Article

Green’s function and a Lyapunov-type inequality for a

generalized boundary value problem
Jagan Mohan Jonnalagadda1 and Juan E. Nápoles Valdés2,3,∗
1 Department of Mathematics, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Hyderabad, Telangana, India - 500078
2 UNNE, FaCENA, Ave. Libertad 5450, Corrientes 3400, Argentina
3 UTN - FRRE, French 414, Resistencia, Chaco 3500, Argentina
* Correspondence: jnapoles@[Link]

Received: 30 December 2025; Accepted: 01 June 2026; Published: 18 June 2026.

Abstract: This study investigates a generalized fractional Hill differential equation subject to two-point
separated homogeneous boundary conditions. First, we formulate the Green’s function and detail its
fundamental characteristics. Subsequently, we derive a Lyapunov-type inequality for this specific boundary
value problem. The article illustrates that these results encompass several established findings in existing
literature as special cases. Finally, the work highlights potential avenues for future study through a series of
open problems.

Keywords: differential equation, generalized derivative, boundary conditions, Green’s function,

Lyapunov-type inequality

MSC: 26A24, 26D10, 34B99.

1. Introduction
et p be a real and continuous function defined on the interval [0, T ]. The classical Lyapunov inequality
L [1] states that if the Hill differential equation

y′′ + p(t)y = 0, 0 < t < T, (1)

subject to Dirichlet boundary conditions

y(0) = y( T ) = 0, (2)

has a non-trivial solution y, then

Z T
4
| p(t)| dt > . (3)
0 T
Additionally, the constant 4 in this inequality is sharp in the sense that the constant 4 cannot be replaced
by a larger number.
Since its inception, the Lyapunov inequality has garnered substantial academic interest, leading to
numerous generalizations across various mathematical frameworks. These inequalities are vital to the
qualitative study of differential equations, serving as essential tools in oscillation theory, stability analysis, and
the investigation of boundary value problems by providing rigorous criteria for the non-existence of non-trivial
solutions and establishing bounds for eigenvalues in Sturm–Liouville problems. In practical applications, they
are indispensable for evaluating the stability and controllability of dynamical systems within engineering and
mathematical physics. Extensive reviews of these inequalities and their applications can be found in [2–10].
The field of fractional calculus [11,12], centered on non-integer order derivatives and integrals, traces
its history back to the inception of classical analysis. While rooted in tradition, the discipline has seen
an explosion of growth in recent decades, evolving into a highly productive research domain. The
expansion of Lyapunov-type inequalities to include fractional operators has significantly broadened their
utility, particularly in modeling non-local phenomena and systems with memory-dependent dynamics.

Open J. Math. Anal. 2026, 10(1), 176-185; doi:10.30538/psrp-oma2026.0195 [Link]

 Open J. Math. Anal. 2026, 10(1), 176-185 177

Consequently, a substantial body of recent literature [13–24] has focused on establishing these inequalities
for diverse categories of fractional boundary value problems.
While local differential operators first emerged in the 1960s, their formalization was only recently
established through the introduction of the conformable derivative [25]. This framework was further expanded
in 2018 with the development of the non conformable derivative [26–29], a breakthrough that significantly
widened both the theoretical scope and the practical utility of the field. To gain a more comprehensive
perspective on these advancements and their many developments, interested readers may refer to [30–33].
Generalized differential operators [34,35] have become a cornerstone in tackling complex problems across
mathematical analysis, particularly where traditional calculus falls short. These operators are essential for
modeling anomalous diffusion, non-local elliptic and parabolic equations, and integro-differential systems,
as they effectively account for memory effects and long-range interactions. Beyond modeling, they are
fundamental to the architecture of generalized Sobolev spaces and play a vital role in spectral theory through
generalized Sturm–Liouville problems. Their versatility extends to the calculus of variations and non-linear
analysis, where they enable the development of generalized Euler–Lagrange equations and fixed-point
frameworks.
Building on these motivations, this research explores a version of the Hill differential equation where the
traditional second-order derivative is substituted with a generalized derivative of order ν ∈ (1, 2), governed
by two-point separated homogeneous boundary conditions. Our analysis begins with the formulation of
the corresponding Green’s function and a detailed examination of its fundamental characteristics. These
properties then serve as the basis for deriving a new Lyapunov-type inequality for the problem at hand.
Furthermore, we demonstrate the generality of our framework by showing that it encompasses several
well-known results from previous studies as specific instances. The article wraps up by identifying various
unresolved problems to stimulate further investigation in the field.

2. Preliminaries
This section presents the preliminary concepts of generalized integrals and derivatives employed in
deriving the main results. The notion of a generalized derivative introduced in [29] is further extended in
[34,35] to encompass higher-order generalizations.

Definition 1. Let f : [0, +∞) → R, µ ∈ (0, 1) and Φ(·, µ) be an absolutely continuous real function defined on
the interval [0, +∞). Then, the N-derivative of f of order µ is defined by

f (t + εΦ(t, µ)) − f (t)

 
µ
NΦ f (t) = lim , t > 0.
ε →0 ε
µ
If lim NΦ f (t) exists, then
t →0+
µ µ
NΦ f (0) = lim NΦ f (t).
t →0+

Remark 1. [36] The generalized derivative defined above contains conformable and non-conformable local
derivatives as particular cases.

Φ(t, µ) Derivative
1 Classical
µ
et Non-conformable [26,28]
e ( µ −1) t Conformable [34]
t 1− µ Conformable [25]
tµ Non-conformable [37]
t−µ Non-conformable [38]
 Open J. Math. Anal. 2026, 10(1), 176-185 178

Definition 2. Let f : [0, +∞) → R, n ∈ N, µ ∈ (n − 1, n) and Φ(·, µ) be an absolutely continuous real function
defined on the interval [0, +∞). If f (n−1) exists on (0, +∞), then the N-derivative of f of order µ is defined by
" #
µ f (n−1) (t + εΦ(t, µ − n + 1)) − f (n−1) (t)
NΦ f (t) = lim , t > 0.
ε →0 ε

Now, we give the definition of a general fractional integral [27,34–36].

Definition 3. Let µ ∈ R, K (·, µ) be an absolutely continuous real function defined on the interval [0, +∞) and
f : [0, +∞) → R be a locally integrable function. Then,
1. the left integral of f of order µ is defined by
Z t
µ f (s)
JK,0+ f (t) = ds, t > 0; (4)
0 K (t − s, µ)

2. the central integral of f of order µ is defined by

Z t
µ f (s)
JK,0 f (t) = ds, t > 0. (5)
0 K (s, µ)

Remark 2. [36] The generalized integrals defined above contain, as particular cases, the integral operators
obtained from conformable and non-conformable local derivatives.

The following result is similar to the known result from classical calculus [36].

Theorem 1. Let f : [0, +∞) → R, n ∈ N, µ ∈ (n − 1, n) and Φ(·, µ) be an absolutely continuous real function defined
on the interval [0, +∞). If f is µ-differentiable on (0, +∞) such that f (n) is locally integrable on (0, +∞), then
" #
n −1
f (i ) (0) i
∑
µ µ
JΦ,0 NΦ f (t) = f (t) − t , t > 0.
i =0
i!

Throughout this article, we assume that 1 < ν < 2 and F (·, ν) is an absolutely continuous real positive
function defined on the interval [0, T ].

3. Main Results
The outline of this section is as follows: First, we consider the following boundary value problem:

ν
 NF x (t) + h(t) = 0, 0 < t < T,


αx (0) − βx ′ (0)
= 0, (6)

γx ( T ) + δx ′ ( T ) = 0,


where α, β, γ, δ ∈ R such that α2 + β2 > 0 and γ2 + δ2 > 0, T > 0 and h : [0, T ] → R is a continuous function.
We construct the associated Green’s function in Theorem 2 and derive a few of its important properties in
Theorems 3 and 4. Next, we consider the following boundary value problem

ν
 NF x (t) + a(t) x (t) = 0, 0 < t < T,


αx (0) − βx ′ (0)
= 0, (7)

γx ( T ) + δx ′ ( T ) = 0,


corresponding to (6), and establish a Lyapunov-type inequality in Theorem 7. Here a is a real and continuous
function defined on the interval [0, T ].

Remark 3. If F (t, ν) = t1−ν , α = β = γ = δ = 1, then (7) reduces to the boundary value problem considered
in [15]. If F (t, ν) = t1−ν , α = γ = 1 and β = δ = 0, we obtain the boundary value problem studied in [14].
 Open J. Math. Anal. 2026, 10(1), 176-185 179

Theorem 2. Assume αγT + αδ + βγ ̸= 0. The unique solution of (6) is given by

Z T
x (t) = G (t, s)h(s)ds, 0 ≤ t ≤ T, (8)
0

where (
1 G1 (t, s), 0 ≤ t ≤ s ≤ T,
G (t, s) = (9)
F (s, ν) G2 (t, s), 0 ≤ s ≤ t ≤ T,
is the Green’s function associated with (6). Here

β + αt
G1 (t, s) = [γ( T − s) + δ] , (10)
αγT + αδ + βγ

and
G2 (t, s) = G1 (t, s) − (t − s). (11)

Proof. The general solution of

NFν x (t) + h(t) = 0, 0 < t < T,

can be expressed as
Z t
h(s)
x ( t ) = c1 + c2 t − (t − s) ds, 0 ≤ t ≤ T, (12)
0 F (s, ν)
where c1 and c2 are arbitrary constants. Then, we have
Z t
h(s)
x ′ ( t ) = c2 − ds, 0 ≤ t ≤ T. (13)
0 F (s, ν)

Using the boundary condition αx (0) − βx ′ (0) = 0 in (12) - (13), we obtain

αc1 − βc2 = 0. (14)

Using the boundary condition γx ( T ) + δx ′ ( T ) = 0 in (12) - (13), we obtain

Z T
h(s)
γc1 + (γT + δ) c2 = [γ( T − s) + δ] ds. (15)
0 F (s, ν)

Solving (14) and (15) for c1 and c2 , we get

Z T
β h(s)
c1 = [γ( T − s) + δ] ds, (16)
αγT + αδ + βγ 0 F (s, ν)

and Z T
α h(s)
c2 = [γ( T − s) + δ] ds. (17)
αγT + αδ + βγ 0 F (s, ν)
Using (16) and (17) in (12), for 0 ≤ t ≤ T, we have
Z T Z t
β + αt h(s) h(s)
x (t) = [γ( T − s) + δ] ds − (t − s) ds
αγT + αδ + βγ 0 F (s, ν) 0 F (s, ν)
Z t Z T
= G2 (t, s)h(s)ds + G1 (t, s)h(s)ds,
0 t

the result we were looking for.

Remark 4. If F (t, ν) = t1−ν , α = β = γ = δ = 1, Theorem 2 becomes Theorem 3.1 of [15]. If α = γ = 1,

β = δ = 0 and F (t, ν) = t1−ν , we obtain Lemma 3 of [14] from Theorem 2.
 Open J. Math. Anal. 2026, 10(1), 176-185 180

Theorem 3. Assume α, β, γ, δ ≥ 0 such that αδ + αγT + βγ > 0. Then, the Green’s function G (t, s) defined in (9) is
non-negative for all (t, s) ∈ [0, T ] × [0, T ].

Proof. It follows from α, β, γ, δ ≥ 0 such that αδ + αγT + βγ > 0 and 0 ≤ t ≤ s ≤ T that

αt + β
G1 (t, s) = [γ( T − s) + δ] ≥ 0.
αδ + αγT + βγ

Now, for 0 ≤ s ≤ t ≤ T, consider

G2 (t, s) = G1 (t, s) − (t − s)
αt + β
= [γ( T − s) + δ] − (t − s)
αδ + αγT + βγ
1
= [(αt + β) [γ( T − s) + δ] − (t − s)(αδ + αγT + βγ)]
αδ + αγT + βγ

1
= βγ [( T − s) − (t − s)] + αγ [t( T − s) − T (t − s)]
αδ + αγT + βγ

1
+ αδ [t − (t − s)] + βδ = [ βγ( T − t) + αγ( T − t)s + αδs + βδ] .
αδ + αγT + βγ

Since α, β, γ, δ ≥ 0 such that αδ + αγT + βγ > 0 and 0 ≤ s ≤ t ≤ T, we obtain G2 (t, s) ≥ 0. Thus, G (t, s)
is non-negative for all (t, s) ∈ [0, T ] × [0, T ]. The proof is completed.

Remark 5. Theorem 3 coincides with Lemma 4 of [14] and with Lemma 3.2 of [15], obtained within the
framework of the conformable derivative and with particular choices of α, β, γ, and δ.

β
Theorem 4. Assume β, δ ≥ 0, α, γ > 0 such that αδ + αγT + βγ > 0. Further, assume δ
γ − α < T. For the Green’s
function G (t, s) defined in (9), we have

max [ F (s, ν) G (t, s)] = F (t, ν) G (t, t), t ∈ [0, T ],

s∈[0,T ]

and
αδ + αγT + βγ
max [ F (t, ν) G (t, t)] = .
t∈[0,T ] 4αγ

Proof. For the first part, we show that for any fixed t ∈ [0, T ], G (t, s) increases in s for s from 0 to t, and then
decreases in s for s from t to T. Let 0 ≤ t ≤ s ≤ T and consider

∂ γ(αt + β)
G (t, s) = − .
∂s 1 αδ + αγT + βγ

Since δ ≥ 0, α, β, γ > 0 and 0 ≤ t ≤ s ≤ T, it follows that ∂

∂s G1 ( t, s ) ≤ 0 implying that G1 (t, s) decreases
in s for s from t to T. Let 0 ≤ s ≤ t ≤ T and consider

∂ γ(αt + β) αγ( T − t) + αδ
G2 (t, s) = − +1 = .
∂s αδ + αγT + βγ αδ + αγT + βγ

Since δ ≥ 0, α, β, γ > 0 and 0 ≤ s ≤ t ≤ T, we obtain ∂

∂s G2 ( t, s ) ≥ 0 implying that G2 (t, s) increases in s
for s from 0 to t. Thus, we have

max [ F (s, ν) G (t, s)] = F (t, ν) G (t, t), t ∈ [0, T ].

s∈[0,T ]
 Open J. Math. Anal. 2026, 10(1), 176-185 181

To prove the second part, for t ∈ [0, T ], consider

αt + β
F (t, ν) G (t, t) = [γ( T − t) + δ] .
αδ + αγT + βγ

We find the maximum value of this expression with respect to t on [0, T ]. Denote by

αt + β
H (t) = [γ( T − t) + δ] .
αδ + αγT + βγ

Differentiating H with respect to t and equating it to zero, we obtain

 
∗ 1 δ β
t = T+ − .
2 γ α

β β
Since − T < δ
γ − α < T, we have 0 < T + δ
γ − α < 2T, and hence
 
1 δ β
0< T+ − < T,
2 γ α

implying that  
∗ 1 δ β
t = T+ − ∈ (0, T ).
2 γ α
Further
2αγ
H ′′ (t) = − < 0,
αδ + αγT + βγ
implying that H (t) attains its maximum value at t = t∗ . Thus,

αδ + αγT + βγ
max F (t, ν) G (t, t) = max H (t) = H (t∗ ) = .
t∈[0,T ] t∈[0,T ] 4αγ

The proof is completed.

Theorem 5. Assume γ > 0 and δ ≥ 0. For the Green’s function G (t, s) defined in (9) with α = 0 and β = 1, we have

max [ F (s, ν) G (t, s)] = F (t, ν) G (t, t), t ∈ [0, T ],

s∈[0,T ]

and
δ
max [ F (t, ν) G (t, t)] = T + .
t∈[0,T ] γ

Proof. Let 0 ≤ t ≤ s ≤ T and consider

∂
G (t, s) = −1.
∂s 1
It follows that G1 (t, s) decreases in s for s from t to T. Let 0 ≤ s ≤ t ≤ T and consider

∂
G2 (t, s) = 0.
∂s

Clearly, G2 (t, s) is a constant function of s for s from 0 to t. Thus, we have

max [ F (s, ν) G (t, s)] = F (t, ν) G (t, t), t ∈ [0, T ].

s∈[0,T ]

To prove the second part, for t ∈ [0, T ], consider

1
F (t, ν) G (t, t) = [γ( T − t) + δ] .
γ
 Open J. Math. Anal. 2026, 10(1), 176-185 182

Clearly,
δ
max F (t, ν) G (t, t) = T + .
t∈[0,T ] γ
The proof is completed.

Theorem 6. Assume α > 0 and β ≥ 0. For the Green’s function G (t, s) defined in (9) with γ = 0 and δ = 1, we have

max [ F (s, ν) G (t, s)] = F (t, ν) G (t, t), t ∈ [0, T ],

s∈[0,T ]

and
β
max [ F (t, ν) G (t, t)] = T + .
t∈[0,T ] α

Proof. Let 0 ≤ t ≤ s ≤ T and consider

∂
G (t, s) = 0.
∂s 1
Clearly, G1 (t, s) is a constant function of s for s from t to T. Let 0 ≤ s ≤ t ≤ T and consider

∂
G2 (t, s) = 1.
∂s

It follows that G2 (t, s) increases in s for s from 0 to t. Thus, we have

max [ F (s, ν) G (t, s)] = F (t, ν) G (t, t), t ∈ [0, T ].

s∈[0,T ]

To prove the second part, for t ∈ [0, T ], consider

αt + β
F (t, ν) G (t, t) = .
α
Clearly,
β
max F (t, ν) G (t, t) = T + .
t∈[0,T ] α
The proof is completed.

Remark 6. If we consider the conformable derivative, then we can derive Lemma 4 of [14] and Lemma 3.2 of
[15] from Theorem 4, for appropriate choices of the parameters α, β, γ, and δ.

We are now able to formulate a Lyapunov-type inequality for (7).

β
Theorem 7. Assume β, δ ≥ 0, α, γ > 0 such that αδ + αγT + βγ > 0. Further, assume δ
γ − α < T. If (7) has a
non-trivial solution x, then Z T
| a(s)| 4αγ
ds > . (18)
0 F ( s, ν ) αδ + αγT + βγ

Proof. Let B = C [0, T ] be the Banach space of real and continuous functions defined on the interval [0, T ]
endowed with the maximum norm. It follows from Theorem 2 that a solution to (7) satisfies the equation
Z T
x (t) = G (t, s) a(s) x (s)ds, 0 ≤ t ≤ T.
0
 Open J. Math. Anal. 2026, 10(1), 176-185 183

Hence

∥ x ∥ = max | x (t)|
t∈[0,T ]
Z T
= max G (t, s) a(s) x (s)ds
t∈[0,T ] 0
T
Z 
≤ max G (t, s)| a(s)|| x (s)|ds
t∈[0,T ] 0
T
Z 
≤ ∥ x ∥ max G (t, s)| a(s)|ds
t∈[0,T ] 0
T | a(s)|
Z 
= ∥ x ∥ max [ F (s, ν) G (t, s)] ds
t∈[0,T ] 0 F (s, ν)
Z T
| a(s)|

≤ ∥ x ∥ max [ F (t, ν) G (t, t)] ds ,
t∈[0,T ] 0 F ( s, ν )

or equivalently,
T | a(s)|
Z 
1 < max [ F (t, ν) G (t, t)] ds .
t∈[0,T ] 0 F (s, ν)
An application of Theorem 4 yields the result.

Theorem 8. Assume γ > 0 and δ ≥ 0. If (7) with α = 0 and β = 1 has a non-trivial solution x, then
Z T
| a(s)| 1
ds > . (19)
0 F (s, ν) T+ δ
γ

Theorem 9. Assume α > 0 and β ≥ 0. If (7) with γ = 0 and δ = 1 has a non-trivial solution x, then
Z T
| a(s)| 1
ds > . (20)
0 F (s, ν) T+
β
α

Remark 7. Theorems 7 - 9 are natural generalizations of Theorem 3 of [14], Theorem 3.3 of [15] and Theorem
2 of [20] and Theorem 3.1 of [10] for appropriate choices of the parameters α, β, γ, and δ. Obviously, if F ≡ 1,
from (18), we obtain the classical Lyapunov inequality (3).

4. Conclusions
The Lyapunov inequality and its various extensions play a fundamental role in analyzing the
qualitative behavior of differential equations, with significant applications in oscillation theory, asymptotic
analysis, disconjugacy, and eigenvalue problems. Generalizations of these inequalities to fractional and
other generalized differential operators broaden their scope by incorporating nonlocal interactions and
memory-dependent phenomena.
In this work, we investigated the Hill differential equation by substituting the classical second-order
derivative with a generalized derivative of order ν ∈ (1, 2), together with two-point separated boundary
conditions. By exploiting the properties of the corresponding Green’s function, we established a generalized
form of the classical Lyapunov inequality. Our approach not only recovers the results obtained in [10,13,17,20,
23,30], but also provides new improvements and extensions of the classical Lyapunov inequality (3).
The nonnegativity property of the Green’s function is crucial in determining sufficient conditions that
guarantee at least one positive solution for the corresponding boundary value problem. The well-known
Guo–Krasnoselskii, Leggett–Williams, and Avery-type fixed point theorems are essential for establishing the
existence of multiple positive solutions in a cone of a Banach space.

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