Data Structure and Algorithms

Introduction to Data Structures & Algorithms

Analysis

A program is written in order to solve a problem. A

solution to a problem actually consists of two things:
 A way to organize the data
 Sequence of steps to solve the problem
The way data are organized in a computers memory is
said to be Data Structure and the sequence of
computational steps to solve a problem is said to be an
algorithm.
 So,

Data structure = organized data + Operations

Program = Data structure + Algorithm

 Introduction to Data Structures
Given a problem, the first step to solve the problem is obtaining ones own
abstract view, or model, of the problem. This process of modeling is called
abstraction.

The model defines an abstract view to the problem. This implies that the model focuses
only on problem related stuff and that a programmer tries to define the properties of the
problem.
These properties include
 The data which are affected and
 The operations that are involved in the problem.
With abstraction you create a well-defined entity that can be properly handled. These
entities define the data structure of the program.
 Abstract Data Types
An entity with the properties just described is called an abstract data type
(ADT).
An ADT consists of an abstract data structure and operations. Put in other
terms, an ADT is an abstraction of a data structure.
The ADT specifies:
 What can be stored in the Abstract Data Type
 What operations can be done on/by the Abstract Data Type.
For example, if we are going to model employees of an organization:
 This ADT stores employees with their relevant attributes and discarding irrelevant
attributes.
 This ADT supports hiring, firing, retiring, … operations.
A data structure is a language construct that the programmer has defined in
order to implement an abstract data type.
 Abstraction
There are lots of formalized and standard Abstract data types such as Stacks,
Queues, Trees, etc.
Do all characteristics need to be modeled?
Not at all
 It depends on the scope of the model
 It depends on the reason for developing the model
Abstraction is a process of classifying characteristics as relevant and
irrelevant for the particular purpose at hand and ignoring the irrelevant ones.
Applying abstraction correctly is the essence of successful programming.
How do data structures model the world or some part of the world?
 The value held by a data structure represents some specific characteristic of the world
 The characteristic being modeled restricts the possible values held by a data structure
 The characteristic being modeled restricts the possible operations to be performed on the data
structure.
Note: Notice the relation between characteristic, value, and data structures
Where are algorithms, then?
 Algorithms
An algorithm is a well-defined computational procedure that takes some
value or a set of values as input and produces some value or a set of values
as output.
Data structures model the static part of the world. They are unchanging
while the world is changing.
In order to model the dynamic part of the world we need to work with
algorithms.
Algorithms are the dynamic part of a program’s world model.
An algorithm transforms data structures from one state to another state in two
ways:
An algorithm may change the value held by a data structure
An algorithm may change the data structure itself
The quality of a data structure is related to its ability to successfully model the
characteristics of the world. Similarly, the quality of an algorithm is related to
its ability to successfully simulate the changes in the world.
 Cont.
However, independent of any particular world model, the quality of data
structure and algorithms is determined by their ability to work together well.
Generally speaking, correct data structures lead to simple and efficient
algorithms and correct algorithms lead to accurate and efficient data structures.
Properties of an algorithm
Finiteness: Algorithm must complete after a finite number of steps.
Definiteness: Each step must be clearly defined, having one and only one
interpretation. At each point in computation, one should be able to tell
exactly what happens next.
Sequence: Each step must have a unique defined preceding and succeeding
step. The first step (start step) and last step (halt step) must be clearly
noted.
Feasibility: It must be possible to perform each instruction.
Correctness: It must compute correct answer for all possible legal inputs.
 Cont.
Language Independence: It must not depend on any one programming
language.
Completeness: It must solve the problem completely.
Effectiveness: It must be possible to perform each step exactly and in a
finite amount of time.
Efficiency: It must solve with the least amount of computational resources
such as time and space.
Generality: Algorithm should be valid on all possible inputs.
Input/Output: There must be a specified number of input values, and one
or more result values.
 Operations on data Structures
The various operations that can be performed over Data
Structures are
Create
Destroy
Access
Update
Primitive Data Structures
Integers, Real Numbers, Characters, Logical, Pointers,…
Non-Primitive Data Structure
Non-Primitive data structures are those that can be obtained
from the primitive data structures.
The non-primitive data structures and number of such data
structures are not fixed.
If the allocation of memory is sequential or continuous then
such a data structure is called a non-primitive linear
structure. Example: arrays, stacks, queues, linked lists, etc.
If the allocation of memory is not sequential but random or
discontinuous then such a data structure is called a Non-
primitive non-linear structure. Example, Trees, Graphs, etc.
 Algorithm Analysis
Algorithm analysis refers to the process of determining the amount of
computing time and storage space required by different algorithms.
In other words, it’s a process of predicting the resource requirement of
algorithms in a given environment.
In order to solve a problem, there are many possible algorithms. One has to be
able to choose the best algorithm for the problem at hand using some scientific
method.
To classify some data structures and algorithms as good, we need precise ways
of analyzing them in terms of resource requirement.
The main resources are:
 Running Time
 Memory Usage
 Communication Bandwidth
Running time is usually treated as the most important since computational time
is the most precious resource in most problem domains.
 Complexity Analysis
Complexity Analysis is the systematic study of the cost
of computation, measured either in time units or in
operations performed, or in the amount of storage space
required.
The goal is to have a meaningful measure that permits
comparison of algorithms independent of operating
platform.
There are two things to consider:
Time Complexity: Determine the approximate number
of operations required to solve a problem of size n.
Space Complexity: Determine the approximate memory
required to solve a problem of size n.
 Cont.
Complexity analysis involves two distinct phases:
Algorithm Analysis: Analysis of the algorithm or data structure
to produce a function T (n) that describes the algorithm in terms
of the operations performed in order to measure the complexity of
the algorithm.

Order of Magnitude Analysis: Analysis of the function T (n) to

determine the general complexity category to which it belongs.
There is no generally accepted set of rules for algorithm analysis.
However, an exact count of operations is commonly used.
Generally, Complexity analysis is concerned with determining
the efficiency of algorithms.
 1. Empirical (Computational) Analysis
Total running time of the program is considered.
It uses the system time to calculate the running time
and it can’t be used for measuring efficiency of
algorithms.
This is because the total running time of the program
algorithm varies on the:
Processor speed
Current processor load
Input size of the given algorithm
and software environment (multitasking, single tasking,…)
 What is Efficiency depends on?
Execution speed (most important)
Amount of memory used
Efficiency differences may not be noticeable for small data,
but become very important for large amounts of data
 Exercise One
Write a program that displays the total running time of a
given algorithm based on different situations such as
processor speed, input size, processor load, and software
environment (Windows).
 2. Theoretical (Asymptotic Complexity) Analysis

In most real-world examples it is not so easy to calculate the

complexity function.
But not normally necessary, e.g. consider t = f(n) = n2 + 5n ; For all
n>5, n2 is largest, and for very large n, the 5n term is insignificant
Therefore we can approximate f(n) by the n2 term only. This is
called asymptotic complexity
An approximation of the computational complexity that holds for
large n.
Used when it is difficult or unnecessary to determine true
computational complexity
Usually it is difficult/impossible to determine computational
complexity. So, asymptotic complexity is the most common
measure
 How do we estimate the complexity of
algorithms?

1. Algorithm analysis – Find f(n)- helps to determine the

complexity of an algorithm
2. Order of Magnitude – g(n) belongs to O(f(n)) – helps
to determine the category of the complexity to which it
belongs.
 Analysis Rule:
1. Assume an arbitrary time unit
2. Execution of one of the following operations takes time unit 1
– Assignment statement Eg. Sum=0;
– Single I/O statement;. E.g. cin>>sum; cout<<sum;
– Single Boolean statement.
– Single arithmetic. E.g. a+b
– Function return. E.g. return(sum);
3. selection statement
– Time for condition evaluation + the maximum time of its clauses
4. Loop statement
– ∑(no. of iteration of Body) +1 + n+1 + n (initialization time + checking +
update)
5. For function call
– 1+ time(parameters) + body time
 Estimation of Complexity of Algorithm
• Calculate T(n) for the following
• 1. k=0;
Cout<<“enter an integer”;
Cin>>n;
For (i=0;i<n;i++)
{
K++;
}
• T(n) = 1+1+1+ (1+n+1+ n +n(1))
=5+3n
 …
• 2. i=0;
While (i<n)
{
x++;
i++;
}
J=1;
While(j<=10)
{
x++;
j++
}
• T(n)=1+n+1+n+n+1+11+10+10
=3n+34
 …
3. for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
for(j=1;j<=n; j++)
{
k++;
}
}
T(n)=1+n+1+n+n(1+n+1+n+n)=3n2+4n+2
 …
[Link]=0;
if(test==1)
{
for (i=1;i<=n;i++)
sum=sum+i
}
else
{
cout<<sum;
}
• T(n)=1+1+Max(1+n+1+n+n+n,1)= 4n+4
 Exercise
• Calculate T(n) for the following codes
A. sum=0;
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
for(j=1;j<=m;j++)
Sum++;

B. sum=0;
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
for(j=1;j<=i;j++)
sum++;
 Algorithm Analysis Categories
• Algorithm must be examined under different situations to
correctly determine their efficiency for accurate
comparisons
• Best Case Analysis: Assumes that data are arranged in
the most advantageous order. It also assumes the
minimum input size.
• E.g.
• For sorting – the best case is if the data are arranged in the
required order.
• For searching – the required item is found at the first position.
• Note: Best Case computes the lower boundary of T(n)
• It causes fewest number of executions
 Worst case analysis
• Assumes that data are arranged in the disadvantageous
order.
• It also assumes that the input size is infinite.
• E.g.
• For sorting – data are arranged in opposite required order
• For searching – the required item is found at the end of the
item or the item is missing
• It computes the upper bound of T(n) and causes maximum
number of execution.
 Average case Analysis
Assumes that data are found in random order.
It also assumes random or average input size.
E.g.
For sorting – data are in random order.
For searching – the required item is found at any position
or missing.
It computes optimal bound of T(n)
It also causes average number of execution.
Best case and average case can not be used to estimate
(determine) complexity of algorithms
Worst case is the best to determine the complexity of
algorithms.
 Order Of Magnitude
Order Of Magnitude refers to the rate at which the storage
or time grows as function of problem size (function (n)).
It is expressed in terms of its relationship to some known
functions – asymptotic analysis.
Asymptotic complexity of an algorithm is an
approximation of the computational complexity that holds
for large amounts of input data.

Types of Asymptotic Notations

1. Big-O Notation
2. Big – Omega (Ω)
3. Big –Theta (Θ)
 1. Big-O Notation
Definition : The function T(n) is O(F(n)) if there exist
constants c and N such that T(n) ≤ c.F(n) for all n ≥ N.
As n increases, T(n) grows no faster than F(n) or in the long
run (for large n) T grows at most as fast as F
It computes the tight upper bound of T(n)
Describes the worst case analysis.
…
 Properties of Big-O Notation
If T(n) is O(h(n)) and F(n) is O(h(n)) then T(n) + F(n) is
O(h(n)).
The function [Link] is O(nk) for any a and k
The function logan is O(logbn) for any positive numbers a and
b≠1
 Examples
Find F(n) such that T(n) = O(F(n)) for T(n) = 3n+5
Solution:
3n+5≤ cn
c=6, N=2
F(n)=n because c=6 for 3n+5≤ 6n, for All n >=2
➔T(n) = O(n)
 Example
T(n) = n2 + 5n
T(n) ≤ c.F(n)
n2 + 5n ≤ c. n2
1 + (5/n) ≤ c
F(n) = n2
T(n) = O(n2)
• Therefore if we choose N=5, then c= 2; if we choose N=6,
then c=1.83, and so on.
So what are the ‘correct’ values for c and N ? The answer to
this question, it should be determined for which value of N a
particular term in T(n) becomes the largest and stays the
largest.
In the above example, the n2 term becomes larger than the 5n
term at n>5, so N=5, c=2 is a good choice.
 2. Big – Omega
Definition : The function T(n) is Ω(F(n)) if there exist
Constants c and N such that
T(n) ≥ c.F(n) for all n ≥ N.
As n increases T(n) grows no slower than F(n) or in the
long run (for large n) T grows at least as fast as F
It computes the tight lower bound of T(n).
Describes the best case analysis
 Examples
Find F(n) such that T(n) = Ω(F(n))
for T(n) = 3n+5
F(n) = n as 3n+5>=c.n for c=1 and n=0
 3. Big Theta Notation
Definition: The function T(n) is Θ(F(n)) if there exist
constants c1, c2 and N such that c1.F(n) ≤ T(n) ≤ c2.F(n)
for all n ≥ N.
As n increases, T(n) grows as fast as F(n)
It computes the tight optimal bound of T(n).
Describes the average case analysis.
Example:
Find F(n) such that T(n) = Θ(F(n)) for T(n)=2n2.
Solution: c1n2 ≤ 2n2 ≤ c2n2
F(n)=n2 because for c1=1 and c2=3,
n2 ≤ 2n2 ≤ 3n2 for all n.
 4. Little o (small o) notation
Defn: The function T(n) is o(F(n)) if T(n) is O(F(n)) but
T(n) is not Θ(F(n) or for some constants c, N: if T(n) <
cF(n) for all n>=N
As n increases F(n) grows strictly faster than T(n).
It computes the non-tight upper bound of T(n)
Describes the worst case analysis
Example:
Find F(n) such that T(n) = o(F(n)) for T(n)=n2.
Solution: n2<c n2
F(n)=n2 because for c=2,
n2<2n2 for all n>=1
 Big O Analysis
.
 Assignment
Write a program that displays the total running time for
various input sizes of the complexity category function and
plot a graph (input size Vs time) for each function. By
observing the graph write functions in ascending order of
complexity.

Deadline :
 Finding Asymptotic Complexity:
Examples
Rules to find Big-O from a given T(n)
Take highest order
Ignore the coefficients
 Reading Assignment
Big-O notation
Amortized complexity
 Finding Big O of given Algorithm
1. for (i=1;i<=n;i++)
Cout<<i;
T(n) = 1+n+1+n+n
=3n+2
T(n) = O(n)
 …
2. For (i=1;i<=n;i++)
For(j=1;j<=n;j++)
Cout<<i;
T(n)=1+n+1+n+n(1+n+1+n+n)
=3n2 +4n+2
T(n)=O(n2)
 …
3. for (i=1; i<=n; i++)
Cout<<i;
T(n) = 1+n+1+n+n
= 3n+2
T(n) = O(n)
 Exercise
Find Big O of the following algorithm
1. for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
Sum=sum+i;
For (i=1;i<=n;i++)
For(j=1;j<=m;j++)
Sum++;
 …
2. if(k==1)
{
For (i=1;i<=100;i++)
For (j=1;j<=1000;j++)
Cout<<I
}
Else if(k==2)
{
For(i=1;i<=n;i=i*2)
Cout<<i;
}
Else
{
{for
(i=1;i<=n;i++)
Sum++;
}
 …
3. for (i=1; i<=n;i++)
{
If (i<10)
For(j=1;j<=n;j=j*2)
Cout<<j;
Else
Cout<<i;
}
 …
4. for (int i=1; i<=N; ++i)
for (int j=i; j>0; --j){}
5. for (int i=1; i<N; i=i*2){}
6. for (int i=0; i<N; ++i)
for (int j=i; j>0; j=j/2){}
 …

7. for (int i=1; i<N; ++i)

for (int j=0; j<N; j+=i){}
8. int i=0, sum=0;
while (sum < N)
sum = sum + i++;
9. for (int i=1; i<N; i=i*2)
for (int j=0; j<i; ++j){}
 …
10. i=1;
while (i<n)
{
i=i*2;
}
 …..
11. for ( int i = 0; i < n; i++ )
for ( int j = 0; j <= n - i; j++ )
int a = i;
for (int i = 0; i < n; i ++ )
for (int j = 0; j < n*n*n ; j++ )
sum++;
 …
12. void Test( int N){
for(int i =0 ; i < N ; i= i*4){
for(int j = N ; j > 2; j = j/3){
cout<<“I have no idea what this does”;
}
}
}
 …
13. for (int i = 0; i < n; i++)
sum++; for
(int j = 0; j < n; j++)
sum++;
 Quiz one - 5 %
1. Determine the big-O expression for
T(n) = 3 log n^2 + 2
2 Big O computes the worst case analysis (T/F).