AEC 505 (2 UNITS)

RURAL COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

LECTURERS:
PROF. S. D. YOMI ALFRED
DR. (MRS.) O.V. AYODELE

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Course Outline

Concept of rural community development

Processes of community development
Methods/Approaches of community development
Theories of community development
Community as a unit of social change
Dimensions of innovation
Resistant and conductive forces to change in rural areas
Social movements and changes in contemporary Nigeria
Economic aspects of rural, social change
Traditional institutions and their transformation
Case studies on community development in Nigeria
Lessons learnt in rural community development over the years

Concept of Rural Community Development

Definition of rural?

Definition of community?

Definition of development?

Rural community development is a process by which a set of technical, social, cultural and
institutional measures are implanted with and for the inhabitants of rural areas with the aim of
improving their socioeconomic conditions in order to achieve harmony and balance both on the
regional and national levels. It can also be defined as the far reaching transformation of social
and economic structures, institutions, relationships and processes in any rural community.
Ekong (1988) notes that rural community development is concerned with the economic aspects
of rural community and lay more emphasis on integrated technical assistance from the
government.

Community development is thus a conscious and deliberate effort oriented at helping

communities recognize their needs, and to ensure increasing responsibilities for solving their
problems thereby increasing their capacities to participate fully in the life of the nation.
Community development is a process oriented and covers an array of activities. It laid emphasis
on self-help by citizens and initiates a people-directed process which is based on their own
perception of their needs. It is important to note that community development recognize the
necessity for creating a rural community in a process that will utilize the existing social
structures that will help create new organisation and institution when needed.
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Importance of rural communities /areas

There is an overwhelming need to accord rural development a priority so as to enable them

contribute meaningfully to the socio-cultural and socio-economic development of Nigeria for
the following reasons:
i. The rural area dominates the resources base of any economy. The bulk of Nigeria’s
wealth is derived from agriculture and oil which lies in abundant quantity in rural
communities. It is endowed with abundant human and natural resources.
ii. Currently, over 80% of the entire population lives in the rural area. Also, approximately
three quarters of the world’s impoverished live in rural areas.
iii. Many poor people in cities are migrant workers and farmers have left rural areas.
Therefore, if living standards and income generations in rural areas are enhanced, and
rural immigrants in the cities return to rural areas, excessive population influxes to cities
would be reduced, causing poverty in the cities to decrease.
iv. Improvement of rural areas can be a safety net when there is a lack of job opportunities
in cities due to depressed economic conditions.
v. In times of national emergency and crises, the rural areas are not only a place of refuge,
but also constitute a huge reservoir of national patriotism and manpower owing to the
fact that rural people are relatively unaffected by internationalism among the
heterogeneous people of the city.
vi. Rural areas provide a unique value system. Relative conservativeness of ruralites and a
resistance of rural culture to rapid change make rural areas a conservative of culture
and traditions of the people.
vii. The rural population is equally a source of stability for neutrality influence on the urban
population in any respect and also the rural environment provides the necessary breaks
to urban areas from environmental hazards and forces of urban living.
viii. It will afford the rural dwellers to enjoy the comfort and luxuries of life.
ix. Development of rural areas will contribute to the overall national development.
Overview of the current rural Nigeria
Nigeria is predominantly rural, less than a quarter of Nigerians lives in towns or urbanized
settings. While the trend in the Nigeria’s oil economy is characterized by rural exodus, rural
economy in agricultural pursuits is undermined by migration due to long history of Nigerian
urbanization spree. Whereas the nature of rural crisis in Nigeria has taken a new dimension to
the extent that even the peasant has failed to produce enough food for himself, let alone
produce, in excess, to be appropriated by the State. Thus, food shortages, lower productivity,
lower income and increased poverty have ravaged rural Nigeria.

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The structure of Nigeria’s rural economy has made it even more vulnerable with increased state
intervention in the rural agricultural economy, particularly through the introduction of a variety
of agricultural programs and strategies. In addition, accelerated land alienation in rural areas
has accentuated rural crisis and therefore become a serious trend that affects the entire
peasantry. Thus, large tracts of land were forcefully acquired by the state and held by the
urban bourgeoisie. In direct league with foreign partners, the entire activities had, over time,
been transformed into commercialised and mechanised farming

Poverty is especially severe in rural areas, where up to 80 per cent of the population lives below
the poverty line and social services and infrastructure are limited. The country’s poor rural
women and men depend on agriculture for food and income. About 90 per cent of Nigeria’s
food is produced by small-scale farmers who cultivate small plots of land and depend on rainfall
rather than irrigation systems. Surveys show that 44 per cent of male farmers and 72 per cent
of female farmers across the country cultivate less than 1 hectare of land per household.
Women play a major role in the production, processing and marketing of food crops. The
poorest groups eke out a subsistence living but often go short of food, particularly during the
pre-harvest period. The productivity of the rural population is also hindered by ill health,
particularly HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria.

Women and households headed solely by women are often the most chronically poor groups
within rural communities. Men have higher social status and as a result have more access to
schooling and training. But women play significant roles in rural economic activities. Over
recent decades the number of men migrating from rural areas in search of employment has
increased, and the number of households headed solely by women has grown substantially.

Rural infrastructure in Nigeria has long been neglected. Investments in health, education and
water supply have been focused largely on the cities. As a result, the rural population has
extremely limited access to services such as schools and health centres, and about half of the
population lacks access to safe drinking water. Neglect of rural infrastructure affects the
profitability of agricultural production. The lack of rural roads impedes the marketing of
agricultural commodities, prevents farmers from selling their produce at reasonable prices, and
leads to spoilage. Limited accessibility cuts small-scale farmers off from sources of inputs,
equipment and new technology and this keeps yields low. As the population swells and puts
pressure on diminishing resources, escalating environmental problems further threaten food
production. Land degradation as a result of extensive agriculture, deforestation and overgrazing
is already severe in many parts of the country. Drought has become common in the north, and
erosion provoked by heavy rains, floods and oil pollution is a major problem in the south and
south-east.

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Processes of community development

As community development is dynamic, a fixed blueprint for the perfect community

development process is unrealistic. It is better to plan a framework that provides guidance and
adapt it as the situation evolves. The following framework provides broad-based direction and
identifies key process issues. This framework is based on the real-life experience of community
development practitioners and communities themselves. These are:

 Enquiry and Building Support

 Making A Plan

 Implementing and Adjusting the Plan

 Maintaining Momentum

 Evaluation

1. Building Support

Enquiry refers to activities that are involved in obtaining reliable and valid information about
the target community. Fundamental to community development are community enhancement
and capacity building. Both are processes that involve learning and inclusion and, in most
instances, the process is as meaningful as the results. To begin with, all communities have a
history that it is important to understand and honour. For many of us, our excitement and
enthusiasm for community development can make us impulsive. We want to rush into action
and see results. It is, however, better to take stock of what has been done, acknowledge and
recognize the contributions of others, build on previous community success, and involve a wide
range of members and interests.

The first step is to create awareness, understanding and support for the community
development process. To build support for community development in your community, you
should know the answers to the following questions:

 Why do you believe a community development approach should be initiated?

 What are the benefits that will result from this approach?

 What first steps need to be taken?

 Who are the key people and/or organisations that should be taking a leadership role?

 What are the longer-term implications of the initiative?

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One may think that finding answers to the above questions will be time-consuming and difficult
but, getting answers to the above questions will give a clearer picture and motivation toward
achieving the expected outcome.

Commitment to any long-term process or action should not be made without understanding
what is to be done, why it is being done, the anticipated benefits and who will be involved.
Community development is a broad concept, so people may have difficulty knowing where to
start and what is expected of them. This is why identifying the first steps in the process is very
important. When interest is created, you want an immediate way to turn this interest into
further exploration and commitment. Building support for a community development initiative
is an on-going task.

2. Making a Plan

Developing a community plan involves systematically assessing alternatives and making choices
in the context of a defined community vision. Planning is a process that assists community
members in translating knowledge, concerns and hopes into action.

A community plan is a written document created by community members. It outlines the

following things:

 where you are now (community strengths, weaknesses, resources);

 where you want to be (the ideal future for your community);

 the general direction you want to take to close the gap between where you are now and
where you want to be;

 the specific actions within each general direction required to close the gap;

 the resource and capacity issues that need to be addressed; and

 what success will look like, and how to tell when you have been successful.

Community plans are developed based on the logic and structures of the strategic planning
process. The logic of this process takes you from a broad-based vision to specific actions and
action plans. The process links vision, goals, objectives and action into a logical and inter-related
structure.

The development of a community plan requires resources and dedicated leadership. It is

important to determine whether you have what it takes to put a plan in place before you

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actually begin. To start the process and fail to complete it can harm your community and
undermine the commitment of community members to future development approaches.

Community development planning is useful for a number of different things, such as bringing a
community together and finding solutions. The plan and the process should be:

 integrated,

 inclusive,

 realistic,

 appropriate,

 results-based,

 community-based and

 easy to understand.

Not all community development initiatives require formal plans. Many valuable outcomes have
been obtained through ad hoc or less structured processes. On the other hand, many
potentially successful initiatives have failed because there was either no plan or a very poor one
in place. Depending on the complexity of the situation and the resources involved, the need for
a formal plan will vary. Regardless of the formality of the planning process community
development action is not possible without a common vision and purpose.

The Benefits of a Community Plan

The benefits of a community plan are that it:

 creates a long-term framework for decision-making and action;

 provides a holistic and comprehensive approach to community development;

 enhances the community's ability to make informed decisions about its development;

 provides a valuable resource for communicating vision and actions to individuals inside
and out of the community;

 identifies objectives and actions that can be measured over time; and

 integrates the perspectives of various community members.

3. Implementing and Adjusting the Plan

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Creating an inclusive community development plan can be a time-consuming process. The pay-
off for investing this time and energy comes as you begin to implement the plan.
Implementation, however, has its own challenges. The implementation process must be well-
planned and well-managed if it is to be successful. Implementation challenges include:

 integrating and coordinating a variety of tasks and activities,

 being a good steward of resources,

 helping individuals keep focused on the big picture,

 remaining positive and not getting discouraged by the unexpected or by the fact that
things may not be working out as envisioned,

 identifying and building on community capacity,

 making hard decisions when resources are limited,

 timing actions so they build upon rather than compete with the actions of others,

 keeping community members motivated and connected,

 ensuring community ownership remains strong, and

 communicating and celebrating results.

Successfully managing the activities listed above requires strong leadership and a structure to
support implementation. When you started the community development process, you may
have found that there was a core of individuals who were very active in almost all the activities
being undertaken. As a small group, informal communication and organisational arrangements
were probably all that were needed to work together effectively. As you move to
implementation of the community development plan, the level and the nature of your activities
may no longer make this casual approach possible. A structure or organisation that supports
your efforts could be necessary.

Failing to have a solid structure can lead to:

 burnout of your community leaders,

 wasted effort,

 confusion,

 conflict and/or
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  loss of credibility and legitimacy.

4. Maintaining Momentum

Creating a firm foundation for community development and taking the first steps in a long-term
process is exciting. Equally exciting, but more challenging, is building and maintaining
momentum. This section outlines seven key areas that require careful thought when developing
an approach to maintaining momentum for your community development efforts. These key
areas are:

 leadership,

 partnerships,

 building on community capacity,

 funding,

 reviewing and adapting the community development plan,

 communication and

 using technical support and expertise.

Leadership

Consistent and skilled leadership is essential for effective community development. The role of
the community development leader(s) is to build community capacity over time that is open to
change and adaptation. The goal of the leader is to encourage empowerment of the
community, not control over it. It is the leader who:

 effectively communicates the vision of the community,

 focuses energy on results and inclusion,

 motivates individuals and organisations to act together for a common purpose, and

 develops effective processes to work through issues of concern and conflict.

Partnerships

Partnerships are a good vehicle for building effective community development processes and
structures. A partnership is defined as a relationship where two or more parties with

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compatible goals form an agreement to share the work, risk and results or proceeds.
Partnerships can be formed for a wide variety of reasons, but they are consistent in that they:

 share authority,

 have joint investment of resources,

 result in mutual benefits, and

 share risk, responsibility and accountability.

A partnership is not a process where:

 there is simply a gathering of people who want to do things;

 there is hidden motivation;

 there is no trust or need for the partnership;

 there is no sharing of risk, responsibility, accountability and benefits;

 one person has all the power and/or drives the process; or

 communities or groups are told to work together to acquire funding.

Building Community Capacity

Community capacity building involves many aspects and considerations. There is no clear
agreement about what should or should not be included when discussing capacity building.
Most often it refers to skills, knowledge and ability but can also include things such as access,
leadership, infrastructure, time, commitment and resources.

Developing community capacity means taking risks, improving things and sharing control. It
involves change, training and increased power for those who have previously not had it. This is
the power and wonder of both the community development and the community capacity
building processes. Give people time to express themselves, to adapt to change and to learn.
This is best done when the community members have a voice and are in charge of the process.

Community development is a capacity-building process with the following keys to success:

 assess everything required to carry out the plan, role or action;

 understand the skills and knowledge required for the various roles or action;

 identify the gaps;

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  develop strategies for filling in the gaps; and

 develop strategies to support individuals while they learn to apply new skills and
knowledge

Funding Community Development

Obtaining financial resources can be a major challenge for a community development initiative.
This is particularly true when you are beginning the process. As you move to concrete action it
usually becomes easier to find and secure funding from local financial institutions, investors,
government programs, foundations and private sector sponsors, or from community members
themselves. The key to finding financial support is to be able to clearly identify what you want
to do, why you want to do it, and the benefits that will result from your action.

Fund-raising is increasingly becoming an area of valued experience and expertise. Many

organisations have an individual on staff or a volunteer with this expertise. Approach any of
these individuals, tell them what you want to do, and see if they have some ideas or
suggestions that will benefit your situation.

In some regions, governments provide funding for community development initiatives. Some
provincial and federal government departments have created community development services
and/or economic development boards that manage resources to benefit community
development. Most often these services consist of technical expertise that communities can
access to support their activities.

In-kind donations and contributions are another possibility to explore. Libraries, churches and
other community organisations are often quite willing to provide meeting space at little or no
cost. Community members themselves are usually willing to contribute specific skills or
expertise

There is no doubt that starting a grass-roots community development activity can be a

challenge. Remember that the first steps of the community development process do not need
to be cost-intensive. What they do require is a committed and creative group of community
members, or organisations, to get things started. If your community development group is
informal, it will be important to find an organisation within the community that will agree to act
as your sponsor for funding requests. Many funders, due to their regulations or tax laws, are
unable to give funds to a group of individuals that is not formally organised.

Reviewing and Adapting the Community Development Plan

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A community development plan is an ongoing activity which is designed to provide structure
and guidance for the community development activities. Once a year, a review of the process
should be undertaken. This review needs to be open and inclusive. It is an ideal time to
celebrate successes and accomplishments as well as to make adjustments and changes.

Key questions to be considered as part of the review process are:

 What has been achieved over the last year?

 Are we closing the gap between where we were when we developed our plan and
where we want to be?

 What changes have occurred in the last year, and can our community development plan
effectively respond to them?

 What are the strengths we should continue to build upon?

 What are the challenges to which we need to respond?

 Are our goals and objectives still meaningful?

 Are there new actions we should take to reach our vision and goals?

 What additional skills and resources do we need to be effective?

As a community development plan is only as meaningful as the time it reflects and the people
who create it, it should be adapted to capture major changes that take place within the
community. An annual review of the plan brings communities and organisations together to
reinforce the vision they have for the community and to see how well all the pieces are fitting
together.

Communication

Communication is essential to maintaining the momentum of a community development

process; however, like so many other aspects of the process, effective communication takes
time and effort. Communication is a two-way process that involves the exchange, transfer and
understanding of information. Although the advent of electronic communication vehicles
means we can communicate across the globe instantly, effective communication depends on
more than technology. It requires:

 an understanding of the people and groups with whom we wish to communicate;

 clarity of thought and word;

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  the creation of opportunities for input, and our willingness to hear and respond to this
input; and

 the selection of an appropriate mix of communication vehicles.

Communication is a primary mechanism for building continued support for community

development. It demonstrates clearly that the process is open. Encourage community members
to become involved and to ask questions. Never assume everyone knows what is going on or
that communication is unnecessary. Time spent on communication is never wasted. Remember
to use a variety of communication modes to be as clear and as straightforward as possible.

Communication is an important tool to:

 create awareness of community development and encourage participation;

 develop support and momentum for the activities;

 enable community members to contribute their knowledge, skills and abilities;

 advocate for a particular option or decision;

 receive information and feedback; and

 avoid and resolve conflict.

Using technical support and expertise

The design and implementation of an effective community development plan requires a wide
range of skills and abilities. Many of these skills can be found within your community. It is very
important to invite community members and organisations to contribute their skills and
abilities to the community development process and to make use of them in new ways.

There may, however, be situations where you want to draw upon technical support or outside
expertise to enhance and support the community development process. Examples of these
circumstances are:

 the skills and abilities you require are specialized and not fully developed within the
community;

 you are clear about what needs to be done but require assistance in identifying and
applying the tools and techniques that will be most effective;

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  community members are already working full-out and do not have the time to
contribute their skills; and/or

 you want to get something going over a short period of time and require concentrated
resources to kick start the process.

Whatever the reason, bringing in technical support and expertise can be a very helpful way to
build and maintain momentum. The key to using technical support and expertise effectively is
to use them in supporting your efforts rather than directing or controlling them. The
community plan and community expertise should shape how and why technical expertise is
used.

Evaluation

Adequate attention should be given to monitoring and review of the process to accommodate
modifications and at the end to determine how far the set goals have been achieved.

Methods of community development

Any effort at developing agriculture is ultimately an effort at rural community development.

Thus the approaches discussed below are essentially agricultural development model which can
be applied to rural community development.

The Agricultural Extension Approach

The basic assumption behind this approach is that absence of technical knowledge at the farm
level. The gap between sources and users of technology could be closed by agricultural
extension service which is charged with the responsibility of innovation information
dissemination. Both the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and
British Colonial Government approaches are discussed in this section to enhance the
understanding of this responsibility.

USAID Model

It was based upon the United States Department of Agriculture, Federal extension service and
land grant Colleges. This was introduced into Latin America and part of South East Asia in the
two decades after the Second World War. Independent extension services were set up. The
typical programme in a country included expatriate specialists in extension methods, rural
youth training, home economics and the use of communication media. Agencies were
established in the rural areas.

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The service was normally organised outside the regular government bureaucracy with the
purpose of ensuring freedom for the extension staff. Extension workers were discouraged from
becoming involved in marketing, farm credit or the distribution of supplies. Also, agricultural
research did not feature strongly in the technical assistance programmes of the 1950s and
1960s. It was assumed that there was a large amount of useful information that was not being
put into practice, and that impressive results could be achieved without basic research and
trials in the farmers’ field.

Agricultural extension services as an autonomous service in most former British Colonies, under
the Ministry of Agriculture, operates fairly independently although subject to national
agricultural policy. Colleges and universities give pre-service professional training and rarely
integrated with the extension service.

The Package Approach

This is based on the knowledge that success in farming depends on the interaction of several
practices and inputs. When combined, they give increase yields. For any crop or livestock
husbandry, there are a number of operations involved. Lack of attention to the correct method
and timing at any one stage of the operation can result in poor returns.

A successful package programme has the following features:

(i) Linking research, extension and the producer to provide an improved, locally adapted
technology.

(ii) Linking producer to a combination of services: supply and credit for seed, fertiliser,
insecticides, etc. and marketing (e.g. price support, storage and transport).

The logic of the package idea is that inter-related resources, when applied by the farmers in
combination, yield more than the sum total of the outputs produced by the resources when
applied individually.

The Contract–Farming Approach

In this approach, the farmer is given incentives to participate. He is encouraged to work in his
own time, on his own land, for his own benefit. The system was adopted by colonial
governments to increase the quantity of export crops produced by small holders.

The approach is socially more acceptable than the plantation system in which the owner has
direct control over land and labour. In most schemes of the contract farming, a company or

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even state, corporation provides advice, farm inputs, credit and marketing services to small
holders in return for farm produce of a certain minimum quality or grade.

This approach is characterised by close integration of all the functions of agricultural system
production, research, extension, supply and credit, regulation and marketing for the production
of a single crop.

In developing countries, the success of contract-farming is usually dependent on the company

having a monopoly over the supply of seed and planting material, marketing and processing.
Contract-farming is therefore limited to export crops such as sugar, tea, cocoa, rubber, tobacco,
cotton, and oil palm for which special processing is required and for which local demand is very
limited.

The Integrated Regional Development Approach (IRDA)

The IRDA is based on the assumption that a critical minimum effect is needed to make a
noticeable impact in a relatively short period. Its purpose is to overcome stagnation and ease
social problems among traditional farmers in a particular region or district by a concentrated
and comprehensive effort.

Integrated regional development programme usually focuses on improving traditional

agriculture, especially extension services, supply, credit and marketing. But, in order to make
investment in these activities effective, improvements are sought in social services as well,
particularly in health and education.

Factors for IRDA Programmers

(i) It depends on financial aid from outside the country.

(ii) A team of specialists – nationals of foreign experts are needed to cooperate closely with the
local population and existing administration.

(iii) A special executive body, with a considerable degree of local autonomy and authority is
usually necessary and agencies are effectively coordinated.

(iv) Special financial powers may be needed to carry out the commercial transactions involved
in the buying and selling of farm inputs or the purchase and resale of crops and livestock.

Constraints of IRDA

Money and specialists are usually too scarce in developing countries to allow the adoption of
this approach nationwide.

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The concept became fashionable in the early 70s and later begins to suffer neglect.

Community Development Approach (CDA)

Community development (CD) is a movement designed to promote better living for the whole
community with the active participation and on the initiative of the community. CD operates
primarily through enlistment and organisation of self help and cooperative effort on the part of
the community but usually with technical assistance from government or voluntary agencies.

CD is preferred to the traditional extension process because problems of agriculture and home
economics are so interwoven with those of health, transportation, marketing, etc. That is, the
way a programme which incorporates all these better facilitate progress in agriculture. People
are also likely to respond to programmes which are group-oriented. In the CD approach, greater
emphasis is on groups and group activities than on the individual and individual activities.

THEORIES OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

The Role of Theories

Most of the time, people advocating for development have not appreciated the importance of
development theories, consequently, the very assumptions required during planning are usually
neglected resulting in failures of such development efforts. Thus, we shall now discuss some
general theories of development and rural communities in particular.

The Role of Theories

Most of the time, people advocating for development have not appreciated the importance of
development theories, consequently, the very assumptions required during planning are usually
neglected resulting in failures of such development efforts. Thus, we shall now discuss some
general theories of development and rural communities in particular.

Attributes of a Theory

1. A theory should be able to provide you with background framework of the type of
information you want to collect.

2. A theory should be able to provide you with hypothesis text.

3. A theory should be able to guide you when you want to cite a research problem.

In this course, the following social change or what can be termed community development
theories are discussed.

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Evolution and Differentiation Theory

Origin and transformation of the society was the major worry of early sociologists. At this time,
Charles Darwin evolution theory was hardly to provide explanation for the metamorphosis of
the society/community. Auguste Comte, Marx and Spencer all perceived society as progressing
from primitive beginning to an eventual perfect state, although the exact nature of the
perfection differs. Evolution theory has a methodological weakness as more data from different
societies become available. They brought into sociology, sociological ideas, the models do not
fit; there is little evidence from the distant past. No consensus on characterisation of societies
at different stages of development.

Structural Differentiation Theory

Major proponents here were Spencer and Durkheim. Structural differentiation theory was
further developed by Tallcott Pearsons and Smelser. According to these theorists, when a
society develops, there is an increasing separation and specialisation of institution which must
be re-integrated into a new whole. For instance, in a simple society, it is the responsibility of
the family institution to do the following: socialisation of new members, political, religious and
economic aspects of human life. Institutions attain a separate existence such that we now have
many governmental, religious and economic institutions which are invariably inter-dependent.

Unlike Spencer and Durkheim who were mainly concerned with the fact of differentiation, later
theorists emphasised social structure. The impetus for change arises from discontentment with
the status quo. Those who are dissatisfied express their hostility in various ways and engender
conflict within the society, between themselves and those who favour the status quo. In
response to this, various agents/agencies of social control (palliative measures) attempt to
handle and channel the disturbance, partly by repression and partly by trying to improve
conditions to remove the cause of difficulties. This may later involve the introduction of new
ideas or institutions. As this is integrated into the society, it settles into a new and more
differentiated form until there is indication of dissatisfaction.

Problems of Differentiation Theory

1. The society may never settle down as not all members of the society will equally benefit from
the integration.

2. The authorities may be ineffective agents of social control.

Benefits of Differentiation Theory

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This theory is useful for describing the development of increasing complex types of social
organisation which accompanied and facilitated industrialisation.

Equilibrium and Conflict Theory

The basic functionalist principle of a society is equilibrium, tending toward stability but reacting
to change by adjusting in order to restore equilibrium. These forces of change are either
exogenous or endogenous. If as the functionalists hold that a society is united by consensus,
then, we should expect that most pressures for change would be exogenous. It therefore
means that members of the society would be satisfied with stability and tend to resist change.
Conflict would arise mainly during the process of adjustment to force changes when consensus
is important or among people who were inadequately socialised, so they do not share this
consensus view of the majority.

Benefits of the Equilibrium Theory

It explains gradual long term change such as individual revolution and changes that apply to the
society as a whole and not a sudden political revolution and smaller exogenous changes where
conflict plays an obvious role.

Adjustment to change does not necessarily tend to immediate return to equilibrium and that if
instead reactions are dysfunctional and the situation gets worse, it may require violence or
even revolution to return the society to a new state of relative equilibrium. This relative balance
will now be between institutions. If for instance, the economic system has become dominant
over the political system, the new balance gives each a more equal part. He suggested that
revolution is more likely if opposing groups refuse to compromise, have little communication
and deny each other’s legitimacy.

However, revolution can be forestalled if members of conflicting groups play inter-dependent

roles in the society or because the ruling group is effective enough to control the expression of
the opposition. Another adaptation of this theory is look for dynamic rather than stable
equilibrium. This idea accepts that social system does not return to the same position once it is
disturbed but still, looks for a relative balance on each adjustment to change, e.g. clamour for
wage increase.

Conflict Theory

Conflict theory views change as mainly arising from within the system, based on the opposition
of ideologies, institutions and/or groups. According to Marx, conflict is a historical necessity
which must unavoidably tend to the revolutionary overthrow of a system which will not change
of its own accord. The conflict theorists perceive economic system as fundamental to the
19
society; it must change from capitalism to communism after which other institutions such as
the state and social classes can be regarded as no longer necessary. The pressure for change in
the societies is ubiquitous as various interest groups struggle for power and resources. This
struggle emphasise the replacement of the ruling group, especially as Worsely asserts that the
overthrow of the ruling group will result in the introduction of new value system. This is only
overstating the case, as most African political changes only affect the personnel at the top but
retain the value system.

Modernisation Theory

This is a current form of evolutionism stemming from the ideas of progress and social
engineering. This assumes that change implies improvement of social conditions. It is a product
of Euro-American centrism. In this case, concept of change is drawn from its own experience
and therefore expects that “modernising” or “developing” societies will eventually come to
resemble its own.

Like other forms of change, modernisation can be studied at both the society and the individual
level. Pressure for modernisation is seen as coming from an increase in societal scale. Society
grows when it takes in a larger territory and increase the size and density of their population.
This provides the impetus for urbanisation, interdependence, and centralisation of economic
and political power.

Self-sufficient units and locally based segments such as extended family systems and ethnic
subgroups give way to national interest groups, class replaces status as the prime means of
stratification. Political institution becomes differentiated from kinship and religious institutions.
The society is democratised. The mass media and national culture replace local sources of
information and culture. It is, however, contestable that less modern societies will change in
form exactly the same way as the highly industrialised ones. This is because, once a change has
taken place in the society, it cannot happen in another society the same way since “follower”
societies can learn from the experience of “leader” societies.

While changes in family life, division of labour, bureaucratic and democratic development may
appear to be internal to the society concerned, they are externally influenced as well. And this
influence differs for each society just as the background culture and social structure to which
these innovations are added, also differ for each society. Thus, this tendency to expect that
industrialisation will have the same effects in every society and that every society will
eventually be modernised to an identical version of the leader societies who is bound to be
disappointed. However, certain features may make them to function differently, e.g. leaders of

20
Hausa/Fulani, accommodated the innovations of independence so that they strengthen their
trado-political structure rather than changing it.

Weaknesses

 The theory is structurally insensitive to the specific ways factors of economic growth
such as introduction of new technology or markets may be interpreted or modified.

 Inequalities of power and social class that structured such relationships are virtually
ignored.

It is important to note that despite those criticisms, modernisation theory helps to focus our
attention on how values, beliefs, systems and attitudes can influence our behaviour and
consequently our response to social change.

Community as a unit of social change

A community is an aggregation of families habitually living together within a definite

geographical location more or less rooted in the soil they occupy, living in a state of mutual
interdependence, supporting some basic social institution and having some measure of political
autonomy in relation to other community. The term community has equally been used to
denote something both geographical and psychological. Geographically, it denotes specific area
where people cluster. Psychologically it implies shared interests, characteristics or association
as in the expression “community of interests”. However, there is a sociological definition of the
term that combines the two meanings and denotes a people within a common locality having
shared interests and behavioural patterns. Such shared interests and behavioural patterns
manifests, mainly in the areas of production, distribution and consumption of goods and
services; socialisation; social control; social participation and mutual support. A community is
essentially characterised by the organisation of these functions on a locality basis.

Every urban community is serviced by rural communities. Consequently, the rural community
should be the hob of transformation as any change in the rural community is a change of
development in the urban centres. Thus, rural community serves as a major entity of change
and development. Social change approaches, thus tend to focus on the community as the unit
of change, while, behavior change strategies tend to focus on the individual as a locus of
change.

Nature of social changes in rural areas

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Social change is a process by which alterations occurs in the structure and functions of a social
system (social group, community). Any change that occurs either in idea, norms, value, role,
and social habits of a group or in the composition or organisations of their society could be
referred to as social change.

Social change maybe planned or unplanned. Planned social change has to do with human
intervention in the shaping and direction of change towards some predefined goals.

Unplanned social change is the type that occurs suddenly usually through the act of nature,
thereby affording human beings no chance to plan before it occurs. Change may also be total or
segmental in its coverage. Total change is that which covers a wide range of activities, which
may lead to a complete transformation of peoples way of life or their social institution.
Segmented change as the name implies covers only a particular portion and may not call for a
total transformation of the system.

A change can also be coercive, compulsory, voluntary or democratic. A coercive change is one
that is forced on members of the society. A community that decides to embark upon self-help
projects plans for voluntary and democratic change. So also is a nation which, after a
referendum, decides to switch from a parliamentary to a presidential form of government.
Change could be imminent, referring to internally generated changes which occur without any
external influence.

Contact change refers to change that is introduced into the system from sources external to
that contact change or direct contact change. Selective contact change occurs when an outsider
unintentionally communicates an innovation into a social system.

Direct contact change deliberately introduces a new idea into the social system with the aim of
bringing about the change in specific aspect of the system activities

Forms of social change in rural areas .

- Modifications in human attitudes and behavior pattern as a result of education e.g. improved
seedling in the area of farming.

- Alteration in social conditions resulting from changes in political or social organisation. This
will result into loss of part of the family’s labour supplied by the children, an example is the
instituting of universal primary education for universal basic education.

- Effecting reforms in major legacy and functional system of the society, an example is the
passing the law on valued added tax. Whenever a law is passed it will call for a change in the
way of life of people and this further call for adjustment.
22
- Changes in the materials culture i.e. in the arts an artifact of the culture. This is often the
outward manifestation of changes in the non- material aspects of culture.

Dimensions of Innovation

1. Economic change- This occurs in the mode of production, economic relations and
statuses of people in the society e.g. industrialisation, production of crops for sales rather than
domestic consumption. It could be the location of mineral in commercial quantities that will
enhance income and employment .

2. Political change – This deals with the change in the distributions and operating
mechanism of social and political power within the social system for materials, power
concentration in the hand of chiefs.

3. Cultural Dimension: This is a broader term used to describe all changes occurring in any
part of a culture or non-material facts of life such as values and beliefs. Cultural change involves
alterations or modification in the way people perceive and relate to the environment. For
example, pride in weaving of Nigeria National dress or preference for traditional Apala or Fuji
music to foreign music.

4. Technological Change: Technological changes entails way of applying scientific and other
organised knowledge to practical task. An example of agricultural change is a change from
traditional cutlass and hoe agriculture to mechanised system of farming. This has been the view
of technological change for many years which is the introduction of machines. Today,
agricultural technology is viewed as representing much more than only mechanisation. It now
includes:

(i) introduction of new farm inputs such as improved seeds, fertilisers, insecticides, irrigation
system

(ii) introduction of new techniques or practices such as new planting and cultivation techniques,
crop rotation, improved storage system.

Technological changes that are evident in other area are transportation, communication,
health, education, housing and leisure.

5. Behavioural Dimension: This refers to modification in the behaviour of individual as a

result of changes experienced in their economic life, political system, cultural and technological
innovations. These changes can modify the interaction both at the level of individuals and the
community at large, thereby giving them a new identity.

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Resistant forces to change in rural areas

As admirable and desirable as change is, it is not all changes that are wholeheartedly received
with open hands by the people such changes are intended. The factors that may make the
people resistant to change include the following:

i. The change Agent

The identity of the change agent greatly affects the acceptability of an innovation. A
change agent who cannot command the respect, attention, trust or who is not technically
competent cannot successfully introduce a change.

ii. Community Characteristics

Communities and neighborhoods that are ethnically and religiously heterogeneous tend
to have significantly larger farm practice adoption score than homogenous ones. Thus,
the actions a group greatly influences what the individual does.

iii. Inertia

Change may be blocked simply by human inactivity or lethargy. People have to desire
change or feel a need for it. In many cases, people who have lived for a very long time
under a particular condition and have perfectly adjusted to it may find it very difficult to
change.

iv. Habit

It is often said that you cannot teach a new dog a new trick. Habit therefore becomes a
very dangerous clog in the wheel of change when it is connected with folk customs.

v. Fear, Suspicion and Anxiety

Some people intrinsically fear change and are constantly suspicious of change agents
because they are anxious about their survival within the old setting which they find
themselves.

vi. Vested Interest

Social change meets with community resistance whenever it threatens the vested
interests of key individuals or groups. Almost any type of change which would threaten
incomes, prestige or personal ambition would be bitterly opposed.
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 vii. Rejection of Outsiders

People naturally hold strangers with some suspicion, particularly in rural areas. Thus
when people argue that a certain change does not fit into our own cultural situation,
they might actually that they do not trust the source of such change.

Conducive forces to change in rural areas

The following factors within the social systems are conducive for bringing about change and the
change agent could exploit these to his advantage and also pays more attention to the ones
that can inhibit the change in a social system.

Education: is liberation from ignorance, poverty and diseases. Education helps to diffuse
knowledge, skills and attitudes to people which help them in their adjustment to the new ways.
Research findings have shown that people with higher level of education adopt (accept) change
earlier than none or less educated people.

Social disorganisation: this occurs as a result of rapid and uncoordinated change which may
bring about further change for good of the social system. The experience the people of Nigeria
heard during the civil war of late 1960’s have been a factor that has kept multi-nationalities and
multi-ethnic grout together as a nation.

Heterogeneous population: the migration of people from one place to another brings them in
contact with new cultural traits. Several studies have been conducted and reported that,
societies which compose of people with different ethnic backgrounds who interact freely and
diffuse their customs, knowledge, technology and ideology generally experience rapid change.

Contact with other culture: contact with other societies is an important force for cultural
change. With exposure to other cultures through contact and diffusion, resistance to change
can be minimized.

Favourable political and economic climate: change is usually promoted when the political and
economic climate is conducive. In a situation of chaos change is usually impeded. Other factors
that are of importance to rural dwellers, are the change that can quickly bring economic returns
to them and which will improve their socio-economic life rather than the ones in which they
will have to wait for a long time before they start enjoying the benefits. They are also more
likely to be accepted than the ideas which are though good, but do not appear to result in
saving greater income for the farmer.

Active involvement of the people: the involvement of the members of the social system in both
planning and execution of the change made them to feel that the activity is partly their own
25
and not one imposed from outside. With such arrangement, the people have a sense of
belonging in what goes on to make change happen.

Relative advantage: relative advantage of the change being introduced is also factor to be
considered. If the newly introduced change is superior to the one it is meant to supersede, for
example, manual processing of oil palm fruits is tedious and inefficient when compared with
the use of machine that can process palm fruits in a matter of minutes into oil palm and with
less tediousness.

Social movements and changes in contemporary Nigeria

A social movement may be defined as an organised effort by a large number of people to bring
about or impede social change. Defined in this way, social movements might sound similar to
special-interest groups, and they do have some things in common. But a major difference
between social movements and special-interest groups lies in the nature of their actions.
Special-interest groups normally work within the system via conventional political activities such
as lobbying and election campaigning. In contrast, social movements often work outside the
system by engaging in various kinds of protest, including demonstrations, sit-ins, and
sometimes outright violence.

Types of Social Movements

Sociologists identify several types of social movements according to the nature and extent of
the change they seek. This typology helps us understand the differences among the many kinds
of social movements that existed in the past and continue to exist today (D. A. Snow & Soule,
2009).

One of the most common and important types of social movements is the reform movement,
which seeks limited, though still significant, changes in some aspect of a nation’s political,
economic, or social systems. It does not try to overthrow the existing government but rather
works to improve conditions within the existing regime. A revolutionary movement goes one
large step further than a reform movement in seeking to overthrow the existing government
and to bring about a new one and even a new way of life. Revolutionary movements were
common in the past and were responsible for the world’s great revolutions in, China, Russia and
several other nations. Reform and revolutionary movements are often referred to
as political movements because the changes they seek are political in nature.

Two other types of movements that can be found in contemporary Nigeria are self-
help movements and religious movements. As their name implies, self-help movements involve
26
people trying to improve aspects of their personal lives; examples of self-help groups include
Community Development Associations. Religious movements aim to reinforce religious beliefs
among their members and to convert other people to these beliefs.

Traditional institutions and their transformation

The tension between the conception of traditional leadership systems as mere cultural
institutions and the lack of interest and/or ability to use them as practical development tools in
Africa has prompted their critical reappraisal. It is argued that there is much that traditional
institutions can do to influence activities in rural areas. Any lack of such involvement on the
part of traditional leadership systems can only lead to little transformation in rural areas.

Leadership is a sterling ability to move men and material resources for the attendance of
enacted policies or the carriage of the resolution of the people. Leadership has either been
defined or explained in various ways according to relevant experts. It is important to
understand what leadership is in terms of definition, nature and characteristics.

Leadership can be defined as an influenced process. Areas of influence, include official position,
financial controls, organisational influence, knowledge, interpersonal contacts; personal
characteristics. It involves one person trying to get others do something that he wants them to
do. Leadership can be defined as an influenced process. Areas of influence, include official
position, financial controls, organisational influence, knowledge, interpersonal contacts;
personal characteristics. It involves one person trying to get others do something that he wants
them to do. Leadership can be defined as an influenced process. Areas of influence, include
official position, financial controls, organisational influence, knowledge, interpersonal contacts;
personal characteristics. It involves one person trying to get others do something that he wants
them to do. Leadership is the ability to influence authority and power to direct and re-direct
priorities for effectuating the stipulated goals of an organisation. Rural leadership therefore is
the ability of a person designated as a leader to influence and control the community efforts
towards the realisation of the objective of an area.

Traditional rulers are the custodians of local tradition and customs. They exercise traditional
authority which is usually obtained from father to son, according to local customs and
traditions. Their major functions are the fact that they help the local councils to maintain law
and order in their local domains.

Secondly, they serve as a link between the people and the government by explaining to the
people what the government is doing what problems his immediate environment is confronted
with. An example may be the issue of flooding or erosion. They are also the chief priest or
heads of all the traditional religion and ceremonial worship
27
Defining the Traditional Institution

Since the pre-colonial days, even before the advent of African civilisation, there was traditional
institution in Africa that serves as the head of government. There was government that was
traditional in nature, tailored according to cultural contemplation to accommodate the pattern
of living reasonable for their political engineering and social relations.

The government covered among other things any exigency that may consciously or
unconsciously result whose spontaneity may discomfort our geo-centric occupation. The
government had all the elements of the present day organs of governance, being the
legislature, judiciary and the executives sometimes embedded in one person.

The effectiveness and practicability of the three depended essentially on the persons holding
and molding the political authority. The traditional institution is a respected organ in the socio-
political hierarchy of authority in any geographic divide. The traditional rulers are more
knowledgeable in rural governmental affairs. The historical developments of the people are
being handed over to the custodians of culture being local kings. These kings relate with each
other and as such the development question is handled by the local leaders through studies of
their existence and what the previous kings had dominantly settled their minds on. Geographic
settlement and discrepancy emanating from boundary adjustments need the input of the
traditional system.

The community has a human heart and feeling and in such position, every effort for its
maintenance and sustainability will always be on how every facet of organisation is put in place.
The traditional lords should be recognised in the political schemes of the country’s
advancement and be used for more able areas but through the pragmatic belief and
consciousness of making things happen for the realisation of this. The role of the traditional
institution is to liaise with the government and the people within their geographical areas with
the intention of discussing their problems and solutions.

Here, the traditional rulers can set up committees whose duty would be to marshal out the
community desires for physical solutions. They are to open channels through which physical
and material resources can come to the area. It is also their role to galvanise means of
economic production for the furtherance of development. The rural areas cannot just develop
on the platform of sycophancy or parasitic tendency but only fervent recourse to abide by
accepted norms.

Furthermore, their roles can be said to be the following:

28
  To make peace, adjudicate cases and provide equity and justice.

 It is the duty of the traditional lords to provide the forum for rectification of grievances.

 It is also their duty to provide project and propagate representative government which
will be all embracing and accommodating.

 It is also their duty to organise economic units and develop along product lines. This can
be achieved through mobilization, education and channeling of resources to that area
and concertising the people to follow suit.

 Lastly, it is their duty to be objective and not subjective in their reasoning, allocation of
values and adjudicating of cases.

Lessons learnt in rural community development over the years

1. The top-down supply driven approach to rural community development has been a
great impediment toward achieving the expected outcome for initiating developmental
projects.

2. Ownership of project objectives is vital and the enabling environment should exist for
local government institutions and community organisations to establish collaborative
partnership. It is important that different local players become the driving force towards
development, develop a sense of ‘shared ownership’ and jointly manage their
development initiatives.

3. It is imperative for project design strategy to be flexible enough to allow for adjustments
during the implementation cycle. Also, at design stage, proper consideration is to be
given to social, economic, and cultural peculiarities of the chosen locality.

4. The following factors could also influence the sustainability of any rural community
development efforts:

 Heavy reliance on technical assistance with little training for local staff to effectively take
over the implementation

 High level investments which significantly exceed norms, result in resource unavailability
(e.g. no way to find replacement parts or afford maintenance) when project
disbursement end.

 Establishment of project specific institutions that do not get absorbed into regular
institutional settings

29
  Relatively short duration of programmes which results in the inability to produce result
during the project implementation cycle and

 Low level of community involvement and lack of sense of ownership

References

Ekong, E. C. (1995). Rural Sociology: An Introduction and Analysis of Rural Nigeria. Lagos: Jamak
Publishers

Frank, F. and Smith, A. (1999). The Community Development Handbook. A Tool to Build
Community Capacity. Hull Quebec

Case studies on community development

Rural Development Programmes in Nigeria

Successive Nigeria governments have made concerted efforts towards the development of rural
communities in Nigeria. This is because the various leaders believed that in order to achieve any
meaningful development, the rural sector and in fact, the rural people, must be empowered.
Rural community development has been defined as any effort targeted at the improvement of
rural economy such that the socioeconomic status of the rural dwellers can be enhanced. A few
examples of rural development programmes in Nigeria are discussed below:

National Accelerated Food Production (NAFP)

This project was launched in 1973 as a national network of agro-service centres created to
facilitate the distribution of tractors and machinery services to farmers to support the
promotion of improved packages of technology development by various research institutes
under the NAFPP. The original policy intention is to put these centres in the mainstream of rural
development plans.

30
People’s Bank and Community Banks

This was Federal Government policy to liberalise access to credit by the poor in 1989. The
operation of the people’s Bank faced a number of problems like any community development
efforts, among which are the unsustainable rate of branch expansion, the dependence on
government for funds and weak management as a result of which its effectiveness in alleviating
the problems of the poor remains insignificant. Even so, the peoples’ Bank is no more.

As a result of government continued effort, the peoples’ Bank was merged with the Nigerian
Agricultural and Cooperative Bank (NACB) to form the Nigerian Agricultural Cooperative and
Rural Development Bank (NACRDB). The establishment of community banks was intended to
inculcate the banking habit in rural areas and providing needed banking services to members of
their community. Although, the community banks can be said to have recorded some
successes, it will be fool hardy to believe that it has actually improved the living standards of
the rural poor who are supposed to be the target group. For instance, most of those that
benefited from the community banks are businessmen with medium scale business enterprises.
The poor with no collateral and adequate deposit base were largely unable to meet their credit
needs from these banks. Apart from this, a large number of these banks are located in the
urban areas and most of their services are directed to the urban with less credit risks.

Better Life Programme

This is yet another programme for rural community development in Nigeria. It was established
in 1987 with a view to empowering women and the development of the rural areas. It was to
ensure good environmental condition such as recreational centres for optimum performance. It
transformed to Family Support Programme with the same intention or objective of encouraging
rural dwellers and especially women to improve their standard of living. Through this
programme, the success noticed and desires to improve living standards were plausible.

The programme, however, suffered the same fate like others as political powers change from
one person to another. The major concern of the Better Life Programme is improving the lives
of rural women within the communities which constitute the largest and most exploited group
of the total rural population. It is the binding force for most of the ambitious projects and
programs which the administration has set in motion. The Better Life Programme recognised
the consensus of the large population of women as rural dwellers which constitute majority of
our labour force. These women work as mothers and wives as well as true bread winners
engaged in trading and farming.

The objectives of Better Life Programme were:

31
(i) To promote the welfare and full utilisation of women in human resources development along
with the promotion of responsible motherhood.

(ii) To stimulate action aimed at improving the political, cultural, social and economic status of
women as well as support nongovernmental organisations.

(iii) To provide modern amenities like those enjoyed in the towns, it was hoped that rural
communities could be made attractive. The development of small scale industries and
introduce new technology. This is to reduce the problem of employment in the rural areas.

(iv) To formulate and propagate the moral values within the family units.

(v) To promote the interest of women in the social front to ensure that, they are not relegated
to the background.

(vi) To improve the home life and general status of women in rural communities.

(vii) To encourage cooperative activities among women while also working towards the total
elimination of all social and cultural values which discriminate against and dehumanised
womanhood.

(viii) To encourage acquisition of skills, knowledge and positive effect in agriculture, house
management, health education, industrial sectors and cooperative societies.

Better Life Programme played important roles in Nigeria’s women and economy. As the women
started this programme, there were changes in their standard of living and also it raised their
social status. Generally, Better Life Programme aimed at human development through the
encouragement of optimal resource management and which generally works with women as its
audience would seem to have relevance to women’s lives.

Family Support Programme (FSP)

FSP was given birth to when the Babangida administration was toppled by General Abacha. The
Better Life Programme being the brain child of Mrs. Babangida naturally died and was replaced
by FSP, chaired by Mrs. Abacha. The FSP focused on the status and welfare of children
especially in rural communities. The programme aimed at improving the experience of women
in development programme. This was mainly done by broadening its scope and sharpening its
focus. The overall aim of the FSP was to improve and sustain the family cohesion through the
promotion of social and economic well being of the Nigerian family for its maximum
contribution to national development and to promote policies/programs that strengthen the

32
observance and projection of human rights, the advancement of social justice and human
dignity. The specific objectives of FSP were:

(i) To promote decent health care delivery in reducing maternal and child mortality and
morbidity through improved health care system.

(ii) To eradicate negative social and cultural factors affecting women and children.

(iii) To assist families identify economically viable enterprises for income generation, and to
provide technical and financial support for their implementation.

(iv) To assist families increase their agricultural productivity as well as improving their internal
status.

(v) To carry the public enlightenment campaign to sensitise the general public on matters of
human decency, civic responsibilities and concern for the welfare of the disadvantaged.

(vi) To establish a family round-table for promotion of discipline, morality and family cohesion
through projects such as girl child scheme; the boy-drop-out and the children in distress.

(vii) To enhance the capacity of parents to act as role models to their children through various
means including guidance and counselling.

(viii) To help family members learn more about the psychological dynamics of families as units
on which more effective social organisation and responsibilities can emerge.

(ix) To create, arouse and sustain the interest of government, the Nigerian people and
international organisations on the activities of FSP.

(x) To sensitise government on the need to provide adequate shelter for all Nigerians.

(xi) To promote the maintenance of high moral standards of the nation as well as responsive
action against policies and trends, both foreign and local, that may militate against such
standards.

(xii) To promote and improve on the welfare of the most vulnerable and disadvantaged groups
in the community.

(xiii) To carry the public enlightenment campaigns to sensitise the general public on matters of
human decency, civil responsibility and concern for welfare of the disadvantaged.

Directorate of Food, Roads and Rural Infrastructure (DFRRI)

33
DFRRI was established in 1986 with a determined focus on the development of the entire rural
areas of Nigeria in order to improve the quality of life of the rural dwellers. It was charged with
a mandate of rural infrastructural development in the areas of feeder, roads construction to
open up the rural areas. Emphases were also placed on how to add value to food production, so
storage facilitates and other post harvest processing facilities were provided. DFRRI recorded
successes as the rural areas bubbled back to life with cottage industries springing up on the
heels of rural electrification; the rural people could diversify their business venture from mainly
turning to rendering services which was able to resolve the human sense of dignity. In 1994,
however, DFRRI with its attendant benefits also went the way of other development institution
already discussed. There are several other rural development programmes in Nigeria as each
administration has a different approach towards rural development but the common feature to
all these initiatives is that inconsistency occasioned by unstable polity.

34