Data Communication

Data communication is the exchange of data between two devices using some form of wired or
wireless transmission medium using some protocol.
Three fundamental characteristics for effective data communication -
1.​ Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct or intended recipient/destination.
2.​ Accuracy: The system must deliver data accurately(error free).
3.​ Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner without enough time lags.

Communication System
Communication system is a collection of hardware and software that facilitates exchange of
information between different devices.

Data Communication Components

Message: The message is the information that is to be communicated.
Sender: The sender is the device that sends the message.
Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message.
Protocol: Protocol refers to a set of rules that governs between two parties to exchange
information. Both sender and receiver should follow the same protocol to communicate
data/information.

Data Transmission Mode

Simplex: Data transmission in one direction only. Examples - TV remote control, radio,
television, satellite.
​
Half duplex: Data transmission in both directions but one direction at a time. Examples -
walkie-talkie.

Full Duplex: Data transmission in both directions simultaneously. Example - Telephone

Bandwidth:
Bandwidth refers to the maximum volume of data that can be transferred overy any
communication medium at a given point of time. E.g. 1000 bps is 1 kilobit per second.

Bandwidth falls into 3 categories

Narrowband: 64Kbps, the bandwidth consists of single or multiple channels. But the total
capacity is not more than 1.54 Mbps.
Wideband: The wideband lies between 1.54 Mbps and 45 Mbps.
Broadband: The capacity is equal or greater than 45 Mbps.
Transmission Media
Transmission media refers to the physical medium through which communication signals ca be
transmitted from one point to another.

Guided/ Wired Media

Guided media use a cabling system that guides the data signal along a specific path. Cable is
the medium through which information usually travels/moves from one device to another device
connected in a network.

Various types of Guided Media

Open Wire: Open wire is used in electrical wire systems to power transmission. This media is
affected by noise and interference. Other problems with this media are,
●​ Loss of energy
●​ Easily tapped
●​ Not recommended for log data transmission.

Twisted Pair:
Pairs of wires are twisted together which are surrounded by an insulating material and an outer
layer called jacket.

Features
●​ One wire is used for sending data signals where the other wire is used for receiving data
signals.
●​ Reduces noise and interference.
●​ Usef for short distance communication, less than 100 meters.

Unshielded twisted Pair (UTP)

●​ The cable has 4 pairs of twisted pairs
●​ This cable used a different number of twists per inch to eliminate interference.
●​ The maximum transmission speed is 9600 bits per second.

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

●​ This cable has a metal foil covering each pair.
●​ The metal foil prevents infiltration of the electromagnetic noise.
●​ It eliminates crosstalk.

Coaxial Cable:
Coaxial cables have a single central conductor, made of solid wire. This conductor is
surrounded by an insulator which is again surrounded by metal mesh to block any outside
interference. The data rate goes up to 10 Mbps.
Optical Fibre
Optical fibre consists of thin glass fibres that can carry information in the form of visible light.
This cable consists of a very narrow strand of glass called the core and there is a concentric
layer of glass called cladding around the core. The cladding is covered by a protective coating
of plastic, known as jacket. The lights are passed using refraction.

●​ Transmission is light based rather than electricity

●​ Transmission distance is greater
●​ Extremely hard to tap
●​ It is lighter than copper wire
●​ Offers the greatest bandwidth
●​ It is expensive because the production cost, maintenance cost and installation cost is
higher.
●​ More fragile compared to copper wires.

Unguided/ Wireless Media

●​ Radio frequency propagation - Radio tower

●​ Infrared wave transmission

TV remote, care remote
●​ Microwave transmission - Satellite TV dish antennas
●​ Satellite transmission
Bluetooth
Mobile, Laptop, speaker connectivity
Wifi: wireless fidelity is used in wireless LAN. Wireless Internet access.

Multiplexing
Multiplexing is a technique used for transmitting several signals simultaneously over a common
medium. The channel capacity is more than a required communication, that is why the channel
is shared among multiple communications.
Multiplexers
The communication device(Sender’s Side) that multiplexes(combines) several signals into one
data communication signal to be transmitted over the common medium is called a
multiplexer(MUX).
At the receiving end, a demultiplexer(DEMUX) completes the communication process by
separating multiplexed signals from the transmission line and distributing it to the intended
receiver.

Frequency Division Multiplexing(FDM)

Multiple signals from different devices are modulated using carrier waves with different
frequencies. These modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that is
transported over a common medium.

Time Division Multiplexing(TDM)

TDM divides the main signal into time-slots, with each time slot carrying a separate signal. It is
used for digital communication.
Asynchronous transmission:
Timing of the signal is not important.
The information that is received or transmitted follows a predefined pattern. Each byte of
information is pre-coded by a start bit (denoted by 0) and ended by a stop bit (denoted by 1).
For example, 8 bits info becomes 10 bits in this transmission which makes it larger data and
slower transmission.

Synchronous Transmission:
This transmission does not send the start and stop bits. The receiver’s clock is synchronized
with the transmitter’s clock. Timing becomes very important in synchronous transmission. It is
muster than asynchronous transmission.
Switching
If n telephone sets are used and these are connected to each other by direct wire connections,
then n(n-1)/2 lines are required for connecting each pair. This is called point-to-point connection.

●​ Impractical and wasteful when applied to very large networks.

●​ Most of the time, the majority of links are idle.
●​ The better solution is switching
●​ Switching means, routing traffic by setting up temporary connections between two or
more network points on a network.
●​ The devices located at different locations to route the network traffic on a network are
called switches.
●​ Each switch is connected either to a communicating device or to any other switch for
forwarding information.

Switching traditionally are of 3 types -

1.​ Circuit switching
2.​ Packet switching
3.​ Message switching

Circuit Switching
When a device wants to communicate with another device, the circuit switching technique
creates a fixed bandwidth channel, called a circuit, between the source and destination.
The circuit is exclusively reserved for a particular information flow and no other flow can use it.
Other circuits are isolated from each other.
The path taken by the data between its source and destination is determined by the circuit on
which the data is flowing and does not change during the lifetime of the connection.
The circuit is terminated when the connection is closed. The method is called circuit switching. A
common example is the public switched telephone network (PSTN).
●​ Data is transmitted with no delay.
●​ Circuit switching was designed for voice communication.
●​ In case of idle time, the capacity of the link is wasted. This situation is addressed by
packet switching.
Packet Switching:
Packet switching breaks the data into packets, which are discrete units of potentially variable
length blocks of the data. The packets also contain a header with control information like the
destination address and priority of the message.
The packets are passed by the source pont to its local packet switching exchange(PSE). When
the PSE receives a packet, it inspects the destination address contained in the packet header,
then it either removes the header or forwards the packet to another system. Packets of a
message can follow different routes. After reaching their destination, each packet is put into
order by a packet assembler and de-assembler (PAD).

Message Switching
Message switching technique uses the store and forward mechanism.
A special device (usually a computer system with large storage capacity) in the network
receives the message from a communicating device and stores it into memory.
Later it finds a free route and sends the stored information to the intended destination/ receiver.
Message switching is one of the earliest types of switching techniques, which was common in
the 1960s and 1970s.
As the delays in this switching are inherent and a large storage capacity is required, this
technique became obsolete nowadays.
Computer Network
A computer network is a collection of two or more computers, which are connected together to
share information and resources.

Types of Network
Local area network (LAN):
It spans in small geographical areas such as an office, home or in a building. They are limited to
a maximum distance of only a few kilometres, although they are usually much faster.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):

MAN is a network of computers spread over a metropolitan area such as a city and its suburbs.
Multiple local area networks with a series of backbones, making one large network for the entire
city. Examples are cable television network, Organization spreaded over the entire city.

Wide Area Network (WAN):

A WAN is a network system of interconnecting many companies over a large geographical area
such as cities, states, countries or even the entire world. Examples are telephone networks,
satellite links, company offices spread across multiple locations, countries.

Personal Area Network (PAN):

PAN is a small scale computer network that connects computers within the user's personal
workspace. It covers only a few meters only. It is usually for personal use within a small area.
Examples - Bluetooth headset connected to smartphone. Computers connected to printer.
Network Topology
The term topology refers to the way a network is laid out physically. It is the shape of a network.

Bus Topology
Bus topology uses a common bus or backbone to connect all devices. The backbone acts as a
shared communication medium and each node is attached to it.

Advantages:
●​ Connecting a computer or peripheral to a linear bus is easy.
●​ It requires the least amount of cabling to connect the computers, it is less expensive.
●​ It is easy to extend.

Disadvantages:
●​ Entire network shuts down if there is a failure in the backbone.
●​ Heavy traffic can slow down the bus, because there is no co-ordinator control.
Ring Topology
●​ Computers are placed on a circle of cable, forming a ring.
●​ Every node has exactly two neighbours.
●​ Messages travel through the ring in the same direction (clockwise or anti-clockwise) until
it reaches the destination.
●​ When a node receives a signal, it accepts this signal if it is the intended recipient,
otherwise it re-generates the bits and passes them along the ring.

Advantages
●​ Easy to install and configure
●​ Every computer is given equal access to the ring.

Disadvantages
●​ Failure of any node or cable breaks the entire network or loop.
●​ Ring length and number of nodes are limited.
Star Topology
The devices are not directly linked to each other, but are connected via a centralized network
component, called HUB, which forms the shape of a star. The hub acts as a central controller. If
a node wants to send a message, it sends the message through the hub.

Advantages
●​ Easy to install
●​ Network is not affected if any node fails or is removed.
●​ Fault detection and repair is easier

Disadvantages
●​ It requires a longer length of cable.
●​ If the hub fails the entire network fails.
Tree Topology

It combines characteristics of bus and star topologies.

Advantages
●​ The distance to which a signal can travel increases as it uses a hub or chain of hubs.
●​ It allows isolating and prioritizing communications from different nodes.
●​ It Allows easy expansion

Disadvantages
●​ If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
●​ It is more difficult to configure
Mesh Topology
In mesh topology, every node has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other node. A full
connected network has n(n-1)/2 physical links to connect n devices.

Advantages
●​ The large number of links eliminates network congestion.
●​ If one link or node fails, it does not affect the rest part to the network.

Disadvantages
●​ The amount of cabling required is very large.
●​ Every node is connected to others, installation and re-configuration is very difficult.
●​ The amount of hardware required makes it expensive.
What is Hybrid Topology?
A hybrid topology is defined as a network topology that combines two or more different network
topologies. A hybrid topology can be a combination of bus topology, ring topology and mesh
topology. The selection of different types of network topologies combined together depends
upon the number of computers, their location, and the required performance. In the hybrid
topology network sections consist of a configuration of different types of network topologies. The
structure of hybrid topology is more complex but offers various advantages such as flexibility
and fault tolerance.

Hybrid topologies blend different network structures to optimise data transmission, combining
the best attributes of each to enhance flexibility, efficiency, and reliability. Here's an in-depth look
at how data moves within such a setup tailored for the specific needs of small businesses.

Working of Hybrid Topology

●​ Hybrid topology in computer networks is a combination of more than one topology.
●​ This hybrid topology makes use of standards such as Wi-Fi and Ethernet for
performing its different operations.
●​ The functioning of hybrid topology depends upon various types of hybrid routers
used such as switches and hubs as they can easily connect the devices that are
connected over wired or wireless networks.
●​ The hybrid topology has different network branches and each branch as its own
unique design.
●​ The functioning takes place by gaining various benefits of the both of the different
topologies used.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
Below are the advantages of hybrid topology:

●​ Adding a new node or deleting the existing node is easy in hybrid topologies.
●​ Hybrid topology is more secure, reliable, and scalable as compared to individual star,
ring and mesh topology.
●​ Error detection and troubleshooting is easier in hybrid topology.
●​ When an organization has a large geographical area utilizing hybrid topology is
considered a better option.
●​ Traffic with large volume is handled easily by the hybrid topology.
●​ The overall performance and speed is greater in hybrid topology.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

Below are the disadvantages of hybrid topology:

●​ The design and implementation of hybrid network topology is difficult.

●​ More number of cables and other physical devices are required for hybrid topology.
●​ The process of installation of hybrid topology is difficult.
●​ The overall implementation, setup and process of hybrid topology is much more
costlier.
OSI Model
Open system Interconnection is a standard reference model for communication between two
end users in a network.

Network Devices
There are network devices to form a complete network system.

Network Interface Card (NIC):

Network interface card is a hardware device that connects clients, server and peripherals to the
network through a port.
Each network interface is associated with a unique address called media access control (MAC)
address. It is also called ethernet address.

HUB
A hub is also known as a connector, it is a small box that connects individual devices on a
network. Hub receives a signal from one device and forwards it to all the connected devices. It
amplifies the signal and broadcasts. It works on the physical layer of the OSI model.

Repeater
A repeater is an electronic device that operates on the physical layer of the OSI model.
Repeater amplifies the signal and forwards it to the connected devices. Hub is a multiport
repeater.

Switch
Switch connects individual devices on a network. It works on the data link layer of the OSI
model. It is generally more intelligent. Unlike hubs, network switches are capable of inspecting
the data packets as they are received, determining the source and destination device of that
packet and forwarding the packet appropriately. This is a multiport bridge that can perform error
checking.
Bridge
Bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater with added functionality of filtering
content by reaching the MAC address of source and destination. It is also used for
interconnecting two LANs networking on the same protocol. It connects multiple network
segments. It is not limited to 2 ports.
It can have multiple ports to connect and manage multiple segments. Multiple bridges are often
called Layer 2 switches.

Router
A router is an essential network device for interconnecting two or more networks. The main aim
of the router is to trace the best route for information to travel. Router creates and maintains a
table called routing table to store the best routes to certain network destinations. It works on the
network layer. Routers are generally expensive and difficult to configure and maintain.

Gateway
A gateway is a connecting device that connects two networks that may work upon different
networking models or protocols. It works on all the seven layers of the OSI model. Gateways are
also known as protocol connectors. A gateway accepts the packet formatted for one protocol
and converts the formatted packet into another protocol. A network gateway can be
implemented completely in software, hardware or as a combination of both.

Basics of Internet and Protocols

Internet protocols are a set of rules that allow computers and other devices to communicate
over the Internet. These protocols ensure that data is sent, received, and understood correctly
between different systems. There are many types of internet protocols, each serving a specific
purpose, such as transferring files, sending emails, or securing data. Understanding these
protocols is important for making the internet work efficiently and securely. In this article we will
see different types of internet protocol in detail.

What is Internet Protocol?

As we discuss Internet Protocol (IP) is a set of rules that allows devices to communicate with
each other over the Internet. It is like the address system used for sending data. Every device
connected to the internet has a unique IP address that helps data know where to go and where
it is coming from.

What is IP Addressing?

An IP address represents an Internet Protocol address. A unique address that identifies the
device over the network. It is almost like a set of rules governing the structure of data sent over
the Internet or through a local network. An IP address helps the Internet to distinguish between
different routers, computers, and websites. It serves as a specific machine identifier in a specific
network and helps to improve visual communication between source and destination.

Working of Internet Protocol

Step by step working of internet protocol:

●​ Dividing Data into Packets: When you send information over the internet, IP split it into
small parts called packets. Each packet contains a piece of the data and the address of
where it needs to go.
●​ Addressing: Every device connected to the internet has its own IP address. This
address helps identify where the data is being sent from and where it should be
delivered.
●​ Routing the Packets: As the packets travel across the internet, they pass through
several devices called routers. These routers help direct the packets toward the correct
destination, like how mail is sorted at different post offices.
●​ Reassemble the Data: Once all the packets arrive at the destination, they are put back
together to recreate the original message or file.
●​ Handling Missing Packets: If some packets don’t arrive, the system can request that
they be sent again, making sure the complete data is received.

TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol)

The TCP/IP model (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a four-layer networking

framework that enables reliable communication between devices over interconnected networks.
It provides a standardized set of protocols for transmitting data across interconnected networks,
ensuring efficient and error-free delivery. Each layer has specific functions that help manage
different aspects of network communication, making it essential for understanding and working
with modern networks.

In TCP/IP, the IP protocol ensures that each computer that is connected to the Internet is having
a specific serial number called the IP address. TCP specifies how data is exchanged over the
internet and how it should be broken into IP packets. It also makes sure that the packets have
information about the source of the message data, the destination of the message data, the
sequence in which the message data should be re-assembled, and checks if the message has
been sent correctly to the specific destination. The TCP is also known as a connection-oriented
protocol.
Layers of TCP/IP Model

It’s composed of four interconnected layers compared to the seven layers in the OSI model.
Each layer performs a specific task on the data that is being transmitted over the network
channel, and data moves from one layer to another.

●​ Application Layer
●​ Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)
●​ Network/Internet Layer(IP)
●​ Network Access Layer

The diagrammatic comparison of the TCP/IP and OSI model is as follows:

1. Application Layer

The Application Layer is the closest to the end user and is where applications and user
interfaces reside. It serves as the bridge between user programs and the lower layers
responsible for data transmission.

●​ Function: Provides services and interfaces for end-user applications to access network
resources.
●​ Key responsibilities:
○​ Supports application protocols like HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, etc.
○​ Enables communication between software applications across networks.
○​ Handles data formatting, encryption, and session management.
2. Transport Layer

This layer ensures data is delivered reliably and in the correct order between devices. The two
main protocols in this layer are TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram
Protocol).

●​ Function: Ensures reliable or unreliable delivery of data between hosts.

●​ Key responsibilities:
○​ TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Provides reliable, connection-oriented
delivery with error checking, retransmission, and flow control.
○​ UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Provides faster, connectionless transmission
without guarantees.
○​ Manages flow control and segmentation/reassembly of data.

3. Internet Layer

It handles the routing of data packets across networks. It uses the Internet Protocol (IP) to
assign unique IP addresses to devices and decide the most efficient path for data to reach its
destination.

●​ Function: Determines the best path for data to travel across networks.
●​ Key responsibilities:
○​ IP (Internet Protocol): Provides addressing and routing.
○​ Handles packet forwarding, fragmentation, and logical addressing (IP
addresses).
○​ Involves protocols like IP, ICMP (for diagnostics), and ARP (for address
resolution).

4. Network Access Layer

This layer is the lowest layer in the model and responsible for the physical connection between
devices within the same network segment.

●​ Function: Manages the physical transmission of data over the network hardware.
●​ Key responsibilities:
○​ Handles how data is physically sent over cables, Wi-Fi, etc.
○​ Manages MAC addressing, framing, and error detection at the physical link.
○​ Includes Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and other data link technologies.
Working of TCP/IP Model

When Sending Data (From Sender to Receiver)

●​ Application Layer
○​ A user sends data through an application (e.g., opening a website via a browser).
○​ The application prepares data for transmission (e.g., using HTTP, FTP, SMTP).
●​ Transport Layer (TCP/UDP)
○​ TCP breaks data into small segments, adds a header (with sequence numbers,
source/destination ports).
○​ Ensures reliable delivery (TCP) or fast, connectionless delivery (UDP).
●​ Internet Layer (IP)
○​ Adds IP addresses to each packet (source and destination).
○​ Determines the route the packet should take to reach the destination.
●​ Link Layer (Network Access Layer)
○​ Converts packets into frames, adds MAC (physical) addresses.
○​ Sends data as binary bits (0s and 1s) over the physical medium (e.g., Ethernet,
Wi-Fi).

Why TCP/IP is Used Over the OSI Model

Reason Explanation

Simpler Structure TCP/IP has only 4 layers, compared to 7 in OSI, making it easier
to implement and understand in real systems.

Protocol-Driven Design TCP/IP was designed based on working protocols, while the OSI
model is more of a theoretical framework.

Flexibility and TCP/IP adapts well to different hardware and networks and
Robustness includes error handling, routing, and congestion control.

Open Standard TCP/IP is open, free to use, and not controlled by any single
organization, helping it gain universal acceptance.

Actual Use vs The OSI model is great for education and design principles, but
Conceptual Model TCP/IP is the one actually used in real-world networking.
HTTP
HTTP protocol is used to transfer hypertexts over the internet and it is defined by the www(world
wide web) for information transfer. This protocol defines how the information needs to be
formatted and transmitted. And, it also defines the various actions the web browsers should take
in response to the calls made to access a particular web page. Whenever a user opens their
web browser, the user will indirectly use HTTP as this is the protocol that is being used to share
text, images, and other multimedia files on the World Wide Web.

HTTP stands for "Hypertext Transfer Protocol." It is a set of rules for sharing data on the World
Wide Web (WWW). When you visit a website, HTTP helps your browser request and receive the
data needed to display the web pages you see. It is a fundamental part of how the internet
works, making it possible for us to browse and interact with websites.

●​ Basic Structure: HTTP forms the foundation of the web, enabling data communication
and file sharing.
●​ Web Browsing: Most websites use HTTP, so when you click on a link or download a file,
HTTP is at work.
●​ Client-Server Model: HTTP works on a request-response system. Your browser (client)
asks for information, and the website's server responds with the data.
●​ Application Layer Protocol: HTTP operates within the Internet Protocol Suite,
managing how data is transmitted and received.
What is HTTP Response?

HTTP Response is simply the answer to what a Server gets when the request is raised. There
are various things contained in the HTTP Response, some of them are listed below.

●​ HTTP Status Code

●​ HTTP Headers
●​ HTTP Body

HTTP Response Headers

HTTP Response headers are simply like an HTTP Request where it has that work to send some
important files and data to the HTTP Response Body.

HTTP Response Body

HTTP Responses are the responses that are received successfully upon the request. Generally,
it comes under the requests generated by the web. In most cases, the request is to transfer the
HTML data into a webpage.

What is an HTTP Status Code?

HTTP Status Codes are the 3-digit codes that tell the message or simply tell us about the HTTP
Request whether it has been completed or not. There are simply 5 types of status codes.

●​ Informational
●​ successful
●​ Re-directional
●​ Client-Error
●​ Server-Error

FTP
This protocol is used for transferring files from one system to the other. This works on a
client-server model. When a machine requests for file transfer from another machine, the FTO
sets up a connection between the two and authenticates each other using their ID and
Password. And, the desired file transfer takes place between the machines.

FTP or File Transfer Protocol is said to be one of the earliest and also the most common forms
of transferring files on the internet. Located in the application layer of the OSI model, FTP is a
basic system that helps in transferring files between a client and a server. It is what makes the
FTP unique that the system provides a reliable and efficient means of transferring files from one
system to another even if they have different file structures and operating systems. Contrary to
other protocols such as http that cover hypertexts and web resources in general, ftp is dedicated
to the management and the transfer of text, binary, or image files.

What is File Transfer Protocol?

FTP is a standard communication protocol. There are various other protocols like HTTP which
are used to transfer files between computers, but they lack clarity and focus as compared to
FTP. Moreover, the systems involved in connection are heterogeneous, i.e. they differ in
operating systems, directories, structures, character sets, etc the FTP shields the user from
these differences and transfers data efficiently and reliably. FTP can transfer ASCII, EBCDIC, or
image files. The ASCII is the default file share format, in this, each character is encoded by NVT
ASCII. In ASCII or EBCDIC the destination must be ready to accept files in this mode. The
image file format is the default format for transforming binary files.

How Does FTP Work?

FTP is a client server protocol that has two communication channels, command channel for
conversation control and data channel for file content.

Here are steps mentioned in which FTP works:

●​ A user has to log in to FTP Server first, there may be some servers where you can
access to content without login, known as anonymous FTP.
●​ Client can start a conversation with server, upon requesting to download a file.
●​ The user can start different functions like upload, delete, rename, copy files, etc. on
server.
Email and Client server Architecture

SMTP protocol is important for sending and distributing outgoing emails. This protocol uses the
header of the mail to get the email id of the receiver and enters the mail into the queue of
outgoing mail. And as soon as it delivers the mail to the receiving email id, it removes the email
from the outgoing list. The message or the electronic mail may consider the text, video, image,
etc. It helps in setting up some communication server rules.

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is an application layer protocol used for exchanging
email messages between servers. It is essential in the email communication process and
operates at the application layer of the TCP/IP stack.

To send an email, the client opens a TCP connection to the SMTP server. The server, which is
always listening on port 25, initiates the connection as soon as it detects a client. Once the TCP
connection is established, the client sends the email across the connection.

Client server Architecture

The Client-Server Model is a distributed application architecture that divides tasks or workloads
between servers (providers of resources or services) and clients (requesters of those
services). In this model, a client sends a request to a server for data, which is typically
processed on the server side. The server then returns the requested data to the client.
Clients generally do not share resources with each other, but instead rely on the server to
provide the resources or services requested. Common examples of the client-server model
include email systems and the World Wide Web (WWW), where email clients interact with mail
servers, and web browsers request resources from web servers.

How Does the Client-Server Model Work?

In this article, we are going to take a dive into the Client-Server model and have a look at how
the Internet works via web browsers. This article will help us have a solid WEB foundation and
help us easily work with WEB technologies.

Client

When we talk about a "Client," it refers to a device (usually a computer, smartphone, or

application) that requests and receives services from a server. The client is the entity that
initiates communication, asking for data or resources from the server. For instance, web
browsers like Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, or Safari are common client applications that
request data from a server to render web pages.

Server

A Server, on the other hand, is a remote computer or system that provides data, resources,
or services to clients. It listens to incoming client requests, processes them, and sends the
required information back. A server can handle multiple client requests simultaneously.

For example, Web servers host websites, and database servers store and serve databases for
applications. In simple terms, the client sends a request to the server, and the server serves
the request as long as the data or service is available in its system.