Basic Principles, Concepts and Definitions

Thermodynamics is that branch of physical sciences that treats of various phenomena of energy and
the related properties of matter, especially of the laws of transformation of heat into other forms of
energy and vice versa.

Let's understand it piece by piece.

1. "Branch of physical sciences" - This simply means that thermodynamics is one field or area of
science, just like physics or chemistry.
It studies things that happen in the physical world.

2. "Various phenomena of energy"

Phenomena means events or processes. Energy can appear in many forms, such as:
Heat energy; Mechanical energy; Electrical energy; Chemical energy; Light energy

Thermodynamics studies how these forms of energy behave and change.

Example:
When you boil water, The stove provides heat energy. The water becomes hotter. Eventually, it
turns into steam. This entire process is studied in thermodynamics.

3. "Related properties of matter"

Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.
Examples: Water, Air, Ice, Metal, Steam

Thermodynamics studies how the properties of matter change when energy is added or
removed.
Some important properties are: Temperature, Pressure, Volume, Density

Example:
When you heat air inside a balloon, Its temperature increases. Its volume becomes larger. The
balloon expands.

Thermodynamics explains why this happens.

4. "Transformation of heat into other forms of energy"

This means that heat can be converted into another type of energy.
Examples include:

Example 1: Car Engine

Fuel burns and produces heat. Heat pushes the pistons. The car moves.

Chemical Energy→ Heat Energy→ Mechanical Energy

 Example 2: Steam Turbine
Water is heated. Steam is produced. Steam rotates a turbine. The turbine generates electricity.

Heat Energy→ Mechanical Energy→ Electrical Energy

5. "Vice versa"
Vice versa means the opposite is also possible.

Everyday Examples of Thermodynamics

Example 1: Cooking Rice

Heat from the stove transfers to the pot. The water boils. The rice cooks.

Heat energy changes the state and temperature of the food.

Example 2: Refrigerator

A refrigerator removes heat from the food inside. The heat is released outside.

This is why the back of the refrigerator feels warm.

Example 3: Electric Fan

The fan does not make air colder. Instead, it converts

Electrical Energy→ Mechanical Energy

The rotating blades move air, helping sweat evaporate and making us feel cooler.

Example 4: Electric Kettle

Electrical Energy→ Heat Energy

The heat raises the temperature of the water until it boils.

Example 5: Automobile Engine

Chemical Energy (fuel)→ Heat Energy (combustion)→ Mechanical Energy (moving wheels)
Why Do We Study Thermodynamics?

Thermodynamics helps engineers and scientists design systems that use energy efficiently.

Examples include:

Automobile engines

Refrigerators

Air conditioners

Power plants

Solar energy systems

Biomass energy systems

Food processing equipment

Grain dryers

Agricultural machinery

Without thermodynamics, it would be difficult to improve these technologies.

Key Ideas to Remember

 Energy is the ability to do work.

 Heat is energy transferred because of a temperature difference.
 Matter includes solids, liquids, and gases.
 Heat can be changed into other forms of energy.
 Other forms of energy can also be changed into heat. Thermodynamics explains these energy
transformations using scientific laws.

Simple Analogy
Imagine energy as money. Money can be exchanged for food, clothes, or transportation.
Similarly, energy can be exchanged between different forms: Heat, Electricity, Motion, Light,
Chemical energy
  Thermodynamics studies the rules governing these "energy exchanges."

Simple Definition

Thermodynamics is the branch of science that studies heat, energy, work, and how energy is transferred
or converted from one form to another. It also explains how these energy changes affect the properties
of matter, such as temperature, pressure, and volume.

Systems of Units

Given: Newton's Second Law

We know that:

F=ma

Where: F = Force; m = mass and a = Acceleration

This equation is true only when the units are chosen properly, such as in the SI system.

Why introduce a proportionality constant?

 To make the numerical values of force, mass, and acceleration consistent.

 Think of k as a conversion factor that adjusts the equation when different unit systems are used.
 Whenever we change a proportionality into an equation, we introduce a proportionality
constant.

Example:

1. Determine the force applied to a body with a mass of 1 g when it accelerates 1 cm/s2.

Given:
m=1g a = 1 cm/s2
Required: Force applied

Solution:
cm gm −cm
F=ma=1 gm∗1 =1
s2 s2
 Imagine having a very long unit?
Thus, using k or conversion constant, it will become simple when k is introduced or used.

gm−cm
∗1 dyne force−s 2
ma∗1 s2
F= =1 =1 dyne force
k gm−cm

Systems of units where k is unity (k=1) but not dimensionless:

a. cgs system: 1 dyne force accelerates at 1 g mass at 1 cm/s2

g m−cm
k =1
dyne−s 2

b. mks system: 1 newton force accelerates 1 kg mass at 1m/s2

k gm −m
k =1
N −s 2

c. fps system: 1 lb force accelerates 1 slug mass at 1 ft/s2

slug−ft
k =1
l bf −s 2

Systems of units where k is neither unity(k ≠ 1) nor dimensionless:

a. 1 lb force accelerates a 1 lb mass at 32.174 ft/s2

lb m−ft
k =32.174
lb f −s 2

b. 1 g force accelerates 1 g mass at 980.66 cm/s2

gm −cm
k =1
g f −s 2

c. 1 kg force accelerates 1 kg mass at 9.8066 m/s2

k gm −m
k =9.8066
k gf −s 2

Relation between kilogram force(k g f ) and Newton (N)

1 k g f =9.8066 N

Relation between pound mass(l bm ) and slug

 1 slug=32.174 lb m

Poundal and Pound (lbf)

a. Poundal – is a unit of force. (F=ma). The force required to accelerate a 1 lb mass at 1 ft/s2.
lb m
1 poundal =1
ft
s2

b. Pound (lbf) – is also a unit of force, but it is based on the force exerted by gravity. (F=mg)

Relationship between Poundal and Pound-force.

1 lb f =32.174 poundals

1 poundal=0.03108 lb f

Mass and Weight

The mass of a body is the absolute quantity of matter in it.

The weight of a body means the force of gravity Fg on the body.

m F Fg
= =
k a g
At or near the surface of the earth, k and g are numerically equal, so are m and Fg

Problems:

1. What is the weight of a 66 k gm man at standard condition?

Given:
m = 66 k gm
condition: standard condition (meaning standard acceleration due to gravity, earths
gravitational pull
 m
g=9.8066
s2

Required:
W ∨F g

Solution:
m
(66 k g m)( 9.8066 )
mg s2
F g= = =66 k g f
k k g m−m
9.8066
k g f −s 2

2. The weight of an object is 50 lb. What is its mass at standard condition?

Given:
W =F g=50 l bf
2
g=32.174 ft /s

Required:
Mass, m at standard condition

Solution:
mg Fg k
F g= ; m= =(50 lb f )¿ ¿
k g

3. Five masses in a region where the acceleration due to gravity is 30.5 ft/s2 are as follows:
m1 is 500 g of mass ; m2 weighs 800 gf ; m3 weighs 15 poundals ; m4 weighs 3 l b f ; m5 is 0.10 slug of mass .
What is the total mass expressed (a) in grams, (b) in pounds, and (c) in slugs.

Given:
2
g=30.5 ft /s
m1=500 gm

W 2 =F g 2=800 gf

W 3 =F g 3=15 poundals

W 4=3 l bf

m5=0.10 slug
Required:

Total mass expressed in

a. Grams
b. Pounds
c. Slugs

Solution:

Convert the Weight into mass.

For m2 :
980.66 g m−cm
800 g f x 2
m g W k g f −s
W 2 =F g 2= 2 ; m2= 2 =
k g ft 2.54 cm
30.5 2 x 12∈ ¿ x =843.905 g m ¿ ¿
s 1 ft 1∈¿

For m3 :
0.03108 l bf 32.174 l bm −ft
15 poundals x x
m3 g W k 1 poundal lb f −s 2 1 k g m 1000 gm
W 3 =F g 3= ; m 3= 3 = x x =222.53 gm
k g 30.5 ft / s 2
2.21 lb m 1 k g m

For m4 :

lb m−ft
3 lb f ∗32.174 2
m4 g F k l b f −s 1 k g m 1000 g m
W 4=F g 4 = ; m 4= g 4 = x x =1431.97 g m
k g 30.5 ft /s 2
2.21l bm 1 k g m

For m5 :

32.174 lb m 1 k g m 1000 g m
m5=0.10 slug x x x =1455.84 gm
1 slug 2.21 lb m 1 k g m

a. Total mass∈g m=m1 +m2+ m3+ m 4 +m 5

¿ 500 gm +843.905 gm +222.53 gm +1431.97 gm +1455.84 g m=4454.245 g m

b. Total mass∈ pounds=m1 +m 2 +m 3+ m 4 +m5

 1 k gm 2.21 l bm
¿ 4454.245 g m x x =9.84 l b m
1000 gm 1 k gm

c. Total mass∈slugs=m 1+ m2 +m 3 +m 4 + m5
1 slug
¿ 9.84 l b m x =0.306 slug h
32.174 l bm

4. Note that the gravity acceleration at equatorial sea level is g = 32.088 fps2 and that its variation
is – 0.003 fps2 per 1000 ft ascent. Find the height in miles above this point for which a) the
gravity acceleration becomes 30.504 fps2, b) the weight of a given man is decreased by 5%. c)
What is the weight of a 180 lbm man atop the 29, 131 ft Mt. Everest in Tibet, relative to this
point.

Given :
ft
ga =32.088 2
s
ft
−0.0032
s
variation=
1000 ft

Required:
a. Height in miles above the base point for which g becomes 30.504 fps2.
b. Height in miles if the weight of a given man is decreased by 5%, relative to the base point.
c. What is the weight of a 180 lbm man atop the 29,131 ft Mt everest, relative to the base
point.

Solution:

(
a. h= 30.504
ft
s
2
ft
−32.088 2 x
s )
1000 ft
−0.003 ft / s
2
=528,000 ft x 1 mi≤ ¿ =100 mile ¿
5280 ft
b. height in miles if the weight of a given man is decreased by 5% relative to the base point.
Note that if the man is at the base point: Weight = Fg (meaning no decreased in weight).
Note also that the mass of the man at the base point and even to other point is always equal.

F g=m ga ; ( at the base point )

0.95 F g=m gb ¿

Now, solving for m in both equation will give us:

 Fg Fg
m= =
g a 32.088 fps 2

0.95 F g
m=
gb

Equating (m=m)
Fg 0.95 F g 0.95 F g x 32.088
= ; g b= =30.4836 fps 2
32.088 gb Fg

Solving for the height in miles at a point where the weight is decreased by 5% or at a point
where g is equal to 30.4836 fps2:

(
h= 30. 4836
ft
s
2
ft
s )
−3 2 .088 2 x
1000 ft
−0.003 ft /s
2
=534,800 ft x
1mile
5280 ft
=101.2878788 mile

c. W =mg

Solve first for the gravity acceleration at 29,131 ft.

(
gmt .everest =32.088+ 29131 ft x
−0.003
1000 ft )
=32.000607 fps 2

Solve for the weight of a 180 lbm man at g = 32.000607 fps2.

ft
180 l bm x 32. 000 607 2
s
W= =179.03 l bf
lb m−ft
32.174 2
l b f −s
 Specific Volume, Density and Specific Weight
A. DENSITY
Density – it is the mass contained in a unit volume of a substance.
Density tells us how much materials is packed into a given space.

A substance with a high density has more mass packed into the same volume than a substance
with a low density.

Formula:
m
ρ=
V

Where:

ρ=Density
m = Mass
V = Volume

k gm gm k gm
Units: 3
; 3
;
m cm L

Example:
1. A block has a Mass = 20 kg and a Volume = 4 m³. Calculate its density.

Given:
m=20 k g m
 3
V =4 m

Required:
a. ρ

Solution:

m 20 k gm 5 k g m
ρ= = 3
= 3
V 4m m

Everyday Example

 Imagine two boxes of the same size.

One is filled with cotton.
The other is filled with steel.

 Both have the same volume, but the steel box is much heavier.
 Therefore, Steel has a higher density. Cotton has a lower density.

B. SPECIFIC VOLUME
Specific Volume is the volume occupied by one unit mass of substance. It is the inverse or
the reciprocal of density.

In simple words, specific volume tells us how much space one kilogram of a substance
occupies.

Formula:
V
v=
m

Or

1
v=
ρ

Where:
v=Specific Volume ;V =volume∨Total Volume ; m=mass ; ρ=density

3 3
m m
Units: ;
kg L

Everyday Example:
 Suppose you have:
 1 kg of iron
 1 kg of cotton
Both have the same mass. However,
 Iron occupies a small space.
 Cotton occupies a much larger space.
Therefore, Cotton has a larger specific volume than Iron.

C. SPECIFIC WEIGHT
Specific weight is the weight per unit volume of a substance.
In simple words, specific weight tells us how heavy a certain volume of a substance is under
gravity. Unlike density, specific weight depends on gravity because weight is a force.

Formula:
W
γ=
V
Or

Fg
γ=
V

And

mg
W=
k

Or
mg
F g=
k

and
m
ρ=
V

W F g mg ρg
γ= = = =
V V kV k
ρg
Thus, γ =
k
Since the specific weight is to the local acceleration of gravity as the density is to the standard
γ ρ
acceleration, = , conversion is easily made;
g k
 k
ρ=γ
g
Or

g
γ= ρ
k
At or near surface of the earth, k and g are numerically equal, so are ρ and γ .

Why Does the it Say "At or Near the Surface of the Earth"?

On Earth, Using SI System

k=1

g=9.81 m/s

The equation becomes

γ = ρg
Near Earth’s surface using English Engineering System

g=32.174 ft/s

and

k=g=32.174

Notice that

g=k

Therefore,

ρg
γ=
k
becomes

γ= ρ
Problems:

1. What is the specific weight of water at standard condition?

 Given:
2
g=9.8066 m/s
kg
ρ=1000 3
m

Required: γ

Solution:
kg m
1000 x 9.8066 2
ρg m
3
s k gf
γ= = =1000 3
k k g −m m
9.8066 m 2
k gf −s
2. Two liquids of different densities¿) are poured together into a 100-L tank, filling it. If the
resulting density of the mixture is 800 kg/m3, find the respective quantities of liquids used. Also,
find the weight of the mixture; local g =9.675 mps2.

Given:
k gm
ρ1=1500 3
m
k gm
ρ2=500 3
m

Volume of mixture( v m )=100 L

k gm
ρm =800 3
m

2
g=9.675 m/s
Required:
a. Respective quantities of Liquid 1 and Liquid 2. (V1; V2)
b. Weight of the mixture

Solution:
a. Respective quantities of Liquid 1 and Liquid 2. (V1; V2)

Note that when we mix liquid 1 and liquid 2.

m1 +m2=mm

m
And note that, we have ρ= ; where m=ρV .
V
Therefore,
m1=ρ1 V 1 ; m2= ρ1 V 2 ; mm=ρm V m
For mm :

k gm 1m
3
mm= ρm V m=800 3
x 100 L x =80 kg
m 1000 L

Solving for mass 1 and mass 2:

m1 +m2=mm ;
m1 +m2=80 kg
ρ1 V 1+ ρ2 V 2=80 kg

1500