CHAPTER 3
Topic Formula Use
Engineering stress σ = F/A₀ Load divided by original area
Engineering strain ε = (L−L₀)/L₀ Change in length per original
length
True stress σT = F/A Use instantaneous area
True strain εT = ln(L/L₀) Logarithmic strain
Percent elongation %EL = (Lf−L₀)/L₀ ×100 Ductility
Percent reduction in area %RA = (A₀−Af)/A₀ ×100 Ductility
Strain hardening σT = K εTⁿ Uniform plastic region
Factor of safety N = σy/σw Ductile design
Thin-wall hoop stress σh = riΔp/t Pressurized tube
Stress concentration σmax = σ₀(1+2a/b) Elliptical/circular flaw
Fracture toughness KI = Yσ√(πa) Crack-tip intensity
Griffith critical stress σc = √(2Eγs/πa) Brittle crack propagation
Numerical 1 — Slide 14: Engineering fracture strength, %RA and true
stress
Problem (slide wording): A cylindrical specimen of steel having an original diameter
of 12.8 mm is tensile tested to fracture and has an engineering fracture strength of
460 MPa. If its diameter at fracture is 10.7 mm, determine (a) percent reduction in
area and (b) true stress at fracture.
1. A₀ = πd₀²/4 = π(12.8 mm)²/4 = 128.7 mm².
2. Af = πdf²/4 = π(10.7 mm)²/4 = 89.9 mm².
3. %RA = [(128.7−89.9)/128.7]×100 = 30.1% ≈ 30%.
4. Engineering fracture stress: σf = F/A₀, so F = σfA₀ = (460 MPa)(128.7 mm²) = 59,200 N.
5. True stress at fracture: σT = F/Af = 59,200/89.9 = 658.5 MPa ≈ 660 MPa.
Final answer: %RA ≈ 30%; true fracture stress ≈ 660 MPa.
Teacher slide 14 — original worked example and equations.
Numerical 2 — CT-2: Ductility from final diameter and gauge length
A cylindrical metal specimen has original diameter 12.8 mm and gauge length 50.80
mm. After fracture, the diameter at the fracture is 6.60 mm and the fractured gauge
length is 72.14 mm. Calculate ductility in terms of (a) percent reduction in area and
(b) percent elongation.
6. %RA = [1 − (df/d₀)²]×100 = [1 − (6.60/12.8)²]×100 = 73.4%.
7. %EL = [(72.14−50.80)/50.80]×100 = 42.0%.
Final answer: %RA = 73.4%; %EL = 42.0%.
Numerical 3 — Slides 30–32: Thin-walled pressure tube + factor of safety
+ minimum cost
Problem (slide wording): Consider a thin-walled cylindrical tube with radius 50 mm
and wall thickness 2 mm for pressurized gas. Inside and outside pressures are 20 and
0.5 atm (2.027 and 0.057 MPa). Which alloys in Table 1 are suitable if factor of safety
N = 4? Then determine the lowest-cost suitable alloy.
8. Pressure difference Δp = 2.027 − 0.057 = 1.970 MPa.
9. Hoop stress σh = riΔp/t = (50/2)(1.970) = 49.25 MPa.
10. Required yield strength = Nσh = 4(49.25) = 197 MPa.
11. From Table 1: steel 325, copper 225, brass 275 and titanium 700 MPa satisfy σy ≥ 197 MPa.
Aluminum 125 and magnesium 175 MPa do not.
12. For L = 1 m, V = π[(ri+t)²−ri²]L = 6.28×10⁻⁴ m³ = 628 cm³.
13. Cost = (Vρ/1000) c̄. Slide results: steel $6.10, copper $35.00, brass $40.00, titanium $113.00.
Final answer: Suitable candidates: steel, copper, brass and titanium. Lowest-cost choice: steel.
Teacher slide 31 — Table 1 values used for candidate screening.
Teacher slide 32 — tube-volume and cost calculation.
Numerical / Data Interpretation 4 — Slides 33–36: Choose ductile,
strongest, stiffest and hardest material
• Most ductile: choose the material with the largest strain at fracture / greatest plastic strain. The slide
identifies Material B.
• Strongest: choose the material with the highest strength values; the slide identifies Material D (yield
strength 700 MPa, tensile strength 850 MPa).
• Stiffest: choose the material with the largest Young’s modulus E, because stiffness is governed by the
elastic slope E = σ/ε.
• Hardest: choose the material with the largest hardness value. For metals, hardness is roughly
correlated with tensile strength.
Numerical 5 — Slide 76: Griffith breaking strength
Problem (slide wording): Consider a brittle material with γs = 1 J/m² and E = 100
GPa. (a) What is the breaking strength if it contains crack-like defects 1 mm long?
(b) If γs is increased to 3,000 J/m², what is the breaking strength for the same 1-mm
crack?
14. Crack length is 2a = 1 mm, therefore a = 0.5 mm = 0.5×10⁻³ m.
15. (a) σc = √[2(100×10⁹)(1)/(π·0.5×10⁻³)] = 11.3 MPa.
16. (b) σc = √[2(100×10⁹)(3000)/(π·0.5×10⁻³)] = 618 MPa.
Final answer: (a) 11.3 MPa; (b) 618 MPa.
Numerical 6 — Slide 77 / Final 2024: Circular vs elliptical hole stress
concentration
Two flat plates are pulled in tension. Plate width = 10 cm, thickness = 1 cm, P = 100
kN. One plate has a 3 cm diameter circular hole; the other an elliptical hole 3 cm
long and 1 cm high. Flow stress = 150 MPa. (a) Calculate maximum stress. (b) Will
plastic flow occur? (c) Which has higher stress?
17. Nominal stress σ₀ = P/A = 100 kN/(10 cm×1 cm) = 100 MPa.
18. Circular hole: a = b = 1.5 cm. σmax = 100(1+2×1.5/1.5) = 300 MPa.
19. Elliptical hole: a = 1.5 cm, b = 0.5 cm. σmax = 100(1+2×1.5/0.5) = 700 MPa.
20. Both 300 and 700 MPa are above the flow stress 150 MPa, so local plastic flow occurs in both cases.
21. The elliptical hole gives the higher stress because it has the sharper tip (smaller b / smaller radius of
curvature).
Final answer: Circular = 300 MPa; elliptical = 700 MPa; both flow plastically; elliptical configuration is
more severe.
Teacher slide 77 — original plate geometry and worked result.
Q1. Explain the creep mechanism.
Source / exam link: CT-2; slides 79–80
Exam-ready answer
Creep is permanent, time-dependent deformation under constant stress/load, especially at high
temperature. It is critical for steam lines, boilers, turbine parts and other components working for long
periods at elevated temperature.
• Primary creep: creep rate decreases with time because strain hardening dominates.
• Secondary creep: nearly constant minimum creep rate; it is the longest and most important design
region.
• Tertiary creep: creep rate accelerates because of necking, cavities, grain-boundary damage and loss of
area; rupture follows.
• Creep resistance improves with high-melting-point materials, solid-solution/precipitation
strengthening, stable microstructure and suitable coarse-grain/single-crystal structures where
applicable.
Q2. Calculate ductility in terms of percent reduction in area and percent elongation.
Source / exam link: CT-2; slide 12
Exam-ready answer
Ductility in a tensile test is measured mainly by percent elongation and percent reduction in area. A
larger value means greater plastic deformation before fracture.
Q3. Why is failure analysis important? Suggest guidelines for a systematic
investigation to reach the root cause.
Source / exam link: CT-2; slides 43–45
Exam-ready answer
Failure analysis identifies why a component could not perform its intended function and prevents
recurrence. It improves safety, reliability, design, material selection and maintenance.
• Collect service, loading, manufacturing and maintenance history.
• Inspect the failure scene; photograph, sketch and preserve evidence.
• Use non-destructive testing to locate defects without destroying evidence.
• Perform fractography to identify crack origin, fracture mode and propagation direction.
• Perform chemical, mechanical and microstructural tests as required.
• Combine all evidence, identify the root cause and recommend corrective/preventive action.
Q4. Explain why engineers do not design structures using the ultimate tensile
strength alone
Source / exam link: CT-3; slides 29–30
Exam-ready answer
UTS is the maximum engineering stress in a tensile test, but a ductile component normally begins
permanent deformation at the yield strength, which is lower than UTS. Real service also includes
uncertainty, fatigue, impact, creep, corrosion and stress concentrations.
• Use an allowable/working stress below the relevant failure limit.
• For ductile materials, yield strength is normally the key design limit.
• For brittle materials, fracture/ultimate strength may be used with an appropriate factor of safety.
Q5. Why do two specimens made from the same material sometimes exhibit different
mechanical properties?
Source / exam link: CT-3; slides 38–41
Exam-ready answer
“Same material” does not always mean the same microstructure or service history. Mechanical properties
can vary because of grain size, heat treatment, prior plastic deformation, defects, residual stress,
temperature, atmosphere/corrosion, specimen geometry and loading rate/type.
Q6. A chemical plant is designing a high-pressure steam pipeline operating at 550°C.
Discuss the failure mechanisms and recommend suitable material characteristics.
Source / exam link: CT-3; slides 41, 78–80
Exam-ready answer
At 550°C, creep is the first long-term failure mechanism because high temperature and steady pressure
cause time-dependent deformation. Start-up/shutdown cycles also create thermal fatigue, while welds and
defects create stress concentrations and may promote crack growth.
• Required characteristics: high creep strength/rupture life, stable microstructure, adequate fracture
toughness and ductility, fatigue resistance, oxidation/corrosion resistance, weldability and reliable
high-temperature strength.
Q7. Define ultimate tensile strength (UTS).
Source / exam link: CT-3; slides 4–5
Exam-ready answer
Ultimate tensile strength is the maximum engineering stress reached on an engineering stress–strain
curve during a tensile test. It is calculated using the maximum load divided by the original cross-sectional
area.
Q8. Using Griffith’s energy-balance approach, derive the critical stress σc for crack
propagation under plane-stress conditions. Define all symbols.
Source / exam link: Final 2023–24; slides 68–74
Exam-ready answer
Consider an infinite plate of thickness t containing a central crack of total length 2a. When the crack
extends, two new surfaces are formed, so surface energy increases while stored elastic strain energy
decreases.
• Surface-energy term: Us = 4aγs t.
• Elastic-energy release term for a central crack: Ue = −(πa²σ²/E)t.
• Total change: ΔU = 4aγs t − (πa²σ²/E)t.
• At the critical condition, d(ΔU)/da = 0.
• Therefore 4γs t − (2πaσ²/E)t = 0.
• Rearranging gives σc² = 2Eγs/(πa).
• Hence σc = √(2Eγs/πa).
Q9. Describe the relationship between the stress–strain curve and toughness, and
compare toughness with hardness.
Source / exam link: Final 2023–24; slides 19–25
Exam-ready answer
Toughness is the total energy absorbed per unit volume before fracture, so it is represented by the total
area under the stress–strain curve up to fracture. A tough material needs a useful combination of strength
and ductility. Hardness is resistance to localized indentation/scratching or plastic surface deformation.
• High hardness does not automatically mean high toughness.
• Diamond is very hard but relatively brittle; it can shatter under impact.
• Toughness concerns energy absorption before fracture; hardness concerns local surface deformation
and wear.
Q10. From Table 1, suggest which is the stiffest material and explain why.
Source / exam link: Final 2023–24; slides 33–36
Exam-ready answer
The stiffest material is the one with the largest Young’s modulus E, because stiffness is resistance to
elastic deformation and E is the slope of the initial elastic region of the stress–strain curve. Do not select
stiffness from UTS alone.
Q11. Explain strain hardening. Why do ductile materials experience it more than
brittle materials?
Source / exam link: Final 2024; slide 16
Exam-ready answer
Strain hardening (work hardening) occurs when a metal is plastically deformed beyond yield. Plastic
deformation increases dislocation density; dislocations interact and block each other, so further
deformation requires higher stress.
• Ductile materials can undergo large plastic strain, so dislocations can multiply and interact
extensively.
• Brittle materials fracture with little plastic deformation, so there is little opportunity for significant
strain hardening.
Q12. From Table 1 determine (i) which is the strongest material and why, and (ii)
which is the stiffest material and why.
Source / exam link: Final 2024; slides 34–35
Exam-ready answer
Strongest: the slide identifies Material D because it has the highest yield strength (700 MPa) and tensile
strength (850 MPa).
Stiffest: choose the material with the highest Young’s modulus E, because stiffness depends on elastic
slope, not on strength.
Q13. Suppose your chemical industry suddenly faces a disaster like the Boston
Molasses Disaster. As a chemical engineer, what steps will you follow for failure
analysis?
Source / exam link: Final 2024; slides 42–45
Exam-ready answer
Treat the site as an evidence-based engineering investigation: make the area safe, preserve evidence and
reconstruct what happened.
• Collect operating records, pressure/temperature history, design drawings, material specifications and
maintenance records.
• Inspect the failed tank/pipe/structure and document deformation, cracks, corrosion, welds and
fracture surfaces.
• Use NDT and fractography to locate crack origin and growth path.
• Test material composition, microstructure and mechanical properties against specification.
• Check design stress, factor of safety, temperature effects, loading history and manufacturing defects.
• Identify root cause(s), distinguish primary cause from contributing factors, and recommend
design/material/inspection changes.
Q14. Briefly explain the stress concentration effect of flaws.
Source / exam link: Final 2024; slides 63–67
Exam-ready answer
A hole, notch or crack disturbs uniform stress flow and creates a much higher local stress near the flaw
tip. The sharper the flaw (smaller tip radius), the larger the stress concentration. Far from the flaw, stress
returns approximately to the nominal stress.
Q15. Two flat plates are pulled in tension as shown. Calculate maximum stress,
decide whether plastic flow occurs, and identify the more severe configuration.
Source / exam link: Final 2024; slide 77
Exam-ready answer
Nominal stress is 100 MPa. Using σmax = σ₀(1+2a/b): circular hole gives 300 MPa; elliptical hole gives
700 MPa. Both exceed the flow stress 150 MPa, so local plastic flow occurs in both. The elliptical hole is
more severe because its tip is sharper.
Q16. Explain the mechanism of ductile fracture
Source / exam link: Final 2024; slides 47–48
Exam-ready answer
Ductile fracture involves substantial plastic deformation and normally gives warning before complete
failure. The common tensile form is cup-and-cone fracture.
• Initial necking / localized plastic deformation.
• Microvoids form around inclusions or second-phase particles.
• Voids grow as plastic strain continues.
• Voids coalesce to form an internal crack.
• Crack propagates outward; final shear fracture occurs at about 45° to the tensile axis.
Teacher slide 48 — stages of cup-and-cone ductile fracture.
Q17. Explain how repeated/dynamic loading can lead to failure at a stress much
lower than the yield strength.
Source / exam link: Previous final; slide 78
Exam-ready answer
This is fatigue failure. Repeated cyclic stress produces local damage even when the nominal stress is
below yield strength. A crack initiates at a surface defect/notch, grows a small amount during each cycle,
and finally the remaining section fractures suddenly.
• Stage 1: crack initiation.
• Stage 2: crack propagation cycle by cycle.
• Stage 3: final rapid fracture.
• Therefore static yield strength alone cannot guarantee safety under cyclic loading.
Q18. Explain the typical engineering stress–strain curve of a ductile metal and
identify important regions/points.
Source / exam link: Slides 5, 9–10
Exam-ready answer
The initial straight region is elastic; stress is proportional to strain and its slope is Young’s modulus. At
yield, permanent plastic deformation begins. In the plastic region the metal strain-hardens, so stress rises
to the UTS. After UTS, necking begins; engineering stress decreases because the cross-sectional area
localizes, and finally fracture occurs.
Teacher slide 9 — typical tensile test curve with specimen shape changes.
Q19. Differentiate engineering stress/strain and true stress/strain. Give their
relationships.
Source / exam link: Slide 13
Exam-ready answer
Engineering stress uses the original area A₀, whereas true stress uses the instantaneous area A.
Engineering strain uses change in length divided by original length; true strain is the natural logarithm of
current/original length. Before necking, true stress normally exceeds engineering stress because area
continuously decreases.
Q20. Differentiate strength and stiffness.
Source / exam link: Slide 15; PYQ-connected concept
Exam-ready answer
Strength describes how much stress a material can withstand before yielding or fracture. Stiffness
describes resistance to elastic deformation. Strength is measured using yield/ultimate strength (MPa),
while stiffness is represented by Young’s modulus E (usually GPa). A material can be strong but not very
stiff, or stiff but brittle.
Q21. Define ductility. Explain percent elongation and percent reduction in area
Source / exam link: Slides 12, 17–18
Exam-ready answer
Ductility is the ability of a material to undergo appreciable plastic deformation in tension before fracture.
It is commonly measured by percent elongation and percent reduction in area. A material with very little
plastic deformation before fracture is brittle.
Q22. Differentiate ductility, malleability and brittleness
Source / exam link: Slides 17–18
Exam-ready answer
Ductility: large plastic deformation mainly under tensile loading; ability to be drawn into wire.
Malleability: plastic deformation mainly under compressive loading; ability to be hammered/rolled into
sheet.
Brittleness: little or no plastic deformation before sudden fracture; little warning and low energy
absorption.
Q23. Explain toughness, resilience and hardness. Why can a hard material be not
tough?
Source / exam link: Slides 19–25
Exam-ready answer
Toughness is total energy absorbed up to fracture; resilience is energy absorbed only within the elastic
range; hardness is resistance to indentation/scratching/local plastic deformation. A hard material may still
be brittle: diamond is difficult to scratch but can shatter under impact.
Q24. Compare Charpy and Izod impact tests
Source / exam link: Slides 21–23
Exam-ready answer
Both tests measure impact energy absorbed in fracturing a notched specimen.
• Charpy: specimen is horizontal and simply supported; impact is on the side opposite the notch at the
center.
• Izod: specimen is vertical and clamped like a cantilever; impact is near the free end on the notched
side.
• Higher absorbed energy indicates greater impact toughness.
Q25. Explain hardness testing and the correlation between hardness and tensile
strength.
Source / exam link: Slides 24–28
Exam-ready answer
Hardness tests measure resistance to localized indentation. They are widely used because they are simple,
inexpensive and usually nearly non-destructive. Rockwell hardness is obtained from indentation depth
under specified minor and major loads. For many metals, hardness and tensile strength are roughly
correlated because both resist plastic deformation; the slide gives an approximate relation TS(MPa) ≈
3.45×HB for suitable steels/metals.
Q26. Explain factor of safety, design stress and working stress.
Source / exam link: Slides 29–30
Exam-ready answer
A factor of safety provides a margin between material capacity and allowable service stress because
loads, properties, defects and service conditions are uncertain.
• For ductile materials: N = σy/σw.
• For brittle materials: N ≈ σu/σw or fracture strength/working stress.
• Very small N risks failure; excessively large N causes unnecessary weight and cost.
Q27. Explain the effects of grain size, heat treatment, low temperature and high
temperature on mechanical properties.
Source / exam link: Slides 38–41
Exam-ready answer
Fine grain size generally increases tensile/fatigue strength and often improves toughness because grain
boundaries hinder dislocation motion. Heat treatment changes microstructure, residual stress, hardness,
ductility and machinability. Lower temperature often raises yield/tensile strength but can reduce
ductility/toughness and promote brittle behavior in susceptible steels. Higher temperature lowers
strength/stiffness/fracture stress and makes creep important.
Q28. Explain fracture toughness and its relation to applied stress and crack size.
Source / exam link: Slides 52–53
Exam-ready answer
Fracture toughness KIC measures resistance to unstable crack growth under Mode I loading. Crack-tip
stress intensity increases with applied stress and with the square root of crack size. A crack becomes
critical when KI reaches KIC.
Q29. Why is the theoretical tensile strength of a perfect crystal much higher than the
experimental fracture strength of engineering materials?
Source / exam link: Slides 54–61
Exam-ready answer
The theoretical strength assumes a perfect, defect-free crystal and estimates the stress needed to separate
atomic planes. Real materials contain cracks, scratches, pores, inclusions and other flaws. These flaws
concentrate stress, so the local crack-tip stress can reach the bond-breaking level while the nominal
applied stress is much lower. This is why experimental fracture strength is far below the ideal cohesive
strength.
Q30. Explain the Griffith theory of brittle fracture and state the physical meaning of
the critical-stress equation.
Source / exam link: Slides 68–76; Final 2023–24
Exam-ready answer
Griffith treated crack growth as an energy balance. Creating new crack surfaces requires surface energy,
while extending a crack releases elastic strain energy. A crack grows spontaneously when the energy
released by crack extension equals or exceeds the energy required to create the new surfaces.
• Critical stress decreases as crack size a increases: larger cracks are more dangerous.
• Critical stress increases with Young’s modulus E and surface energy γs.
• The theory explains why small flaws can reduce brittle strength dramatically.