Data communication is the process of transferring data
(information) from one device to another through a transmission
medium such as wires, optical fiber, or wireless signals.
It s how devices like computers, smartphones, and servers send
and receive information. For example:
* Sending a message on WhatsApp
* Watching a video online
* Accessing a website
Key components of data communication
1. Sender (Source) – the device that sends data
2. Receiver (Destination) – the device that receives data
3. Message – the actual information (text, audio, video, etc.)
4. Transmission medium – the path the data travels (cables, air,
fiber optics)
5. Protocol – the rules that govern communication (like TCP/IP)
’
An unguided medium is a
A guided medium is a transmission transmission medium in which
medium in which signals travel through a signals travel through air or space
physical path.
Features
* Uses wires or cables
* More secure and reliable
* Less interference
* Generally faster communication
Example use
Internet through fiber optic cable.
Features
* Wireless communication
* Easy installation
* More interference/noise
* Useful for mobile
communication
Example use
Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, mobile
A network is a collection of two
or more computers/devices
connected together to share
data, resources, and services.
Example
* Sharing files between
computers
* Using the internet
* Sharing printers or Wi-Fi
A small network used for personal devices within a short range.
Examples
* Bluetooth connection between phone and earbuds
* Smartwatch connected to mobile phone
A network covering a small area like a room, office, school, or
building.
A network covering a city or large campus.
Examples
Examples
* School computer lab
* Home Wi-Fi network * City-wide cable TV network
* University networks across campuses
Features
Range
* High speed
* Private network Several kilometers.
A network covering very large areas such as countries or
continents.
Examples
* The Internet
* International bank networks
Features
* Connects multiple LANs and MANs
* Uses satellite and fiber communication
A SAN is a network designed mainly for data storage and data
transfer between servers and storage systems.
A signal is an electrical or electromagnetic form used to carry
data from one device to another.
Signals are used to transmit information such as text, audio,
video, and images.
An analog signal is a continuous signal that changes smoothly over time.
Features
* Continuous waveform
* Can have infinite values
* More affected by noise
Example
* Human voice
* Radio signals
A digital signal represents data using discrete values, usually 0
and 1.
Features
* Discrete signal
* Less affected by noise
* Used in computers and digital devices
Example
* Computer data
* Mobile communication
A periodic signal is a signal that repeats itself after a fixed
interval of time, called the period (T).
An aperiodic signal is a signal that does not repeat itself at
regular intervals.
Data
Data is raw information or facts that can be processed to
produce meaningful information.
Examples
* Numbers
* Text
* Images
* Audio
* Video
Analog data is continuous data that changes smoothly over tim
Digital data is data represented using discrete values, usually
binary digits 0 and 1.
1. Peak Amplitude
The peak amplitude of a signal is the maximum value or strength
of the signal measured from the zero reference level.
Example
* In an electrical signal, it represents the maximum voltage.
Phase describes the position of a waveform relative to time or
another waveform.
It indicates how much a signal is shifted left or right.
Measured in
* Degrees (°)
* Radians
Example
Two sine waves may have the same frequency and amplitude
but different phase shifts.
Bandwidth is the range of frequencies that a communication
channel can transmit.
It shows the data carrying capacity of a network or signal.
Bit rate is the number of bits transmitted in one
second during data communication.
It shows the speed of data transfer.
Unit
* bits per second (bps)
Other units:
* Kbps = Kilobits per second
* Mbps = Megabits per second
* Gbps = Gigabits per second
An error occurs when the transmitted data changes during
communication, so the received data is different from the
original data.
Causes of Errors
* Noise
* Interference
* Weak signals
* Hardware problems
Example
Sent data: 101101
Received data: 101001
Since the data changed, an error occurred.
Single-Bit Error
A single-bit error occurs when only one bit of the data unit
changes from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0.
Example
Sent: 101101
Received: 100101
Only one bit changed.
Features
* Only one bit affected
* Less common in serial transmission
* Easier to detect and correct
Burst Error
A burst error occurs when two or more bits in a data unit are
changed.
Example
Sent: 10110111
Received: 10000101
Multiple bits changed.
Features
* Multiple bits affected
* More common in data communication
* Harder to detect and correct
Transmission impairments are problems that affect signals
during data transmission and reduce communication quality.
They may cause:
* Signal weakening
* Data errors
* Loss of information
The main types are:
1. Attenuation
2. Distortion
3. Noise
Attenuation is the loss of signal strength while the signal travels
through a medium.
As distance increases, the signal becomes weaker.
Causes
* Long transmission distance
* Resistance in cables
* Medium losses
Solution
* Use amplifiers or repeaters
Distortion occurs when the shape or form of the signal changes
during transmission.
Different frequency components may travel at different speeds,
causing the signal to become distorted.
Effects
* Signal changes shape
* Data may be interpreted incorrectly
Noise is any unwanted signal that interferes with the original
signal during transmission.
Types of Noise
* Thermal noise
* Induced noise
* Crosstalk
* Impulse noise
Effects
* Errors in received data
* Reduced signal quality
The data rate limit is the maximum speed at which data can be
transmitted through a communication channel.
It depends on:
* Bandwidth
* Noise
* Signal quality
* Transmission medium
If the data rate becomes too high, errors may occur.
Latency is the time delay taken for data to travel from sender to
receiver.
It measures how long communication takes.
Unit
* Milliseconds (ms)
Types of Delay in Latency
1. Propagation Delay – time for signal to travel through the
medium
2. Transmission Delay – time required to send all bits
3. Processing Delay – time needed to process data
4. Queuing Delay – waiting time in network devices
1. Twisted Pair Cable
A twisted pair cable consists of two insulated copper wires
twisted together.
The twisting helps reduce noise and interference.
Types
* UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)
* STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)
Uses
* Telephone lines
* LAN connections
* Internet cables
Advantages
* Cheap
* Easy to install *2.
Less
Coaxial
flexible
Cable
* Flexible
A coaxial cable has a central
Disadvantages copper conductor surrounded by
insulation, metal shielding, and an
* Lower speed than fiber optic outer cover.
* More affected by noise
It provides better protection from
interference than twisted pair
cables.
Uses
* Cable TV
* Internet connections
* CCTV systems
Advantages
* Higher bandwidth
* Better noise protection
* More reliable
Disadvantages
3. Fiber Optic Cable
A fiber optic cable transmits data using light signals through thin
glass or plastic fibers.
It is the fastest guided medium.
Parts
* Core
* Cladding
* Protective jacket
1. Radio Waves
Radio waves are electromagnetic waves used for wireless
communication.
They can travel in all directions.
Features
* Long-distance communication
* Omnidirectional
* Can pass through walls
Uses
* Radio broadcasting
* Television
* Wi-Fi
* Mobile communication
*Types
2.
Terrestrial
Satellite
Microwaves
microwave
microwave
Microwaves are high-frequency radio waves used for high-
speed communication.
They usually require line-of-sight transmission.
Features
* High data transmission speed
* Directional communication
* Uses antennas
Uses
* Satellite communication
* Mobile networks
* Radar systems
Infrared waves are used for short-range wireless
communication.
They cannot pass through walls.
Features
* Short-distance communication
* Secure for nearby devices
* Cannot penetrate walls
Uses
* TV remote controls
* Wireless mouse and keyboard
* Short-range device communication
A data element is the smallest unit of information in data
communication.
In digital communication, a data element is usually a bit (0 or 1).
Features
* Represents actual information
* Usually measured in bits
* Part of the original message/data
A signal element is the smallest unit of a signal used to carry
data.
It is the part of the signal that represents one or more data
elements.
Relationship Between Data Element and Signal Element
* Data elements are the actual bits of information.
* Signal elements are the electrical or electromagnetic
representations of those bits.
\text{Data
Data rate Rate}
is the =
number
\frac{\text{Number
of data elements
of bits}}{\text{Time}}
(bits) transmitted in
one second.
It tells how fast data is transferred.
Unit
* bits per second (bps)
Signal rate is the number of signal elements transmitted per
second.
It is also called:
* Baud rate
* Modulation rate
Unit
* Baud
Relationship Between Data Rate and Signal Rate
* A signal element can carry one or more bits.
* Therefore, signal rate is usually less than data rate.
Example
If:
* Data rate = 1000 bps
* Each signal element carries 2 bits
Block coding is a technique used in data communication to
improve the accuracy and reliability of data transmission.
In block coding:
* A group of data bits is replaced by a larger group of bits called a
codeword.
1. B8ZS (Bipolar with 8-Zero Substitution)
Used when:
* 8 consecutive zeros occur
The zeros are replaced with a special violation pattern.
The zeros are replaced with special bipolar patterns.
In data communication, transmission mode tells how data is sent
from sender to receiver.
There are two main types:
1. Parallel Transmission
2. Serial Transmission
1. Parallel Transmission
In parallel transmission, multiple bits are sent simultaneously (at
the same time) over multiple wires.
Features
* Fast for short distances
* Uses multiple channels/wires
* Expensive and bulky
* Used inside computers
Example
A printer receiving 8 bits at once.
2. Serial Transmission
In serial transmission, data is sent one bit at a time over a single
channel.
Features
* Slower than parallel (for short distance)
* Cheaper and reliable for long distance
* Used in networks and internet
1. Asynchronous Transmission
In asynchronous transmission, data is sent one byte at a time
with start and stop bits.
There is no fixed timing between sender and receiver.
Structure
Start bit + Data bits + Stop bit Features
Example * No synchronization required
* Easy but slower
Keyboard input * Used in low-speed communication
2. Synchronous Transmission
In synchronous transmission, data is sent in a continuous stream
of bits with a shared clock signal.
Features
* No start/stop bits
* Faster transmission
* Efficient for large data
Example
File transfer, network communication
Isochronous Transmission
Isochronous transmission is a type of serial communication in
which data is sent at regular, fixed time intervals.
It ensures that data arrives in a steady and continuous flow.
Simple Definition
Isochronous transmission means data is delivered at a constant
rate with fixed timing between packets.
Key Idea
* “Iso” = equal
* “Chronous” = time
So, it means equal time gaps between data delivery.
Features
* Fixed time intervals
* Continuous data flow
* Very low delay variation (low jitter)
* Suitable for real-time communication
Examples
* Video conferencing
* Live audio calls (VoIP)
* Online gaming
* Streaming (YouTube live, Zoom)