of the location, spatial considerations and likely obstructions, and versatility
safe flow of movements within the site, services, suppliers, performers and participants, and
audience
traffic control and parking issues
legal regulations and constraints on the event.
Consultation with sub-contractors and suppliers is critical for safety at all stages of the
process, and there is a need to establish effective ongoing consultation mechanisms to
identify existing and potential hazards. The site (or production) manager will liaise with all
site construction or venue bump-in staff to brief them on communication and hazard control
mechanisms. This will involve providing clear instructions to appropriate personnel regarding
the movement of physical elements to ensure safety and avoid damage to equipment, the
planning and organisational requirements for the bump-in/bump-out process, the roles of key
personnel, and the expected and typical issues and problems to be encountered.

Site construction scheduling

An event construction site combines a number of hazardous situations into a constricted
time and space. The site needs to be secured, infrastructure built and installed, equipment
and facilities positioned, and staff familiarised with tasks. All within a very short time span.
Most event staff accidents are due to a combination of cramped spaces, lack of time and
interference by other workers.

Consider the risks of having boxes of staging equipment left on site while fences and
marquees are being erected, or preparing food while roads and walkways are being levelled
and surfaced. Or putting up signage while the electrical supply is being tested. Even tasks
that are closely related have a sequence that ensures safety, for instance, sound equipment
is not placed on a stage until the riggers hanging and setting lighting have finished.

Vital for the safe coordination of the set-up of an event, task and resource delivery
scheduling is an overall operational sequence of the various production tasks from arrival on
site, through set-up, testing and rehearsals, audience influx, performance, site break-down
and final departure.
Production scheduling
There are four basic steps to scheduling tasks:

Develop a network diagram that shows each production task and its dependencies – the
resources and workforce personnel required.
Create the workflow time-lines for each task – the order in which they must occur.
Estimate the duration of each task.
Allocate delivery times for the resources for each task.
In effect, this amounts to putting all the tasks, resources and workers into a timetable matrix.
Performance indicator milestones are used for monitoring actions and can point out
problems or clashes. Priorities, the essential tasks for which subsequent tasks require prior
completion, can be indicated.

The process commences with making a list of the ideal work personnel numbers, skills
required and supervision needs. In particular, noting whether the task is sub-contracted,
outsourced or under direct control. Which tasks require paid staff and which can be
undertaken by volunteers is crucial information. List the tasks in detail and then check the
task list with as many people as possible. A missed task results in additional effort and could
cause the project to fall behind schedule.

Critical Path Analysis and Gantt charts assist the site manager in identifying the activities to
be undertaken for the event and which activities are reliant upon other activities before they
can be completed. Software such as Microsoft Project can make this task easier. The Gantt
chart provides an overview of the project and how individual tasks combine to complete the
production. It also illustrates how one work team interacts with another and can show a team
member the importance of completing their part of the work on time. It allows for a
breakdown of tasks and personnel allocated over time for their effective completion. Of
course, some tasks where there is no overlap of space, can be scheduled simultaneously.

Schedule of resource supply

Concurrently with the task schedule, it will be necessary to compile, adjust and finalise a
resource delivery schedule, including adequate contingency plans.

The delivery of resources should be on a ‘just in time’ (JIT) schedule. JIT schedules increase
efficiency and decrease wastes of time by receiving equipment and goods, only when they
are needed in the production process. This means that the storing and movement of
materials and components can be kept to a minimum, which saves workforce time; there is
also less likelihood of accident, damage or theft. Supplies are delivered right to the event
production site only when they are needed to the location where they are needed within a
very narrow time slot.

It also applies to workers, it means that staff and volunteers arrive when they are wanted
and are not sitting about waiting for their job to start.

The main disadvantage of JIT is that there is little room for mistakes. Event production is
very time reliant, and if resources are not delivered on time, the whole production schedule
can be delayed. Also JIT means that there is little time for replacement of faulty equipment
or unexpected incidents.
The process requires close contact with the nominated contractor personnel to determine
and then verify appropriate times for on-site delivery of resources in accordance with agreed
procedures.

Site construction
Precinct control
Securing the site is the very first action. It is dangerous to allow the public to be able to walk
(or worse, drive) through an event construction site. Not only can people be injured by
contact with hazardous equipment and processes, workers are also put at risk by being
forced to take avoidance actions, by people interfering with equipment and safety control
guards. An open site is also an attractive target for thieves and the loss of small easily stolen
tools and consumable materials can cause both delays and disputes. To secure a site three
measures are required – fencing, restricted access and surveillance.

If the site is unfenced, temporary fencing will be needed and the erection of the fences is
usually the first (and after the event ends, the last) construction task. However, internal
fences, i.e. those used to isolate restricted areas (stages, alcohol service, audio visual
desks, etc.) are erected after the main infrastructure is in place. It is usual to have some form
of security and first aid service on site during this period.

There will need to be a centrally located administration office on site to liaise with
sub-contractors, staff, volunteers and the public. It should have communications, resources,
reserve finance and personnel able to make informed decisions in accordance with
strategies to deal with potential problems. The administration office is the first building on
site. Drop-in temporary buildings are ideal.

Sub-contractor management
In conjunction with the various contractors, a site production manager will interpret technical
production requirements to determine temporary facilities and stage rigging requirements
and their impact on other aspects of work. The task is to liaise with and supervise licensed
riggers and sound and light technician sub-contractors to ensure a smooth flow of work and
efficient set up in accordance with safety and licensing regulations. Rigging requirements
may relate to one or more of the following:

lighting, audio and vision mixing positions

stage, backstage
art installations
signage
platforms, raked seating, lighting and speaker towers.
Other sub-contractors will require accurate briefings or specifications on precise site facilities
placement – water, toilets, storage, fencing and barriers, box office, security and emergency
services areas. Liaison may be required during set-up with other specialists, e.g.
acousticians, pyro-technicians and special effects technicians.

The event site manager will liaise with local authorities to ensure statutory requirements are
integrated into the planning process. Licensing requirements and regulations may relate to:
builders and building work
electricians and electrical work
plumbers
caterers
event precinct traffic control
handling of hazardous materials
forklift operations
special effects

Safety monitoring
The event site manager will provide clear instructions to appropriate personnel regarding the
monitoring of vehicle access and movement, the movement of physical elements to ensure
safety and avoid harm. This will include:

monitoring the bump-in/bump-out process to ensure that work is carried out in accordance
with instructions
organising appropriate storage and security of physical elements where required, including
valuable items and any hazardous materials
monitoring construction or installation to ensure that it meets design specifications,
budgetary constraints and timelines
ensuring that all parties meet their obligations, adhere to safety standards and work within
project requirements
monitoring all work to ensure that it is completed to specifications and any changes required
are negotiated, agreed with the appropriate personnel and implemented
monitoring the set-up to ensure that all occupational health and safety issues have been
addressed in accordance with relevant legislation and organisational procedures
checking that all aspects of the venue space used and any equipment has been set up to
allow for easy access, and to avoid risk of injury to audience, participants, performers and
staff
ensuring that all signage is content accurate and placed correctly.
Weather impacts
The impact of weather on the event will depend on the activities being coordinated. It is very
important to carefully consider potential weather impacts and to include them in the hazard
assessment. It is advisable to monitor weather forecasts in the lead-up to the event to
enable planning for the predicted weather conditions. The Bureau of Meteorology can
provide long and short-range forecasts. Contingency Planning should be made to deal with
conditions such as:

heat: provision of shelter, water, first aid, sun cream, insect repellent
wind: provision of shelter, and ensuring structures and dangerous items are secure
rain: provision of shelter, and protecting leads and wiring
hail: provision of shelter
cold: provision of shelter and warmth.
In the case of extreme weather it may be necessary to cancel or postpone the event to
ensure the safety and security of those present. Establish before the event:

conditions for cancellation/postponement

who is responsible for deciding to cancel/postpone
when should a decision about cancelling/postponing an event be made
how to advise staff, volunteers, performers and people planning to attend the event of the
cancellation/postponement
contingency plans if the event is still able to go ahead.

On-site operations and facility control

Safe site operations management establishes and implements processes that will have a
positive impact on safety, eliminate hazards, and control risks to health and safety. It involves
the coordination of all aspects of the on-site operation at the time of performance. All
systems, procedures and logistics for on-site management require safety/hazard
management controls and protocols associated with the movement of people and equipment
at event venues.

The site manager is responsible for the overall control of the event site and will liaise with the
appropriate personnel and check that all required services have been arranged. It is the site
manager (or on large events, the safety officer) who has the responsibility to check that all
aspects of the event set-up, facilities and equipment allows for safe patron access and
minimises the risk of injury to patrons. And if there are any deficiencies, including staff
shortages, take prompt action to rectify the situation. Key requirements for this set of tasks
are an in depth knowledge of:

occupational health and safety requirements that affect the allocation of work and the
movement of physical elements
key areas of event staging and the standards that relate to typical event operations
roles and responsibilities of organisations involved in staging of outdoor events including
government agencies and other authorities.
Site operations
Operations management commences with a reconfirmation of all safety requirements and a
briefing with all operational staff and contractors to clarify roles and responsibilities and
agreed procedures for the event. The briefing may include:

details of the event in an event manual

communication procedures and protocols
emergency protocols and evacuation procedures
event policies and procedures
opening and closing procedures for each functional area
security and conflict resolution techniques
staff responsibilities and reporting mechanisms
incident report documentation.
Immediate pre-opening activities
The site or operations manager and the event manager will communicate with appropriate
personnel to ensure that all technical pre-show checks are completed within the required
timeframe, that required technical elements are operating, and check that all required
services have been arranged.

They will then, in conjunction with the stage manager(s), Front of House manager and safety
officer, check that all aspects of the venue space used and any equipment has been set up
to allow for easy access, especially for those with disabilities, and to avoid risk of injury to
attendees, performers and event staff. In particular the team will check that:

the auditorium is correctly configured

all emergency evacuation areas are clear and that safety equipment is operational
the venue and site is clean and tidy
there is adequate access for arrivals and egress for departures by whatever means of
transport are to be used
there are adequate stairs, gangways and walkways within the venue for pedestrians and any
planned traffic
all emergency equipment is properly maintained and in good working order and, where
appropriate, test it; examples of such equipment include fire-fighting equipment, fire alarms,
smoke alarms, public address and other communication systems
all event emergency systems have an uninterrupted power supply (UPS) available which is
tested.
They will identify any deficiencies, including staff shortages, and take prompt action to rectify
the situation. Checking all aspects of the set-up of the venue, facilities and equipment may
include:

toilet facilities
box office (FoH)
food and beverage outlets
merchandising stores/stands
stages
signage
fences
traffic control
emergency services positioning.
The process is to identify any deficiencies and discrepancies and take prompt action to
rectify the situation. Deficiencies and problems may include:

incorrect set ups

incorrect staging
faulty or non-availability of technical equipment
lack of equipment to manage displays and signage
shortage of food and beverages
inappropriate or lack of space at entries and exits.
Supervision of the event operation and venue services
The constant task throughout the event is to supervise and monitor the provision of services
in order to identify any problems as they arise and take prompt action to resolve hazardous
situations. A reporting system from the leader of the staff team responsible for each function
area of activities should be established.

Pre-event checks can only show if the event site has been constructed according to the
design plan. However, the design may contain flaws and may be unable to cope with
unforeseen issues. Therefore it will be necessary to monitor throughout the event that:
the site allows for adequate crowd management, with sufficient flow, seating areas and
facilities
that traffic control, parking and public transport areas are operating smoothly for access for
arrivals and egress for departures
stairs, gangways and walkways within the venue for pedestrians are clear and adequate
the emergency exits and evacuation routes are unobstructed and free from hazardous and
combustible materials
all direction and information signs are in place and are legible
all floors, stairs and other areas which people use are well-maintained and do not present
tripping or slipping hazards
refuse and combustible materials have been removed to safe storage or disposed of
equipment storage areas, restricted areas, and any other potential hazards are inaccessible
to unauthorised persons.
Compliance
To ensure compliance with public health requirements, a public health audit should be
carried out prior to the commencement of the event. Subsequent periodic surveillance
should be undertaken at appropriate times during the event. These are particularly important
for outdoor events in hot weather with transient food vendors who may not have sufficient
sanitary or refrigeration mechanisms available.

It is preferable that environmental health officers should have access to resources to assist
in overcoming any problem noted (for example, toilet servicing, unsafe areas, fencing
repairs, water testing) rather than simply using their powers to stop the event or particular
operation.

Figure 7.1 Water filled barriers used to define emergency access road.

On-site staff communications

Communication is a critical issue when organising any kind of event. Essential information
needs to flow unhindered between all staff both during normal operations and in
emergencies, and key communication control personnel need skills and experience in
dealing with stressful situations.

The communication system technology needs to be top grade, be multi-modal and not rely
on one single system, and have its own backup power supply. Staff and security services
communication on large events is usually via headset or handheld radios with channels
assigned to the event’s various function and facilities components, each with a coordinator
that oversees that component. When a problem arises, staff use the specific radio channel to
discuss the problem. This allows conversation about lost children, medical incidents,
weather changes and concerns, etc. to be private.

Communications within the venue

General staff and volunteers need to be kept informed about problems and emergencies
within the venue. If it is not feasible to supply all staff with radios, it could be done by the use
of coded public address messages. These alert staff to contact the control room. All staff,
including volunteers and temporary staff, should be provided with a set of protocols for
contacting management, first aid and security staff.

Sample of a specific protocol for communications:

Example: Communications at the All Green Festival

All key staff, security, emergency service and waste management personnel will have
two-way radio units (walkie talkie). Site manager Trent Roden will be in charge of handling
two-way radios, ensuring batteries are charged and all units functional. WT will be used for
all confirmations i.e. between FOH and stage manager to confirm artist is in green room or
side of stage.

Primary: Two way radio (WT).

Secondary: Mobile phone; as mobile phone communications can be intermittent due to high
usage among patrons WT should be used first.

WT Channels
Security
General communications (event manager/FoH/BoH/stage and site managers, catering)
Emergency services (police, ambulance)
Waste management

Name Title Radio Channel Mobile

Anthony Mcfadden Event manager WT(all) 0xxx 334 756
Samantha Hickey Production manager WT(2) 0xxx 764 456
Luke Hutchins Stage manager (main) WT(2 & 5) 0xxx 786 345
Trent Roden Site manager WT(2 & 5) 0xxx 234 908
James Browning FoH manager WT(6) 0xxx 567 890
Ami Watts BOX manager WT(6) 0xxx 667 856
Mike Bambach Finance 0xxx 567 098
Kasey Cascade Cascade Towers bar manager WT (2)
John St John Ambulance WT(3)
Kenny Rotten Waste management WT(4)
Ron McDonald Catering WT(2)
Bobby Hammer Security WT(1)
Sgt Hugh Asper Police WT(3)
Two-way radios will be restricted to the following key personnel i.e. event manager, expo
coordinator, stage manager, site manager, security and traffic attendants.

All communications between additional event staff will be maintained via mobile phone. A
contact list will be issued to all staff members prior to the event date, complete with all event
staff names, company details, position and numbers.

This contact list will be tailored for individual staff groups i.e. a less detailed contact list will
be issued to volunteers (with key contacts), while the event manager’s contact list might be
quite detailed i.e. trade and expo vendors details and performers, etc.
Whatever methods of communication are used, the system should be designed to give
accurate, up-to-date and relevant information. In considering the best way of communicating
with staff, think about:

who needs to communicate with whom

when and how frequently the communications take place
where staff are located
the speed with which a person is required to respond to information or commands
how many people need to be involved in the same communication at the same time
other relevant factors, such as the resources and equipment available.
All communication needs are dependent primarily on the nature of the event – what works
for one venue may be totally inadequate for another. For instance, methods of
communication which will be most effective in the staging of an orchestral performance are
not likely to be much good when hosting a football match. How the communication strategy
is managed ultimately depends on the integration of various factors, as no single solution
exists which will work for all events.

Liaison with outside bodies may be useful in communications planning. Consider liaising with
the local police force, local government services and public transport operators. For
example, the local police may be responsible for monitoring traffic flows to and from the
venue and a means of communication between them and the event’s traffic management
team will enable an efficient traffic flow and response to accidents, breakdowns or other
incidents. Similarly, if there are special public transport arrangements, communication
channels need to be maintained to schedule arrivals and departures, especially if there have
been cancellations or delays.

Overseeing of the event breakdown

At the end of the event the site manager is required to oversee the breakdown of the event
to ensure it is completed in accordance with safety requirements; coordinate the packing and
removal of all materials and equipment in accordance with pre-arranged details; and to close
and secure the venue. To assist in these tasks, a site manager will rely on the ESMS and
checklists that have identified hazards and the controls for those hazards. The site manager
will also depend on crowd monitoring procedures, a security team and first aid services.

The post-event task of cleaning up the site, returning hired or borrowed equipment and
restoring the site to a reasonable condition takes as much planning as other elements of the
event’s production. The disposal of waste, the lack of litter, the repair of damage to existing
equipment, the removal of signage, posters etc. all need to be addressed. It is essential to
complete the event with a careful acquittal of all contractual obligations relating to the site,
the provision of services and use of equipment. The processes are:

close and secure venue as required in accordance with organisational procedures

oversee the breakdown of the event to ensure it is completed in accordance with
sub-contractor agreements
coordinate the packing and removal of all materials and equipment in accordance with
pre-arranged details
check the venue to ensure items and belongings are not left behind
check and sign accounts in accordance with contractor agreements. Note any outstanding
items requiring post-event action
debrief personnel as required and use feedback constructively to enhance the safety of
future events
debrief with contractors if it is necessary to discuss any difficulties or suggestions for future
improvements.
The procedure for the dismantlement of a site is often the exact reverse of the bump-in
process. The last facility set-up on a site is usually the first to be removed. Normally this
would be the concession staff holders as they are numerous and quickly packed up.
Frequently this occurs even as the final performances are happening. Left on site they would
create a hindrance for the movement of larger infrastructure. All smaller infrastructure and
delicate equipment is next off site. Internal fences and barriers are removed. Deconstruction
of stages and scaffolding is followed by disconnection of power, and finally the perimeter
fences are removed. Greenfield or street sites will need rubbish removal, cleaning and
perhaps environment rehabilitation or regeneration.

Safe work practices and equipment use

A particular challenge for event managers is the common use of large numbers of volunteers
performing a range of tasks that involve both physical and physiological hazards. Often
these volunteers are untrained in the tasks required of them. A safe workplace for volunteers
and employed staff requires an understanding of how physical and physiological hazards
present at events and how those risks are controlled.

Event sites and venues can create combinations of hazard conditions such as:

noise, vibration
light, heat radiation
fibres, dust, and fumes
heat, humidity
biological agents such as insects, mites and bacteria
electricity
aggression/violence.
The characteristics of each hazard need to be identified and will include:

how it occurs
how it affects specific parts of the body, such as the extent of damage to tissue and
long-term effects
factors relating to concentration and time.
For staff working on an event the principal hazards are workplace violence, stress and injury
from hazardous equipment.

Violence
There’s a potential risk in most events for some form of violence to occur and often risk
assessment is necessary. Attention must be given to the vulnerability of workers in certain
locations or when performing certain tasks that expose them to conditions of possible harm
from violence or aggression, and security expertise may be required to assess the operating
conditions.
Workplace violence can be defined generally as incidents in which workers are abused,
harassed, threatened or assaulted in the course of their work. Many event organisers are
caught unprepared when ugly incidents occur. Situations with a risk of confrontation and
attack are those which involve contact with the public, and working with valuables and cash
handling. The event occupational groups worst affected by workplace violence are:

guards and security officers

first aid attendants and police
traffic control and parking officials
sales people (includes ticket sellers, bar attendants, waiters and waitresses)
stewards and ushers.
Attackers can be angry customers or random assailants who have snapped for one reason
or another. Attacks can arise from aggressiveness caused by poor crowd control issues,
performance cancellations, or from intoxication or drug-influenced behaviour. Also,
aggression or overt violence can come from fellow workers, both up and down the
organisational chain.

(AIC Research)

Assessing the risk

The two primary safety controls for workplace violence are the structural aspects of the
workplace, and protocols and methods of dealing with the public; and co-worker and
supervisory support and team culture. To consider both types of controls, questions such as
the following need to be asked:

What are the risk factors?

How many staff are exposed?
When are they exposed?
What existing controls are in place?
How effective are they?
How likely are violent incidents?
What are the potential injuries?
Controlling the risk
As with other workplace hazards, the hierarchy of controls should be used. For example, to
control cash-handling risk:

eliminate the hazard entirely – no cash on premises

substitute less hazardous procedures – use drop safe or limited cash float
put in engineering controls – widen counters, install screens
use administrative controls – alarms, staff rotation through vulnerable zones
provide training – train staff in dealing with hold-ups.
In the case of external or client-initiated violence, there are many techniques available,
including careful design and location of facilities, that will reduce the opportunity for
perpetrators. Some of these techniques go under the heading of ‘target hardening’, making it
more difficult to commit acts of violence. More subtle strategies include increased visibility in
contact areas, used together with closed circuit television, and appropriate furniture and
fittings, that is, those that are not potential weapons.

If there is a prior history of drug or alcohol influenced attacks, a ban on selling alcohol and a
policy of denial of entry to alcohol and drug affected people may be appropriate.

Above all, a clear policy of zero tolerance towards any violence needs to be implemented
together with procedures based on the risk assessment. The policy and procedures need to
be made clear to attendees, as do the sanctions if the policy and procedures are violated. If
incidents are likely, staff need to be trained in how to spot them and deal with them. Any
incidents or breaches must be reported.

Response to violent incidents

The response to an act of violence is a real test of the system. The aim is to have an
effective immediate response that controls and defuses the situation and reduces the risk of
long-term psychological harm for employees.

Everyone should know who has the authority to take charge of the situation. That person
should be trained to coordinate the response, including taking care of employees who may
be injured, in shock or are otherwise affected by the incident. At this point, the workplace
must be made safe, first aid and medical assistance arranged and immediate support
provided.

The area of the event site (or even the whole site) may be in disarray as a result of the
incident. To enable the event to return to normal as quickly as possible after the disruptive
incident, previously agreed plans should be implemented as quickly and efficiently as
possible. The following actions should be included:

provide clear information regarding the situation to all staff

allow staff time to recover, but encourage early return to work
provide advice on legal matters and workers’ compensation arrangements
investigate the incident and review management procedures.
Stress
In general, negative stress is the psychological and physical reactions experienced when
someone is faced with disproportionate demands they are unable to satisfy. Often referred to
as psychological injury, occupational stress is defined as the negative response to workplace
demands that go beyond an ability to enjoy or cope with them. Typical stressful tasks at
events are crowd and traffic control, ticketing and ushering, particularly when performed by
under-trained and inadequately supported volunteers working excessive shifts in heat, cold,
dust or rain.

Workplace demands come from both outside the organisation from the public, and from
inside the event organisation, for example, from supervisors, managers, co-workers and
sub-contractors. Individuals will respond differently to the same type of workplace demands,
depending on factors such as individual perceptions, personality, skill levels, knowledge and
health, the level of control or decision-making allowed to deal with the demand, and
importantly, the social and technical support received from the workplace, and training.
These factors are said to mediate or affect a response to the same type of demands.

Some people successfully cope with and even enjoy stressful demands and the freedom to
impose their solutions to control a situation. For others, factors such as a lack of control,
direction and support can be causes of stress or stressors in their own right. It is this
combination of workplace demand and mediating factor that determines whether the
workplace demand is a stressor. Effects can be quite severe and lessen a person’s ability to
respond to simple demands, in turn making things even worse.

Negative stress within a workplace can be explained in terms of combinations of demands

and control. Negative stressful work is characterised by high psychological demand, low job
control, low organisational support and high job uncertainty. Stress-related consequences
are related to the organisation of work activity and not just its demands and/or person-based
characteristics.

Identifying stress
Indicators of workplace stress are symptoms such as:

changes in a person’s mood or behaviour, such as deteriorating relationships, irritability,

indecisiveness, absenteeism, reduced performance or increased mistakes
evidence of substance abuse – being drunk or stoned on duty
health complaints, such as frequent headaches, lack of sleep or nausea
complaints of stress
claims for psychological injury.
Stress is often a symptom of poor employment relations and can seriously affect productivity
and service quality. A preventative approach would not wait for such symptoms or
complaints to occur, but would involve regular discussions with staff on matters such as
appropriate workload, training, support and future changes to avert any stress occurring in
the first place. Event organisations who talk regularly with their employees and have sound
systems and procedures in place for dealing with issues like absence and discipline are
much more likely to avoid work-related stress and be able to deal with potentially stressful
situations when they arise. However, few event organisations provide means for the effective
management of volunteer stress problems.

Assessing the risk

Assessing the risk of stress requires gathering information on the demands and the
workplace mediating factors that moderate or contribute to that stress. Assuming that
workplace stress already exists, questions to be asked, include the following:

Who is affected?
How are they affected, that is, what are the risk factors – demands and mediating factors –
and how do they operate to produce stress?
When does the stress occur? Is it continuous or concentrated at certain times?
What controls exist? Are there procedures to deal with stress? Are they used?
What are the effects on health, morale, operations?
Controlling the risk
Depending on the evaluation, a number of controls are available. The preferred option is the
removal of the stressors entirely; however, this may not be practical, in which case, controls
are needed to minimise risk. The Health and Safety Executive in the UK has drawn up a
number of management standards to address workplace stress, which are as follows.

Demands Workload, work patterns and the work environment The standard is that –
employees indicate that they are able to cope with the demands of their jobs; systems are in
place locally to respond to any individual concerns.
Control How much say the person has in the way they do their work The standard is
that – employees indicate that they are able to have a say about the way they do their work;
systems are in place locally to respond to any individual concerns.
Support Encouragement and resources provided by the organisation management The
standard is that – employees indicate that they receive adequate information and support
from their colleagues and superiors; systems are in place locally to respond to any individual
concerns.
Relationships Promoting positive working to avoid conflict and dealing with unacceptable
behaviour. The standard is that – employees indicate that they are not subjected to
unacceptable behaviours, for example, bullying at work; systems are in place locally to
respond to any individual concerns.
Role People understand their role within the organisation and the organisation ensures
that the person does not have conflicting roles The standard is that – employees
indicate that they understand their role and responsibilities; systems are in place locally to
respond to any individual concerns.
Change Managing organisational change (large or small) The standard is that –
employees indicate that the organisation engages them frequently when undergoing an
organisational change; systems are in place to respond to any individual concerns.
Ergonomics
Ergonomics looks at the degree of match between the people and those activities or
processes, including the equipment, the environment and the systems of work involved.
Where there is not a match that meets the worker’s physical and psychological needs, there
is usually a potential hazard. Ergonomics is able to help identify potential hazards and either
design out risk altogether or to minimise it.

Biomechanics applies the physical laws of mechanics to the body to estimate the stress
exerted on muscles and joints when a person adopts certain postures or carries out certain
movements. Biomechanics principles are:

keep joints in a neutral position; do not stretch the muscles and ligaments spanning the
joints
keep work close to the body
avoid bending forward from the waist
avoid twisting the trunk.
Because event sites are temporary workplaces, these principles can be, and often are,
ignored or worse, deliberately violated, increasing the danger of injury.

Figure 7.2 Wrist-banding – note worker’s poor posture.

Physiology measuring estimates the energy demands on the heart and lungs from muscular
effort during movements. There is a limit to the amount of energy that the heart and lungs
can normally supply to the muscles when performing movements or adopting postures
before experiencing general fatigue.

This is not just true of heavy physical labour, but also for simple tasks performed over a
lengthy period, such as inspecting or collecting tickets over a 3 or 4-hour period without a
break; a common volunteer working experience.

Knowing what that level is for particular tasks helps in the design of work. The limits on the
rate of work, length of work period and the right equipment need to be established in order to
optimise output that will not cause any damage to the body. It can also help to identify the
frequency and length of any rest breaks that might be required.

Prolonged posture in the same position can result in injuries. This applies to sitting, standing
and hand and arm postures, for example, bent wrists and unsupported, raised arms.
Combine poor posture with the application of force and repetition and the chance of injury
referred to as occupational overuse syndrome (OOS) increases. Here, the need for a
sympathetic design of workstations and equipment is clear.

Occupational overuse syndrome, previously known as repetitive strain injury (RSI), is a

collective term for a range of conditions characterised by discomfort or persistent pain in
muscles, tendons and other soft tissues or without physical manifestations. It is usually
associated with tasks that involve repetitive or forceful movement or both, and/or
maintenance of constrained or awkward postures.

The investigating of manual tasks using ergonomic principles can identify the hazards,
eliminate them or, failing that, control them.

Identifying and managing ergonomic hazards

Potential hazards are identified after having first identified the context for investigation,
usually, a workplace or function, and then listing the main activities or processes found there.

site ➔ processes ➔ hazards ➔ potential injury ➔ severity ➔ probability ➔ risk ➔ control ➔

implement ➔ monitor and evaluate or review

Note that various factors – work organisation, skills and experience, age, gender and special
needs, will qualify the task ergonomics. A fit and strong 25-year-old female will be less
distressed by stacking chairs all day in an auditorium than a male septuagenarian.

The data collected will then need to be analysed in order to provide an understanding of the
potential risk. A manager must know the hazards, the potential injuries, the likelihood of
them occurring and their severity, as well as priorities for action. The next step is to eliminate
or control that risk by developing a preferred solution. In this context, ergonomists talk of
optimising the match between people and their work.
To optimise the match between people and their work, the following control options are
possible –

job redesign, which includes

modifying the object handled
modifying the workplace layout
rearranging the flow of materials
using different actions, movements or forces
modifying the task with mechanical assistance
modifying the task with team lifting involved
mechanical handling equipment
training
shorter shifts
more frequent breaks
rotating staff through different tasks.
Personal protective clothing and equipment
Personal protective equipment (PPE) is anything used or worn by a person to minimise risk
to the person’s health or safety and includes a wide range of clothing and safety equipment.
PPE includes boots, face masks, hard hats, ear plugs, respirators, gloves, safety harnesses,
high visibility vests, torches, litter pick-up (grabber) sticks, communication headsets. For
example: traffic control staff need two-way radios, safety vests, day and night reflective ‘stop’
and ‘slow’ batons, safety tapes, night wands, hard hats and brims. They should also have
access to witches hats, bollards, barricade boards and a full range of signs.

Personal protective equipment is one of the least effective ways of controlling risks to work
health and safety and should only be used:

when there are no other practical control measures available (as a last resort)
as an interim measure until a more effective way of controlling the risk can be used
to supplement higher level control measures (as a back-up).
Other clothing used for protection from weather, sun, cold, rain, etc, should be worn by
outdoor workers according to the environmental conditions.

If PPE is required, the person who is directing the work must provide PPE to workers at the
workplace. This will usually be the event site or operations manager, but could also be, for
example, a contractor at the workplace. The worker should not be charged for clothing or
equipment. If the worker already has their own PPE it must meet the minimum standards
required by work health and safety laws. PPE must be maintained, repaired or replaced so it
continues to minimise the risk to the worker who uses it. This includes ensuring the
equipment is clean and hygienic, and in good working order.

Event management usually does not pay for shoes or clothing that is generally considered
not to be PPE. This includes workers’ regular clothing such as pants or jeans. However, if a
uniform, such as an event tee shirt or cap is required these should be supplied at no cost.

Personal protective clothing and equipment used at a workplace must be:

selected to minimise risk to work health and safety

suitable for the nature of the work and any hazard associated with the work
a suitable size and fit and reasonably comfortable for the person wearing it
maintained, repaired or replaced so it continues to minimise the worker’s health and safety
risk
used or worn by the worker, so far as is reasonably practicable.
A worker who is provided with PPE must use or wear it in accordance with any information,
training or instruction from the event site manager, so far as they are reasonably able, even
if that worker is an employee of a contractor. If a worker refuses to wear or use the PPE, the
event site manager should remove the worker from duties that require the wearing of
protective clothing and equipment.

Selection processes for choosing the right PPE must involve consultation with workers which
should also include:

a detailed evaluation of the risk and performance requirements for the PPE
compatibility of PPE items where more than one type of PPE is required (for example ear
muffs with a hard hat)
consultation with the supplier to ensure PPE is suitable for the work and workplace
conditions, and complies with the relevant standards.
The event site manager or contractor should ensure:

PPE is used properly in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions

PPE fits correctly and is reasonably comfortable for the worker who is to use or wear it
PPE does not interfere with any medical conditions of the worker using the PPE
workers are instructed and trained in how to use, maintain and store the PPE
appropriate signs are used to remind workers where PPE must be worn
periodic assessments are carried out to ensure PPE is used properly and is effective.
There are problems with using PPE. Wearing some items may adversely affect the
performance of tasks being undertaken, for example restricting vision or mobility, or it may
be uncomfortable to wear and some workers may not be able to wear it, for example,
workers who are allergic to latex cannot wear rubber gloves. Also the PPE may create new
hazards, for example, some items of PPE can hinder the body’s natural cooling mechanisms
by preventing evaporation of perspiration. If the PPE is uncomfortable or does not fit
properly, the worker should consult with their manager.

Performance area and stage safety

The performance area, arena or stage is one of the most hazardous working environments
at an event. To focus audience attention onto the performance, the immediate side and rear
stage areas are darkened as much as possible during a performance. Yet these are the
spaces where the stage crew congregate; performers wait their turn to go on stage; and
instruments, spare and reserve sound equipment, and props and stage furniture are
accumulated ready for use in very confined space. It is also the place from which VIPs and
performers’ entourages view the performance. During a music performance the area usually
experiences very loud sound from stage mounted speakers. During vocal recitals, plays or
speeches, the side stage area must operate with maximum quiet.

A performance stage is a very busy working environment with stage crews working with tight
time pressure to ensure the ‘flow’ of a programme. Adding to the conditions are nervous and
anxious performers, especially novices. The most common incidents of injury are falls, trips,
electrocution and a range of other injuries that can arise from working in a dark, noisy, busy,
confined space filled with equipment and people. Safety measures for the stage include:

Pre performance set up (working stage)

stage crew to wear hi vis vests, gloves and hard capped boots and hard hats if rigging above
is in progress
bright stage lights on a separate system to the performance lighting
all lighting stands and gantries to be securely fixed to prevent them being pushed over
all leads to be taped down to the floor and either covered with cable protectors or conduit
ramps if crossing a walkway, or raised 2 metres or more above a walkway
performers to be prohibited from the stage for rehearsal or sound checks until all equipment
is correctly installed.
Performance stage
stage crew to use communications headsets and be issued with torches
on-stage power supply boxes located out of performers’ movement areas, and drink and
instrument storage location
riser edges, stage edges and walkways delineated with light reflecting safety tape
side stage working and waiting areas clear of equipment and instrument storage cases,
stools, etc., and lit with low light
access to the stage by side, rear stairs only
public access to the stage for awards, performer interaction, etc., should be from within the
auditorium directly to the stage not via the side stage
stairs to have handrails and steps to be edged with non-slip, hi-vis edging tape
evacuation route to backstage lit by illuminated emergency signage.
The management of the physical staging of the programme of an event is the responsibility
of the stage manager. It involves tasks to organise the performance area prior to
performance to ensure that it is set in accordance with the performer’s requirements. The
stage manager is responsible for the presentation of all the staged elements during a live
production. As such, it requires the skills and knowledge to safely operate a range of staging
equipment plus a sound knowledge of stagecraft, the types of issues that may arise during
performance and how these affect staging personnel. This requires a broad understanding of
artistic and technical elements of the production/event such as staging, lighting and sound
elements and the typical problems and responses involved.

The stage manager will have full control of the stage and backstage areas, working
alongside technical specialists. If the event has multiple stages, each stage will have its own
stage manager. Each will be independently responsible to the site operations manager. The
stage manager will be responsible for:

effective communication, team leading and delegation in relation to the stage management
of a production
problem solving and decision-making processes and their application in an immediate
production/event environment
relevant occupational health and safety legislation and regulations as they apply to
maintaining a safe backstage environment.
He/she is in direct control over audio, visual and lighting production and crew and has
autonomy to make relevant decisions relating to the safe and efficient functioning of the
area. The stage manager is the immediate point of contact for all technical, backstage,
lighting, audio-visual and staffing issues associated with performances.

The stage manager will conduct technical rehearsals in consultation with relevant
colleagues. The purpose of the technical rehearsal (also known as a run through) is to test
and modify the physical staging elements in accordance with the programme design
documents. Sound levels for fold back monitoring, room equalization, and auditorium levels
will be conducted by the sound engineer. The lighting technician will aim and focus lights on
the stage areas and artists according to the stage plot, and run through the various lighting
changes. A key task is to ensure all relevant safety procedures are followed, with particular
reference to control requirements for any potentially hazardous sequences

Before the commencement of the programme, the stage manager will provide briefings and
documentation to the staging personnel to reiterate staging elements, safety procedure and
policies. This will include:

running appropriate checks on all stage elements and equipment to ensure that they are in
working order
checking all transient staging elements to ensure they meet operational standards, and to
avoid any accidents or performance complications. This includes amplifiers, cabling, props,
instruments etc.
communicating with contractor personnel in a clear and concise manner to ensure efficient,
safe and disciplined production practices. This will include all sub-contracted technicians,
e.g., sound, lighting and performers’ stage crew
inform Front of House that pre-staging in complete and the audience can enter the
auditorium.
Performer misbehaviour
Actions by performers such as late cancellation, walking off stage, drunkenness, poor
performance, running over time, encouraging fans to move closer, offensive language or
gestures, throwing souvenirs to the audience, have precipitated inappropriate or hazardous
crowd reactions. Entertainers should be fully informed of their responsibilities for maintaining
order, and the problems associated with inciting potentially dangerous crowd behaviour. The
stage manager has the task of monitoring performances to ensure that offensive behaviour
is brought to a halt, even if this requires drastic action such as removing a performer from
the stage, or turning off the sound and lights. Usually a hastily arranged technical hitch can
be used as a cover for the stage manager to give the performer a warning message. If a
performance is cancelled, the audience should be told without delay. Illness can always be
used as a reason. Announcements should clearly establish refund policies, exit routes and
the need for orderly movement.

Hazardous equipment
‘Equipment’ covers a wide range of appliances, machinery and tools. On an event site there
will be machinery and equipment usually employed on a building site such as cranes,
scaffolding, temporary power connections, earth moving and road construction machines,
scaffolding and fencing. There will be warehouse lifting and loading machines such as
forklifts and trollies. Specialist stage equipment for sound reinforcement and lighting,
amplifiers, generators and scissor lifts. Food stalls will have portable ovens, generators, gas
cylinders, stoves and grillers. Emergency services will have fire-fighting, first aid and rescue
equipment: a huge agglomeration of paraphernalia all brought together in a temporary
location shared with thousands of attendees. Every item is potentially hazardous and as a
result, the risks are wide-ranging and include electrical shock, fire and explosion, burns,
slips, trips and falls and crushing of fingers and toes.

There are lengthy and detailed duties of event organisers with respect to machinery and
equipment. They include:

consultation
hazard identification
risk assessment
training, information, instruction and supervision
record keeping.
And particularly the control of risk during:

installation, erection and commissioning of machinery and equipment

use of machinery and equipment
maintenance and repair
dismantling, storage and disposal.
Registration, licensing, certification, permit to work
Most equipment must be registered and operators of equipment must be certified by a
recognised certifying authority. The regulations provide details. Permit to work procedures or
certification are defined as a written authority document that may include:

approval to undertake work and activities including tests, measurements and monitoring
authorisation by a responsible or designated person directly in control of the equipment
appropriate precautions and controls to be followed
incorporate checklists, conditions and actions such as the frequency and duration of the
work and tests
follow recognised industry standard recording practices as required to assist in ensuring a
safe working environment.
Hazard identification and assessment process
The hazard identification and assessment process looks at the work processes or activities
to identify the exposure to equipment hazards. Site plans would normally be required. A
hazard register is created by identifying the processes and the hazards associated with the
equipment used in each of the processes. Another method would be to list all the equipment
used and, by identifying the associated processes, identify the hazards. In particular,
hazards may be posed by the layout and condition of the event site or venue work
environment and any reasonably foreseeable abnormal conditions such as power failures,
breakdowns or, in the case of outdoor events, changes to the weather.

Preferably, identification of hazards should be done before and during the introduction of
equipment into the workplace, before and during any alteration or change to the system of
work associated with the equipment, and whenever new or additional health and safety
information becomes available.

The next step is assessing what risk there is of injury occurring (given the effectiveness of
existing controls) by identifying the risk factors – the factors that could lead to an injury, the
likelihood of an injury occurring, and the severity of any injury. Those closely involved with
production, together with any specialists, would be able to help, as would information from
manufacturers and suppliers.

Overseeing equipment use work processes

When identifying hazards associated with machinery and equipment, systems of work
should be considered as containing potential hazards as much as the physical machinery or
equipment itself. The machine may be safe in itself, but not the system of work in which it is
used. This requires looking at:

policy and procedures for purchasing/hiring equipment

instruction and supervision
work organisation
skills and experience of the employees
work practices and procedures
emergency procedures.
A hierarchy of controls is then used to assess whether any existing controls can be improved
on in order to further minimise the risk. The key questions will be:

What are the common types of controls associated with specific machinery and equipment?
Are the control measures eliminating or reducing the risk?
Is the process of monitoring and evaluating the controls working effectively?
Controls associated with machinery and equipment often require consideration of access
and special attention needs to be paid where there is the potential for contact by members of
the public.

To assess site and venue workplace environmental conditions and develop a monitoring
strategy, the hazard identification and assessment should include:

location
physical features of equipment
environmental variability
area or space available
tasks and activities being undertaken
the number of people occupying the area
the movements of people and equipment
the way in which the hazard or condition is being generated
the rate of generation.
Common types of controls associated with equipment
Special attention needs to be paid to dangerous parts of equipment where there is the
potential for contact or entrapment. Guarding controls typically include:

permanently fixed physical barriers where no access of any part of a person is required
interlocking physical barriers where access to dangerous areas is required during operation
physical barriers securely fixed by means of fasteners or devices
presence-sensing safeguarding systems.
Operational controls are used to control hazards associated with equipment. They must be:
suitability identified, with their nature and function clearly indicated
readily and conveniently located
guarded to prevented unintentional activation
capable of locking in the OFF position to enable disconnection of all motive power and
forces
be of failsafe type.
Definition box 7.1

Guarding must so far as is practicable prevent access to the danger point or area of the
machine.

Guarding is a permanently fixed physical barrier, if access to the area of the machine
requiring guarding is not necessary during operation, maintenance or cleaning of the
machine.

Guarding is an interlocked physical barrier which allows access to the area being guarded at
times when that does not present a risk and prevents access to that area at any other time, if
access to the area of the machine requiring guarding is necessary during operation,
maintenance or cleaning of the machine.

Guarding is a physical barrier which can only be altered or removed by the use of tools, if
using either a permanently fixed physical barrier or an interlocked physical barrier is not
practicable.

Guarding is a presence-sensing system that eliminates the risk arising from the area of the
machine requiring guarding while a person or any part of a person is in the area being
guarded; if none of the above types of guarding is practicable.

Any guarding needs to be as difficult as is reasonably possible to by-pass or disable,

whether deliberately or by accident.

Any guarding must not cause a health and safety risk in itself.

If the machine to be guarded contains moving parts and those parts may break or cause
workpieces to be ejected from the machine, the guarding to be used must control any health
and safety risk from those ejected parts and workpieces.

Operational controls can include emergency stops and warning devices. They need to be
prominent and clearly and durably marked, that is:

coloured red (push buttons, bars or handles)

unable to be affected by electrical or electronic circuit malfunction.
Locking switches that require keys to open the lock could be used in conjunction with a
danger tag system that promotes greater safety consciousness among the workforce for all
situations in which danger to people could arise from:

the operation of machinery or equipment

the flow of steam, electricity, gases or liquids
the use of faulty or unsafe equipment.
Danger tags could include multiple locking systems and would require written authorisation
by a competent person for them to be opened. Such systems would be implemented and
monitored in liaison with relevant key personnel.

Lock out/Tag out protocols

Placing an out of service tag on faulty equipment to alert others it is unavailable for use.
Once you have placed a tag on the faulty equipment you should tell your supervisor and
arrange for it to be repaired. This includes any electrical equipment, chairs, desks, doors,
etc.

For employees who perform repairs or maintenance work this will also involve isolating and
tagging machinery or equipment during repairs, service or maintenance work to alert others
that the equipment is being worked on and must not be operated.

No person is to work on electrical or mechanical components, such as electricity, hydraulics,

steam, compressed air etc., unless a properly completed ‘Danger Tag’ and, if available, a
lock has been attached to the appropriate controls. This is to prevent the individual or others
being injured from its activation.

Stop work
Should an accident occur, the equipment must be stopped and access to equipment be
controlled using measures such as:

lockout or isolation devices

danger tags
permit to work systems.
If the equipment cannot be stopped, operational controls that permit controlled movement of
the equipment must be fitted and safe systems of work be used

Key information transfer and feedback

When purchasing equipment or entering into sub-contractual arrangements, the event
manager will need to ensure that hazards are not being introduced as a result. For example,
if instituting a work process using hazardous equipment, people who will work with the item
should be made aware of the risks involved in its use, the control measures and any specific
training requirements. Key information required to control risks should be recorded and
transferred from the manufacturer to all users.

It is important to note that if a piece of equipment, machinery or tool, is modified in some way
by the operator or by the employer, that person is then regarded as liable for any injury
arising from its use. For example, silencing the reverse beeper on a forklift so that it can be
used without its sound intruding during a concert may lead to a collision. The person who
made the modification is liable. This also applies to modifications in the layout of a venue –
blocking emergency exits with temporary storage, for example. It is common on event sites
to see ‘make do’ modifications and inappropriate use of equipment – lighting trees and
trusses are often employed as load bearing supports or bracing.
Figure 7.3 Phase 3 to 2 phase power supply box.

Items intended for other purposes should not be used as substitutes, for example pool
chlorine can be used to clean concrete surfaces, but can release toxic chlorine gas if it is
mixed with certain other cleaning agents. Inhalation of chlorine gas can cause difficulty
breathing, chest pains, cough, eye irritation, increased heartbeat, rapid breathing and death.

Staging equipment
Damaged or faulty staging equipment is the most frequent cause of injury and death on
performance stages. Electrocution or falls are regularly suffered by stage crew and
occasionally by performers.

The equipment most susceptible to interference or damage from the environment on an

outdoor event is usually power cabling, power supply racks and power amplifiers for
loudspeaker systems.

For external events contractors should provide high-voltage equipment that cannot be
affected by rain or water, and they should always ensure safety is the first priority under any
conditions. It is entirely practical to install enormous LED screens, concert sized PA systems
and a full lighting rig that can operate happily in all but the most adverse of weather
conditions. Video, sound and lighting equipment rated for outdoor use will be quite
indistinguishable from its indoor equivalents, both visually and in terms of performance.

Manufacturers of AV equipment have weatherproof equipment that is exactly the same as

the indoor product with added design innovations that close any gaps or holes, cover any
electrical contacts and seal in any point where cables connect. The internationally
recognised standard for weather and waterproofing of electrical equipment is an IP Rating.
IP stands for ‘International Protection’, and an IP rating on a piece of AV equipment, such as
a loudspeaker will feature the letters ‘IP’ followed by two digits, e.g. IP65. The numbers refer
to two tables of standards regarding the level of protection afforded against solids (first digit)
and liquids (second digit). In the example of IP65, which is one of the most common ratings
for AV equipment suitable for outdoor use, 6 is the highest level rated for solids, meaning ‘No
ingress of dust; complete protection against contact’. The 5 indicates that ‘Water projected
by a nozzle (6.3 mm) against enclosure from any direction shall have no harmful effects’.
The liquids rating goes all the way to 8, which indicates the equipment is certified to be
permanently immersed in water up to one metre deep.

Hazardous substances and dangerous goods

Hazardous substances and dangerous goods are classified according to different criteria. A
substance may be classified as both. Hazardous substances are classified only on the basis
of the health effects – both medium and long-term – that may result from exposure to them.
Dangerous goods are classified on the basis of the immediate physical or chemical effects
that may have an impact on people, property or the environment, such as classes of
substances or articles that are, for example, explosive, flammable or radioactive.
To determine whether produced substances are hazardous, the event organiser will need to
check the hazardous substance regulations or the OHS authority. If there are any products
or other materials being used that are hazardous, they should be listed in a hazardous
substances register. The Hazardous Substances Information System, an internet database,
provides information on hazardous substances and exposure standard information. It is used
to support the hazardous substances regulatory framework for the various jurisdictions.

Those using hazardous substances will need to know about:

the hazard’s chemical and physical properties

the routes of exposure
the health effects
the recommended controls.
The online database, and the labels on containers should, together, provide that information.
Warning signage should be placed on the storeroom or locker and the substances should
always be kept under lock and key.

Control
The details of the hazard and the controls have to be inserted in any information, instruction
and training for anyone likely to be exposed to a hazardous substance. In particular,
employees should be able to demonstrate an understanding of:

labelling of hazardous substances

hazards they are likely to be exposed to
safe work practices
risk controls
emergency procedures
first aid and incident reporting
atmospheric monitoring
health surveillance.
Information, instruction, training and supervision need to be regularly reviewed in order to be
kept up to date and for their effectiveness to be evaluated.

Fireworks and flares

If there is to be a fireworks display, check on the storage and set-up, and the types of
fireworks and the safety distances for operating. The pyro-technician will need to obtain the
necessary permit from the appropriate regulatory authority, police and fire brigade. Permits
generally stipulate that the fire brigade must be informed that a fireworks display is being
held, and ideally a firefighter should be in attendance whenever fireworks are being let off.
The fire brigade must receive a list of fireworks beforehand so that they know what
precautions are required.

Fireworks have to be set up at the ground itself as it is illegal to transport fireworks in a trailer
when they are fused. Once the fireworks are at the venue:

make sure that fireworks arrive and are stored away prior to the public arriving on site
before the fireworks are set up they need to be locked away for safety
establish a security cordon to prevent people from coming into the area where the fireworks
are stored and where they are to be set up
check that everyone knows what to do in the case of an accidental fireworks explosion
check if there is anything combustible in the area where the fireworks are to be kept prior to
the show, such as gas cylinders
place metal buckets filled with sand at regular intervals around the venue in case of fire.
Fire safety
The risk of fires starting can be minimised by enforcing the fire regulations applicable to the
venue and/or site. Most new venues will conform to current safety requirements. However,
temporary structures will need constant monitoring by trained fire marshals. These staff can
be off-duty fire officers or specially trained security personnel. Locations for appropriate fire
control equipment should be planned with the local fire authorities.

Management should ensure that fire extinguishers are appropriately marked and authorised
for the locations they will be kept. Regular checks should be made to ensure that they have
not been interfered with or replaced.

The local fire authority should monitor fire prevention and preparedness measures to ensure
relevant standards are met. Organisers and health personnel should consider potential fire
hazards in the planning process and discuss any concerns they may have with the fire
authority. Particular attention will be required to monitor fires lit by attendees in camping
areas, food stalls, rubbish bins and dry grass or woodland areas.

Summary
A site or venue may be inherently hazardous through a combination of elements that in
themselves may not be individually hazardous.
Work practices are a major safety issue. A task may be safely performed if the worker has
the appropriate protective clothing, equipment and training, but perilous if these are absent.
An event construction site combines a number of hazardous situations into a constricted
time and space.
Monitoring of the construction of temporary structures or installation of equipment by
sub-contractors is necessary to make certain that all safety issues have been addressed in
accordance with relevant legislation and organisational procedures.
Consultation with sub-contractors and suppliers is critical for safety at all stages of the
production process.
Most event worker accidents are due to a combination of cramped spaces, lack of time and
interference by other workers.
For the safe coordination of an event, task and resource delivery scheduling is vital.
It is very important to carefully consider potential weather impacts and to include them in the
hazard assessment.
A constant task throughout the event operational phase is to supervise and monitor the
provision of services, in order to identify any problems as they arise and take prompt action
to resolve hazardous situations.
A reporting system from the leader of the staff team responsible for each function area of
activities should be established.
A public health and safety audit should be carried out prior to the commencement of the
event.
Subsequent periodic surveillance should be undertaken at appropriate times during the
event.
On-site communication is a critical issue. Essential information needs to flow unhindered
between all staff, both during normal operations and in emergencies.
Key communication control personnel need skills and experience in dealing with stressful
situations.
The communication system technology needs to be top grade, be multi-modal and not rely
on one single system, and have its own backup power supply.
It is common at events for large numbers of volunteers to perform a range of tasks that
involve physical and physiological hazards. Often these volunteers are untrained in the tasks
required of them.
For staff working on an event the principal hazards are workplace violence, stress, and injury
from hazardous equipment.
Attention must be given to the vulnerability of workers in certain locations or when
performing certain tasks that expose them to conditions of possible harm from violence or
aggression.
Typical stressful tasks at events are crowd and traffic control, ticketing and ushering,
particularly when performed by under-trained and inadequately supported volunteers
working excessive shifts in heat, cold, dust or rain.
Ergonomic hazards arise from a mismatch between workers’ physical and psychological
needs and work practices or processes, including equipment, environment and the systems
of work involved.
Personal protective equipment is anything used or worn by a person to minimise risk to the
person’s health or safety and includes a wide range of clothing and safety equipment. It is
one of the least effective ways of controlling risks to work health and safety.
The performance area, arena or stage is one of the most hazardous working environments
at an event. Damaged or faulty staging equipment is the most frequent cause of injury and
death on performance stages.
On an event site there will be a wide range of appliances, machinery and tools. When
identifying hazards associated with equipment, systems of work should be considered as
containing potential hazards as much as the physical machinery or equipment itself. The
machine may be safe in itself, but not the system of work in which it is used.
Controls associated with machinery and equipment often require consideration of access,
and special attention needs to be paid where there is the potential for contact by members of
the public.
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