Recent Advances in Textile Waste Recycling: Technological Innovations, Energy Recovery, and

Circular Economy Integration

Md Abdus Shahid1,*, Md Tanvir Hossain2,*, Imam Hossain1, 3, Mohammed Farhad Mahmud Chowdhury4, and
Kohinur Sharna1
1
Department of Textile Engineering, Dhaka University of Engineering and Technology, Gazipur 1707, Bangladesh
2
Department of Textile Engineering, Bangladesh University of Business and Technology (BUBT), Dhaka 1216,
Bangladesh
3
Department of Textile Engineering, Northern University Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh
4
Department of Yarn Engineering, Bangladesh University of Textiles, Dhaka 1208, Bangladesh

*Corresponding author’s E-mail: tanvirhossain@[Link]; shahid@[Link]

Abstract
The global textile industry generates substantial volumes of pre- and post-consumer waste, creating significant
environmental, economic, and resource-efficiency challenges. Over the past fifteen years, rapid advancements in
recycling technologies have expanded the potential for textile waste valorization within a circular economy
framework. This review critically examines recent progress in textile waste recycling, emphasizing technological
innovations, energy recovery pathways, circular economy (CE) integration, value-added applications and several
challenges during implementation. Key areas explored include recycling technologies such as mechanical, chemical,
biological, and biochemical recycling techniques, CE initiatives, sustainable development goals (SDGs) pertaining
to sustainable production and consumption, and innovative business models such as extended producer
responsibility (EPR). Furthermore, emerging applications, such as bio-oil production through pyrolysis, nanofiber
fabrication for filtration and protective textiles, and high-performance thermal insulation materials, mark the trans-
formative potential of textile waste recycling. By integrating technological, regulatory, and socioeconomic
perspectives, this review provides a comprehensive road-map for promoting textile waste recycling, aligning with
global sustainability goals, and fostering industry-wide adoption.

Keywords: Textile waste; Recycling; Textile-to-textile recycling; Circular economy; Sustainability.

1. Introduction
Textile waste, broadly classified into two main categories, pre-consumer and post-consumer waste, poses significant
ecological and economic challenges on a global scale [1]. Pre-consumer waste includes production discards such as
fabric trimmings, yarn waste, and rejected garments that never reach consumers [2]. In contrast, post-consumer
waste refers to used clothes and household textiles discarded after their intended use. Pre-consumer waste is often

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cleaner and more homogeneous, making it relatively easier to recycle through mechanical or chemical processes. In
contrast, post-consumer waste tends to be more contaminated and heterogeneous due to varying fiber blends, dyes,
and finishes, complicating recycling efforts [3]. The mounting environmental impact of textile waste has spurred a
global shift toward sustainable practices across industries. In this context, the substantial waste generated by the
textile industry has become a critical focus for waste management and recycling initiatives. The effective recycling
of textile waste, comprising both pre-consumer and post-consumer waste, represents a pressing issue due to its
environmental and economic implications. Recycling textile waste has gained significant attention in recent years,
driven by its potential to conserve resources, protect the environment and generate economic value [4-6] . The
urgency to enhance recycling efforts aligns closely with the United Nations SDGs, particularly those related to
sustainable consumption and production. Moreover, emerging regulations in regions such as the European Union
and China underscore the need to incorporate recycled materials, including post-consumer textile waste and recycled
polyester, into garments and household textiles. This reflects growing consumer demand for sustainability [7].
In many industries across China, Bangladesh, and India, the mechanical recycling of woven and knitted fabrics is
considered a suitable option for spinners. They produce ring- and rotor-yarns with counts ranging from 5 to 20 Ne
by blending recycled and virgin fibers [8]. Nevertheless, these recycling methods are limited to down-cycling, which
implies that the recovered material is less functional and of worse quality than the original [9]. Since these items are
not used again, the process is considered open-loop. Compared with mechanical recycling, the quality degradation
of thermo-mechanical recycling is notably lower. But it is more useful for polyester, and polyethylene terephthalate
(PET) bottle recycling [10, 11]. Rotimi et al. reported a systematic review of textile waste recycling in a conceptual
framework. The authors focused on managing post-consumer waste at the end of the life cycle by enhancing
collaboration between different end users that can mitigate sustainability paradoxes [12]. Eppinger and his
colleagues reported recycling technologies for textile waste. That study claims that chemical recycling of cotton and
polyester is an effective approach to enhancing recyclability. Although chemical recycling is expensive, it enables
the production of high-quality recycled fibers by breaking down polymers and purifying monomers. In contrast,
mechanical recycling relies on physical processes such as sorting to remove impurities, which limits the quality of
the recovered fibers. However, since it is a low-cost method, there is significant potential for it to become an
important recycling technology in the future, with advancements in impurity removal methods. By modifying the
industrial structure and the model of business, brands and retailers can influence the establishment of robust
sustainability in the textile recycling industry [13]. Also, a review reported on fuel production from textile waste by
thermo-chemical methods by Athanasopoulos and his team. The torrefaction method is beneficial for minimizing
new environmental impacts because it enables maximum fuel production with 50 to 85% less energy than
conventional thermal decomposition methods [14].
However, no review to date has comprehensively examined advances in textile waste recycling over the past 15
years, focusing on emerging technologies, regulatory frameworks, and sustainability strategies. This article aims to
bridge that gap by providing a detailed analysis of these developments.

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This study focuses mainly on the several extraction technologies such as mechanical, chemical, biological and
biochemical recycling techniques of pre-consumer and post-consumer textile waste, evaluate CE approaches,
sustainable models for business and regulatory frameworks. Also, emerging value-added applications such as
nanofibers, bio-oil production, advanced composites and different thermo regulating textiles are discussed.
Additionally, the challenges faced by current recycling practices, along with potential solutions, are presented.
These insights aim to assist researchers, engineers, and the recycling community in constructing sustainable textile
waste management. A comparison table of present vs. previous literature is shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Comparison between previous literature and the present study on textile recycling
Literature Year Main focus Present review advantages Ref
Review 1 2025 Focus on chemical valorization; ignores In-depth coverage of all major [15]
broader recycling technologies and recycling technologies with
commercialization. sustainability, commercialization
and circular economy
perspectives
Review 2 2022 Mostly focused on technology Coverage includes overview of [16]
performance with much less discussion of recycling technologies, specific
potential downstream applications for value-added applications and
textile waste commercialization research as
well as sustainability assessment.
Review 3 2024 Restrictions on commercialisation and Deep insights into textile waste [17]
applications of textile waste valorisation valorization, value-added
products, sustainability
assessment and
commercialization.
Review 4 2024 Emphasis on pre-consumer waste and Covers a wide variety of textile [18]
sustainability innovation with less recycling technologies, mapping
emphasis on all-encompassing recycling of value-added application and
technologies. commercialization pathways as
well as sustainability assessment
Review 5 2022 Recent changes in the field, sustainability Cites the latest research on [19]
assessment and commercialization are advanced recycling technologies,
poorly covered. value-added applications,
commercialization, sustainability
assessment, and circular
economy strategies.

2. Methodology
A comprehensive review was undertaken by identifying relevant publications from the past 15 years identified
through databases such as Google Scholar, Scopus, and Web of Science, using search terms including “textile waste
recycling,” “pre-consumer textile waste,” “post-consumer textile waste,” “recycling techniques,” “bio-energy from
textile waste,” and “circular economy in textiles.” Boolean operators were utilized as “textile was and recycling”,
textile waste or textile recycling”. Priority was given to peer-reviewed journals, review articles, conference

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proceedings, reports, and theses. Studies focusing on recycling techniques, environmental impacts, sustainability of
textile recycling processes, value added applications and the necessity of recycling were included. In contrast,
articles lacking advanced recycling strategies or with limited relevance to recycling advancements, non-English
publications, duplicate records, and articles with insufficient methodological information were excluded. Key data,
such as the type of textile waste targeted, recycling techniques employed, and the environmental and socioeconomic
impact, were extracted from the selected studies. The collected data were critically analyzed to evaluate the progress
in textile waste recycling. Fig. 1 provides the flowchart of the literature review methodology.

Fig. 1: Flow chart of literature review methodology

3. Progress of Textile Waste Recycling

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Various processes, such as the manufacture of fiber, yarn, fabric, and garments, are employed to bring textiles to
consumers. Different kinds of waste are produced at every stage of the manufacturing process [20]. Fig. 2
summarizes the typical end-of-life paths of textiles. Certain cotton waste, e.g., noils, pneumafil, sliver, droppings, is
recyclable in the same process. However, very little post-consumer clothing is reused. Except for the two previously
mentioned categories (cotton waste and garment reuse), most of the textile waste is rejected during its production
processes and it is discarded into the environment or it is recycled, whether through closed-loop or open-loop
techniques. Note that nonwoven mats are frequently not recyclable and are not something included in the recycling
process. Moreover, the conversion from fibers to yarn doesn't include all requisite processing, as synthetic fiber is
spun for its use in yarn directly. In contrast, in some cases, the filament is used directly for knitting and weaving
without being spun into yarn.

Fig. 2: General end-of-life routes for textiles

3.1 Progress of Pre-Consumer Textile Waste Recycling

Pre-consumer textile waste refers to the remnants and by-products generated during the production and
manufacturing processes in the fiber, textile, and cotton industries. This type of waste includes fabric scraps, offcuts,
defective items, and unsold inventory from textile mills and clothing factories. Pre-consumer waste is often
generated in large quantities due to cutting patterns, design changes, or quality control rejections. Pre-consumer
textile waste is categorized by raw material type: cellulose fibers from plants such as cotton and hemp; protein fibers

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from animals such as wool and silk; and engineered fibers from oil-based synthetics such as polyester and nylon.
Pre-consumer textile waste can be disposed of by sending it directly to companies for reuse or recycling, selling it to
other outlets, jobbers, or consolidators for resale, donating it to non-profit organizations for re-purposing, or by
retailers sending it directly to a landfill [21]. Recycling and re-purposing pre-consumer textile waste can
significantly reduce the environmental impact of the textile industry by diverting waste from landfills and
conserving resources [22]. Integration of pre-consumer waste into new production cycles is crucial for promoting
sustainable practices and achieving a CE in the fashion and textile sectors [23, 24]. Some pre-consumer textile waste
recycling processes in the textile manufacturing route are presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Pre-consumer textile waste recycling
Recycling Recycling Recycled Recycling technique Key findings Ref.
category material product
Waste Yarns Cutting, shredding, Recycled yarns represent better [24]
Cotton opening evenness and fewer imperfections,
garment Sorting, washing, highlighting the potential for
spinning maintaining yarn quality.
Primary
Cutting table Yarns Cutting, shredding, Recycled yarn of 65 Tex shows lower [25]
waste opening, cleaning irregularities and count strength
beating, carding product of 1864.2, meeting acceptable
industrial standards.
Cotton/ Composite Cutting, shredding Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC) [23,
polyester sound- values between 0.5 - 0.70, comparable 24]
mixed waste insulation to commercial panels (0.45 - 1.0),
fabric. showing potential for sustainable
acoustic applications.
Woollenized Composite Jute fiber-cutting, The highest thermal resistance (0.3614 [26]
jute thermal and opening, shredding m²K/W), highest NRC of 0.69,
sound and carding highlight superior thermal and acoustic
insulation performance.
Cotton waste Chipboards Cutting, shredding, Improved thermal conductivity (0.0023 [27]
sound & carding kW/mK), sound insulation properties of
radiation- 54.0 dB, demonstrating effective
insulation insulation properties.
Fabric waste Composite Rag-tearing, Lower water uptake 8.32%, tensile [28]
Secondary
For furniture shredding, carding strength 90.18 MPa offer good thermal
application stability.
Cotton dust Composite Mixing, drying, wood Higher compressive strength (6.795 [29]
of lint brick moulding. MPa), water absorption (11.199%), and
a reduced weight (1.19 g/cm³) highlight
suitability for lightweight construction
Textile Composite Mixing, drying, wood Compressive strength (13.7 MPa), [30]
sludge brick moulding. water absorption (14.6%), low toxicity
refers sustainable building materials.
Carpet waste Composite Cutting, shredding Enhanced post-cracking strength, [31]
Concrete toughness index of 5.6, energy-
absorption capacity 53% to 129%
demonstrate improved mechanical
performance.

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 Towels Sugar Cutting, crushing, Produced 74.2 g glucose/100 g waste, [32]
waste decrystallization, illustrating high-value biochemical
hydrolysis recovery.
Cotton Activated H₂PO₄-hydrolysis, Remove over 80% of COD and over 70 [33]
medical carbon, carbonization up to % of chrominance refer cost-effective
gauge Wastewater 500°C pollutant adsorption.
treatment
Waste Activated Waste treated by Higher absorption for ethanol (71%), [34]
garments carbon, binary ionic liquid heptane (91%), showing broad
Oil and solvent. spectrum contaminant removal.
organic Carbonization up to
solvents 1100 °C.
Adsorption
Lyocell Modified-LF Carboxymethylation Offer enhanced heavy-metal removal [35]
Tertiary fabric (LF) adsorbent and crosslinking efficiency by approximately 17 times
metal reactions. higher uptake of Cd(II).
adsorption
Fabric & Char-based Rinsing, drying, Highest absorption 70.39 mg/g for [36]
garments adsorbents, cutting, shredding, Cr(VI), suitable for wastewater
waste Heavy metal and pyrolyzing at 300 remediation.
adsorption °C.
Discarded Microfibrillat Acetic acid 91.58% yield, high crystallinity [37]
cotton fibers ed cellulose hydrolysis, MFC by (83.52%), and effective
(MFC) Fenton (Fe2+ H₂O₂) functionalization for diverse
oxidation. applications.
Cotton fiber Microcrystalli Separation, scouring 87% yield, 99.98% purity, effective [38]
wastes from ne cellulose (NaOH), bleaching valorization of spinning waste.
spinning (MCC) (H₂O₂), H₂SO₄
hydrolysis
Quaternary Woven Active Cleaning, Cutting, High retention capacity after 200 [39]
cotton battery drying, carbonization cycles, initial discharge capacity (~350
fabrics electrodes up to 800 °C mAh/g), higher flexibility and strength,
suitable for flexible energy storage.
Cotton & Bio-gas H₃PO₄-hydrolysis, Highest biogas 647.74 mL/gVS and [40]
wool fabrics anaerobic digestion methane 466.38 mL CH₄/gVS,
showing effective energy recovery.

Textile dust Energy Co-combustion A 5% and 20% waste blend supports a [41]
122 MW and 24 MW power station,
reducing disposal costs by ECU
135/ton and enabling industrial-scale
energy recovery.
Waste fibers Energy Co-pyrolysis Lowered acidic compounds (25.37%),
Bio-oil and oxygen-containing compounds
(16.30%), activation energy (10.86%), [42]
improving bio-oil quality.

Cotton waste Heat Cutting, shredding, Bio-char had a high carbon content [43]
Biofuel drying, CH₂Cl₂ & (76.86%), high heating value (30.505
H₂SO₄ hydrolysis, MJ/kg), and high yield of bio-crude oil
hydrothermal (23.3%), showing efficient energy
treatment at 240-340 conversion.

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 ℃.
Waste Energy, Na₂CO₃-cleaning, Bio-conversion to 256g ethanol or
Apparel Ethanol, Bio- anaerobic digestion, 171L methane per kg of waste, the
(blue jeans) gas enzymatic hydrolysis, highest energy recovery of 463 gallons [44]
fermentation. per ton of waste jeans, highlight
renewable energy potential.
3.1.1 Primary recycling
Primary recycling, or closed-loop recycling, preserves fiber integrity by recovering fibers without structural
alteration, allowing reuse in textiles and reducing dependence on virgin resources. An example of primary recycling
is yarn production from cutting table waste using techniques like cutting, shredding, opening, cleaning, beating, and
carding. This produced 65 Tex yarn with 1806 imperfections (IPI), 1864.2 count strength product (CSP), and 18.5%
co-efficient of variation (mass), reflecting acceptable uniformity for recycled yarn [1]. In line with this, recent
research emphasizes the importance of integrating such recycling practices within the broader framework of circular
fashion systems, where consumer acceptance and sustainable design strategies play a crucial role in ensuring large-
scale adoption [5].
Though primary recycling is efficient and sustainable, fiber damage during mechanical processing affects recycled
yarn quality. Advanced technology techniques can mitigate these limitations. For instance, automated optical and
near-infrared sorting systems can accurately separate fibers by type and color before recycling, reducing
contamination and improving fiber consistency [45].
3.1.2 Secondary recycling
This process repurposes textile waste into non-fiber products like composites, insulation, and construction materials,
expanding its high-performance applications. In insulation applications, a composite produced from woollenized
jute waste through cutting, opening, shredding, and carding exhibited low thermal conductivity (0.0197 W/mK) and
a high NRC (0.69), making an eco-friendly building composite [3]. Similarly, cotton/polyester composites achieved
NRC values of 0.5–0.7, comparable to commercial acoustic panels [23]. In construction applications, bricks
produced through secondary recycling of cotton dust and textile sludge have demonstrated suitability for sustainable
use, with compressive strength of 6.795 MPa for cotton dust and 13.7 MPa for textile sludge, and water absorption
rate of 11.199% and 14.6%, respectively with reduced density and toxicity [10, 30] Furthermore, integrating waste
carpet fibers into concrete increased post-cracking strength, flexural toughness and energy absorption capacity by
53–129% [31]. However, further research is essential to ensure consistency in material properties and structural
reliability.
3.1.3 Tertiary recycling
This involves the chemical transformation of textile waste into high-performance sustainable products, particularly
for energy storage, environmental remediation, and biofuels [15]. For example, tertiary recycled cotton-based carbon
fiber electrodes from woven cotton fabric waste, processed through cleaning, cutting, drying, and carbonization up
to 800°C, are transformed into active battery electrodes. These electrodes exhibited high retention capacity after 200
cycles, with an initial discharge of around 350 mAh/g, over 300 mAh/g at 1C, and significant capacity even at 5C.

8
Their flexibility and strength make them ideal for flexible, high-performance, sustainable energy storage [11].
Similarly, waste textile garments and cotton can be converted into activated carbon fibers by treating them with a
binary ionic liquid and carbonizing them to 1100°C. These activated carbon fibers demonstrated high absorption
capacities for ethanol (71%), heptane (91%), and solutes (75-175 g/g), making them very efficient for oil and
solvent adsorption [13]. Moreover, discarded cotton fibers can be processed into micro-fibrillated cellulose (MFC)
via acetic acid hydrolysis and Fenton oxidation (Fe² ⁺ H₂O₂), yielding MFC with 91.58% yield, 83.52%
crystallinity, and effective Fenton oxidation introduces carboxyl and carbonyl groups on cellulose surface (Fe 2+ +
cellulose), enhances dispersibility and chemical reactivity for diverse applications [37]. Although tertiary recycling
enables the conversion of high-value materials, challenges such as process scalability and economic feasibility
necessitate further research into solvent recovery and catalyst optimization.
3.1.4 Quaternary recycling
Quaternary recycling focuses on energy recovery from textile waste through combustion, pyrolysis, and
hydrothermal conversion. For instance, co-combustion of textile dust with coal efficiently generated power (24–122
MW), significantly reducing disposal costs by €135 per ton [41]. Co-pyrolysis of textile fibers waste like cotton-
polyester and leather waste when interacted with Ca/Fe-rich sludge ash, effectively abates activation energy by
10.86%, catalyzing the conversion of organic acids like long-chain fatty acids and other carboxylic acids into more
stable ketones through ketonization reactions, thereby reducing acidic content and enhancing the stability of the
resulting bio-oil for fuel applications [42]. Hydrothermal treatment of cotton textile waste yielded biochar with high
carbon content (76.86%), heating value (30.505 MJ/kg), and bio-crude oil (23.3%), demonstrating its potential as a
solid bio-fuel [43]. Additionally, anaerobic digestion following H₃PO₄-hydrolysis of cotton and wool textiles
confirmed the highest biogas and methane yields of 647.74 mL/gVS and 466.38 mL CH₄/gVS, respectively [40].
Waste blue jeans have been converted into biofuels, achieving 171 L CH₄/kg fabric and the highest energy recovery
of 463 gallons/ton fabric, indicating a renewable energy source [44]. Although quaternary recycling offers
significant energy recovery potential, challenges related to emission control and process optimization must be
addressed to minimize environmental impact.

3.2 Progress of Post-Consumer Textile Waste Recycling

Post-consumer textile waste refers to discarded apparel and household products made from textiles that have been
used and worn by consumers until they reach the end of their life cycle. This includes unwanted clothing and other
fabric-based items that are no longer needed or usable [46, 47]. This waste is generated after textiles have been used
and typically accumulates in large volumes, often comparable to fiber consumption rates. For instance, the USA
generates approximately 10.5 million tons of post-consumer textile waste annually. Despite the high volume, only
about 15% of post-consumer textile waste is recycled, compared to 75% of pre-consumer waste. Consequently, 73%
of discarded clothes end up in landfills, contributing to environmental degradation. Post-consumer textile waste,
which comprises a mixture of materials, is not readily biodegraded and can lead to environmental problems,
including the transmission of infectious diseases, pest attraction, and odor dispersion, if not properly managed.

9
Effective waste management practices are crucial to mitigate these issues and promote environmental sustainability
[31, 42].
Over the past few decades, significant attention has been given to the recycling of post-consumer textile waste to
produce yarn, fabric, nonwoven materials, composites, geotextiles, cellulose nanocrystals, and more. In particular,
mélange yarn production has gained widespread acceptance due to its environmental benefits. One of the main
advantages is that it eliminates the need for additional dyeing, thus saving substantial amounts of water, gas, dyes,
and chemicals [48]. Composite preparation is also a common practice, utilizing techniques such as molding, hand
layup, and needle punching. This section summarizes the progress made in recycling and provides detailed
information in Table 3. Despite the advancements, there remains ample room to deal the potential growth in this
field. Therefore, it is very important to further advance the post-consumer recycling segment to reap both economic
and environmental benefits.

Table 3: Post-consumer textile waste recycling

Recycling Waste Recycled Recycling Key findings Ref.

category materials product technique
Apparel Recycled Cutting, shredding, Produce sustainable 6/1 Ne rotor [49]
leftover yarn opening, carding, yarn of strength 6.71 cN/tex,
spinning revealing the potential of fiber-to-
yarn recycling.
Primary
Post- Recycled shredding, opening, Tensile strength retention>92% of [50]
consumer wool yarn carding, spinning virgin wool fibers, offering
wool potential for high yarn quality.
apparels
Secondary Disposed Composite Cutting, shredding, Thermal conductivity: Loose [51]
face-masks for thermal carding masks-0.03555 W/m·K, Melted
and sound masks-0.08683 W/m·K, sound
insulation absorption coefficient: Loose
masks- 0.6 to 0.96, Melted masks-
0.53-0.59, showing potential for
sustainable insulation.
Discarded Composite Cutting, shredding, The highest sound absorption [52]
denim. for sound carding coefficient (SAC) with a flow
insulation resistivity of 67,056 Nm⁻⁴.s. And
NRC values of 0.33, compared to
0.28 for available composite.
100% cotton Composite Cleaning, drying, Superior tensile strength (198 MPa), [53]
fabric waste for false cutting, moulding flexural strength (30.1 MPa), and
(reclaimed) ceiling compressive strength (1105.3 MPa),
competent for false ceiling.
Disposed Composite, Cutting, shredding Compressive strength (8.95 to 13.40 [54]
cotton cloth Brick MPa), lower thermal conductivity
waste coefficient (29.3%), water
absorption (35% to 42%), having
potential to reduce 65% weight of
construction materials.

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 Waste jeans Filler Cleaning, drying, Enhanced compressive strength (82 [55]
materials for cutting, and MPa), flexural strength (12 MPa)
Cement pyrolysis after 56 days of curing, designate
industry integration in cementitious
materials.
Denim Methylcellul Cutting, shredding, Improved transparency and [56]
fabric, cotton ose acidic hydrolysis dispersion; with silica NPs, tensile
fiber waste nanocrystals strength increased 200%,
(CNCs) highlighting high-value material
recovery.
Garments Microcrystall Cutting, shredding, Yields up to 80.4% and thermally [57]
Tertiary
ine cellulose acidic hydrolysis, stable up to 350°C, potential for
(MCC) and bleaching diverse applications.
CW Adsorbent Cutting, shredding, Potential for more adsorption of [58]
(cellulosic for pyrolysis, chemical paracetamol 62 mg/g in single
solid) paracetamol modification system rather than in binary system,
adsorption 44.04 mg/g.
Waste jeans Bio-oil, bio- Leaching, Energy conversion yielding 37.5% [59]
gases energy dissolution, bio-oil, 44.7% bio-gases, and 17.8%
purification, and char with high energy conversion
pyrolysis rate of 82.2%.
Textile Heat & Anaerobic Boosted biofuel production [60]
waste-water energy, bio- digestion & (methane by 28%), and improved
fuel combustion model cooling, heating, power efficiency
62%, illustrating combined energy
Quaternary recovery.
Blue jeans & Energy, Cutting, shredding, Ethanol production achieved 99.1% [61]
cotton linter bio-fuel enzymatic yield in 4 days, resulting in 0.48 g
(Post- & pre- (Ethanol) hydrolysis, SSF ethanol/g wastes, potential for high-
consumer) efficient biofuel conversion.
Cotton Bio-fuel Cutting, shredding, Potential for hydrogen yielding 0.99 [62]
surgical (hydrogen) H₂SO₄ hydrolysis, mol H₂/mol at production rate of
dressings fermentation 253 ml H₂/hour/litre from cotton
waste.

3.2.1 Primary Recycling

Primary recycling of post-consumer textile waste refers to the direct reuse of fibers from discarded garments and
household textiles through mechanical processes that preserve the polymer structure without chemical alteration.
This method involves sorting, cutting, shredding, opening, cleaning, and carding of used cotton or blended garments
to produce mélange yarns or nonwoven fabrics. [25]. For example, used cotton garments have been successfully
recycled into mélange yarns without re-dyeing, significantly saving water, dyes, and energy while maintaining
acceptable yarn quality for casual wear applications [33, 63]. In another study, primary recycling of recycled
polyamide-66 from face-masks produced composites of thermal insulation and fire-resistant textiles with thermal
conductivity of 0.037 W/m·K and fire resistance up to 430°C [64]. The mechanical recovery process, however, often
leads to fiber damage and shortened fiber length, which reduce yarn strength and uniformity. However, fiber

11
degradation and contamination from dyes and additives pose challenges, necessitating advances in purification
techniques to improve sustainability.

3.2.2 Secondary Recycling

Secondary recycling valorizes fibers into composite materials for insulation, construction, and engineered products.
Mechanically processed post-consumer face masks have been converted into composite insulation with favorable
thermal conductivity and sound absorption properties [28]. Similarly, recycled denim fibers incorporated into sound
insulation composites achieved noise reduction coefficients superior to commercial glass wool nonwovens [52]. In
construction, cotton cloth waste has been used to produce composite bricks with compressive strengths between 8.95
and 13.40 MPa and reduced thermal conductivity by 29.3%, making them energy-efficient building materials [31].
Secondary recycling extends the lifespan and functionality of post-consumer textiles, but optimizing fiber-matrix
interactions and long-term durability is essential for widespread industrial adoption.

3.2.3 Tertiary Recycling

Tertiary recycling applies chemical methods such as depolymerization, pyrolysis, and enzymatic hydrolysis to
convert textile waste into value-added products including cellulose derivatives, adsorbents, and nanocomposites.
Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) extracted from reclaimed garments via acidic hydrolysis and bleaching exhibits
80.4% recovery, 58% crystallinity, and thermal stability up to ~350°C, suitable for biomedical uses [57]. Char
derived from pyrolyzed waste jeans enhances cement composite strength and durability [34]. Adsorbents produced
from recycled cotton waste effectively remove pharmaceutical contaminants from wastewater, with high adsorption
capacities for tetracycline and paracetamol [35]. Tertiary recycling requires substantial energy and chemical inputs,
necessitating advances in green chemistry to enable more sustainable processing.

3.2.4 Quaternary Recycling

Quaternary recycling focuses on thermal conversion of textile waste into energy products. Pyrolysis of waste jeans
yields 37.5% bio-oil, 44.7% bio-gases, and 17.8% char with overall 82.2% conversion efficiency [59]. Anaerobic
digestion combined with combustion processes of textile wastewater increases methane production by 28% and
achieves 62% efficiency in combined cooling, heating, and power generation [36]. Hydrolysis and fermentation of
cotton surgical dressing waste produce hydrogen with a yield of 0.99 mol H₂ per mol of reduced sugar, supporting
renewable hydrogen energy development [39]. While quaternary recycling offers a sustainable route for non-
recyclable textile waste, carbon emissions and process optimization remain critical challenges. Fig. 3 shows
integrated pathways of textile waste recycling and downstream product valorization and CE strategies.

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 Fig.3. Integrated pathways of textile waste recycling and downstream product valorization and CE strategies.

Table 4 provides an overview by summarizing different textile recycling technologies and their performance, which
are common indicators for decision making when comparing the routes including recycling efficiency, product
quality, energy consumption, cost impact for production costs and the TRL level. Individual technologies will
exhibit variable performance that is dependent on feedstock and process conditions, but this comparison gives a high
level view of the relative strengths, weaknesses, and maturity for each compared technology.
Table 4: Comparative assessment of textile recycling technology
Name of Efficiency of Technology Quality of Energy Cost Environmental Commercial Limitations Ref.
the the recycling readiness products consumptio impact status
recycling process level (TRL) n
technolog
y
Mechanica Moderate to 8–9 Moderate Low Low Low Commercial Lower recycling [65,
l high (fiber cycles 66]
degradation)
Chemical High 4-9 High (near- High High Moderate–high Pilot– High capital cost, [67]
virgin (depends on solvent commercial solvent use
quality) recovery)
Biological Moderate 4-6 Moderate– Low Moderat Low Laboratory– Slow reaction rates [68]
High e pilot
Biochemic High 3–5 High Low– Moderat Low Laboratory– Enzyme cost, scale- [68]
al (dependent on moderate e–high pilot up challenges
substrate)

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4 Scopes of Textile Waste Recycling
Recycling holds significant potential in terms of sustainability. In this section, several factors including increasing
demand for innovative recycling ways, eco-bricks, nanofiber production, textile waste-based non-woven mats,
composite fabrications, and thermal insulation business opportunities are discussed [69, 70].

4.1 Expanding Focus on Textile Waste Recycling

People today are increasingly concerned with the use of textile waste rather than its disposal. They are more aware
of the negative environmental impacts on living beings, such as air pollution, water pollution, land pollution, etc.
Recycled materials also have significance in sustainable fashion areas [71-73]. Furthermore, the limited resources
make people think about recycling textile waste and contribute to eco-friendly behavior towards the world [74].
Additionally, businesses are focusing on adopting recycling practices in their business to maintain the regulatory
requirements, and CE objectives [74]. Top fashion producers and retailers are incorporating post-consumer recycling
initiatives into their business models in response to customer demands for sustainability [75-77]. The fashion
industry will become more sustainable and circular as a result of this transition, which also presents business
opportunities and aligns with environmental principles [78, 79].
It is anticipated that measures such as the European Union's textiles and environment directive, which establishes
ambitious targets for waste recycling and re-use, would have a substantial impact on the global garment industry.
The recycling goals outlined in the directive 60% by 2030, and 65 % by 2035, provide crucial impetus for countries
that manufacture a substantial amount of clothes, such as Bangladesh, China, India, Pakistan, and Vietnam, to
increase their recycling efforts [79]. However, post-consumer textiles have significant potential for CE and many
businesses are focusing on improving the recycling [Link] support the growing trend of recycling textile waste,
now is the perfect time to build more recycling facilities. More facilities with a focus on sustainability will pave the
way to achieving a greener world.

4.2 Recycling Strategies

New techniques and approaches for recycling are key aspects for achieving an eco-friendly way [80]. The
economics and efficiency of textile recycling are expected to improve with the development of innovative, state-of-
the-art recycling technologies, which could increase the recycling rate of post-consumer garment waste. The
following cutting-edge programs are suggested for entrepreneurs looking to launch innovative and profitable
business concepts [81].

4.2.1 Transforming Textile Waste into High-Performance Insulation Materials

Textile waste has significant potential for producing thermal insulation fabric. A study was investigated about cotton
garments introducing a mechanical recycling method that showed improved thermal and radiative heat insulation
properties. This type of initiative can be taken by using various fibers like polyester, nylon, viscose, and others [82-

14
85]. Another study found that non-biodegradable fibers like nylon/spandex and polyurethane have the potential to
develop thermal insulation panels from postindustrial synthetic textile material [86, 87].
4.2.2 Developing thermoregulation garments by PCM
The potential of PCMs in textile applications to produce thermoregulation clothing has drawn a lot of attention. A
promising option for creating these special clothes is to use organic PCMs with woven fabrics created from textile
waste in basic structures (plain, twill, satin) through printing techniques [79, 88]. A study done by Jin et al.
developed a thermal energy storage matrix incorporated with PCM. This incorporation of PCM demonstrated the
superior thermal performance of construction and building materials [89-91]. Pre-consumer textile waste is found to
be easier to recycle than post-consumer textile waste because of more uniform, cleaner, and uncontaminated
material.

4.2.2 Composite Development from Textile Waste

Dev and his team reported that the mechanical properties of non-woven hybrid composites made from recycled
cotton and PET fibers vary with fiber weight ratios (100/0, 0/100, 75/25, 60/40, 50/50, and 25/75) [92]. Using
carding and manual lay-up techniques, they fabricated the composites and analyzed their tensile, flexural, and
impact properties along with microstructure. In their study, higher cotton content improved tensile strength and
modulus while higher PET content enhanced impact strength. The 25/75 PET composite demonstrated superior
flexural and impact strength, whereas the 75/25 PET composite demonstrated significantly higher tensile properties.
Cotton-rich composites are ideal for construction applications requiring tensile strength, whereas PET-rich
composites are ideal for impact.

4.2.3 Climate-Mitigating Composite Production from Textile Waste

Recycling pre-consumer and post-consumer textile waste into building materials offers a sustainable solution for the
construction industry. Initiatives like FabBRICK transform textile waste into construction materials with thermal
and acoustic insulating properties. The process involves shredding textiles, mixing them with ecological binders, and
compressing them into bricks, reducing resource dependency and waste. Similarly, cementitious–glass composite
bricks (CGCBs) reinforced with recycled polymers like PET-G have demonstrated superior mechanical and thermal
properties. These advanced materials can mitigate climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions associated
with traditional cement production [93, 94]. Pre-consumer waste like fabric scraps, cutting waste, and post-
consumer waste, like discarded garments and household textiles can be converted into eco-friendly construction
materials.

4.2.4 Development of a Non-Woven Mat from Textile Waste

Textile waste has a significant scope for the development of non-woven mats. Shahid and his team at DUET,
Bangladesh [95], developed eco-friendly jute-polyester hybrid non-woven fabrics (JHNFs) as a sustainable
alternative to synthetic materials. Using a carding machine, jute and polyester fibers were blended and treated with

15
an antibacterial solution, showing strong antibacterial properties (29 mm ZOI for S. aureus and 27.8 mm for E. coli).
The fabric demonstrated high strength (170.8 N), water repellence, low thermal conductivity (0.0839 W/mK), and
thermal stability above 280 °C. With excellent insulation and durability, JHNFs are a promising option for
sustainable packaging materials. Another study by Wazna et al. evaluated nonwoven fabric that was made from
acrylic and wool textile waste for utilization as thermal insulation material. This mat kept the temperature below
19°C whereas the outside temperature was 36°C [96]. According to follow these concepts, Manik and his teammates
worked on recycling post-consumer waste to produce non-woven fabric for the performance analysis. They utilized
polyester fibers along with recycled fibers generated from post-consumer textile waste to produce the nonwoven
mat. The developed material showed sufficient tensile strength with good moisture management properties [97]. A
schematic diagram has been shown in Fig. 4 to produce different type’s bag from recycling the post-consumer
waste.

Fig. 4: Conceptual illustration to develop a non-woven mat from textile waste

4.2.5 Eco-Bricks Manufacturing from Textile Wastes

16
Textile waste can be compressed and combined with other materials to create eco-friendly bricks. Hafsa Jamshaid
and her team reported [98] that recycled textile waste can be utilized to create sustainable bricks by reinforcing post-
consumer fabrics with various binders (UPR, GL, WC). UPR-based bricks exhibited the highest mechanical
strength, WC provided the best thermal insulation, and GL showed the weakest properties. Their study highlights the
potential of textile waste for greener construction materials, promoting sustainability and circularity in the textile
industry [98].
In another study, Nastasia Saca et al. reported [99] that CW and crushed bricks (CB), byproducts of the textile and
construction industries, negatively impact the environment. Their research investigated the effects of replacing 1, 2,
5, and 10 wt.% of natural sand with CW and CB on concrete properties. The findings revealed that CW improved
density, water absorption (1 wt.%), and splitting strength (1–2 wt.%), although compressive strength decreased with
higher CW content (33.3 MPa for reference vs. 26.9 MPa for 2 wt.% CW). Both CW and CB reduced workability,
density, and mechanical strengths, while also lowering thermal conductivity (e.g., 0.32 W/(m·K) for 1 wt.% CW
compared to 0.37 W/(m·K) for the reference) [99].

4.2.6 Scope of Textile Waste Conversion into Bio-Energy

Textile waste can also be repurposed into bio-energy and bio-fuels through processes like pyrolysis and anaerobic
digestion. Pyrolysis converts textile waste into bio-oil, syngas, and char, while anaerobic digestion produces biogas
rich in methane, as shown in Fig. 5. These methods not only reduce textile waste but also provide renewable energy
alternatives, supporting sustainable development. Integrating textile waste into bio-energy production systems aligns
with global efforts to reduce landfill dependence and greenhouse gas emissions [100, 101]. This demonstrates how
advanced recycling technologies can promote sustainability by creating high-value products while addressing
environmental challenges [59] .

17
 Fig. 5: Layout plan to convert the textile waste into energy using a pyrolysis process [59]
The scope of textile waste conversion into bioenergy encompasses the utilization of biodegradable natural fibers
(e.g., cotton, wool) via anaerobic digestion to produce biogas, while non-biodegradable components can be
repurposed for alternative energy recovery methods. By promoting sustainable waste management and renewable
energy generation, environmental pollution can be reduced [102]. Textile waste offers promising business
opportunities in recycled textile production and innovative recycling technologies. Global brands like H&M have
advanced circular practices by developing sustainable fashion lines, novel recycling technologies, and eco-friendly
products, tapping into the growing demand for circular fashion [103]. Similarly, Bangladeshi startup EcoVia
transforms post-consumer textile waste into biodegradable plastics, showcasing innovative solutions for
compostable packaging [104]. Such initiatives highlight the potential for businesses to develop sustainable products,
positively impact the industry, and meet the growing demand for environmentally conscious solutions. Fig. 6
demonstrates a schematic diagram of the life cycle of biodegradable materials from natural fibers are (e.g., cigarette
filter, cotton, jute, etc.) Once done, the fibers degrade by microbial action or fragment into biomass. Some of these
fibers can also be regenerated or recycled to produce new biodegradable articles that can be applied in e.g., in
biodegradable bags. In addition, this highlights the need for multidisciplinary approaches to develop opportunities

18
for recycling, upcycling, and the sustainable management of post-consumer textile waste to produce new
biodegradable materials.

Fig. 6: Life cycle of a biodegradable textile material

The conversion of cellulose and starch-based textile wastes to bio-energy involves both physical and chemical
processes, each with distinct challenges in Fig.7. The physical processes, like mechanical comminution, extrusion,
ultrasonic milling, and pretreatment, tend to increase surface area and disrupt biomass structure, but they are often
energy-intensive and costly, especially for cellulose because of its crystalline structure and lignin content [105].
Various chemical processes are used to break down polysaccharides into fermentable sugars, including acid
hydrolysis and enzyme hydrolysis. In contrast, enzymatic hydrolysis is more environmentally friendly but is time-
consuming and expensive due to enzyme costs. Acid hydrolysis is efficient but can produce inhibitors and hazardous
waste. Compared to cellulose, which requires extensive pretreatment to overcome its recalcitrance, starch is more
easily hydrolyzed because it is amorphous. To improve bio-energy production, efficient, integrated, and sustainable
methods must be used to address issues such as by-product formation, energy demands, and scalability [106].

19
 Fig. 7: Overall process for the production of bio-ethanol and other materials using various types of textile waste
[107]
Fig. 8 demonstrates the anaerobic digestion process, a multi-stage biochemical pathway that converts organic
substrates (carbohydrates, proteins, and fatty acids) into biogas (methane and carbon dioxide) under optimized
conditions [108]. Hydrolysis begins by breaking down complex polymers into monomers, followed by acidogenesis,
which produces intermediates such as pyruvic acid, alcohols, and volatile fatty acids. A process known as
homoacetogenesis converts these intermediates into acetic acid, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide during the
acetogenesis stage. As a final step in methanogenesis, methanogenic archaea convert acetic acid into biogas. Also, it
highlights the importance of maintaining specific parameters such as pH (6–8), temperature (35–65°C), and
retention time (15–30 days) to optimize microbial activity and maximize biogas production, demonstrating the
process's efficiency in waste management and renewable energy production.

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 Fig.8: Schematic map for recycling organic wastes into biogas.

4.2.7 Nanofiber Development from Recycled Textile Waste

The development of nanofibers from recycled textile waste represents a promising approach for converting both pre-
consumer and post-consumer waste into high-value materials. Research has shown that nanofibers derived from
waste exhibit desirable structural and functional properties. For example, polyester from textile waste can be
processed into nanofibrous membranes that have potential applications in air and water filtration, protective textiles,
and biomedical products [79, 109]. Other studies have demonstrated the extraction of cellulose nanocrystals from
cotton-polyester waste fabrics, which were then incorporated into composite films for high-performance applications
[56], as well as the production of luminescent nanofibers from polyester waste using solution blow spinning (SBS),
showing potential for applications in security and anti-counterfeiting technologies. Among the available techniques,
such as electrospinning, film casting, etc., electrospinning has been widely studied because it can produce

21
continuous nanofibers with a high surface-area-to-volume ratio, a lightweight structure, and favorable mechanical,
thermal, and filtration properties. These nanofibers can help reduce environmental pollution and landfill burden
while also lowering dependence on virgin raw materials [110-112]. By repurposing textile waste into functional
nanomaterials, this approach contributes to both sustainability and advanced material development, with
applications across healthcare (e.g., antimicrobial wound dressings and PPE), environmental remediation (e.g.,
filtration systems), and energy storage (e.g., battery separators) [113].
Among all these techniques, mechanical recycling, insulation materials, composite materials, regenerated cellulosic
fibers, and chemical recycling from PET seem to be the closest technologies in terms of upscaling towards industrial
commercialization due to their process concept maturity for other non-textile applications' feedstock supply chain
and growing sustainability material market requirements [114, 115]. Mechanical recycling fibers have been mainly
used in nonwoven products, automotive parts, insulation panels, and filling materials [116]. Recycled reinforced
composites are used in construction, automotive, and furniture. Meanwhile, novel technologies such as electro-spun
nanofibers, production of nanocellulose from textile waste, and adsorbents for wastewater treatment [117].
However, technical and economic barriers still restrict their widespread implementation at a large scale, including
the complex composition of textile waste, the challenges of separating different fibers in blended fabrics, high costs
associated with textile sorting and preprocessing methods, as well as high energy and chemical requirements for
both processes; limited scalability of laboratory processes suitable for recycling at larger scales; variable qualities
compared to virgin feedstocks after being recycled repeatedly; and lack of standardized infrastructure or policies
regarding recycling. Moreover, holistic techno-economic analyses and life cycle assessments are still scarce for
several nascent technologies, hampering their commercial viability and environmental justification. The
commercialization of new textile waste valorization technologies and transition to more circular economy practices
for textiles will require addressing these challenges through innovations in sorting technology, process engineering
optimization, supportive regulatory frameworks, and investment in industrial-scale recycling facilities [118].

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 Fig.9: Concept to convert the nanomat from textile waste

5 Stringent Regulations for Textile Waste Recycling

Growing environmental concerns about textile waste have driven the development of policies that promote
sustainability. Governments and regulatory agencies are expected to enforce stricter laws and rules to enhance
textile recycling and waste reduction. Table 5 presents a detailed overview of significant policies and regulations
addressing textile waste management and recycling at global, regional, and national levels. These initiatives are
designed to promote sustainability, circularity, and innovation within the textile sector by encouraging responsible
production and consumption practices. These initiatives, such as United Nations SDG 12 and the UN environment
program (UNEP) [1],[2]. Textile Circularity Initiatives emphasize global efforts to minimize textile waste by
promoting circular economy models and public awareness. SDG 12, in particular, advocates for sustainable
consumption and production practices, emphasizing the need for resource efficiency, waste reduction, and the
adoption of environmentally responsible manufacturing processes [4],[5].
The EU strategy for sustainable and circular textiles aims to establish a circular textile economy by 2030,
emphasizing sustainability, durability, and waste reduction. A key focus of this policy is shifting waste management
responsibility to producers to ensure effective disposal, recycling, and reuse. Key measures include banning the
destruction of unsold textiles, promoting the design of durable, repairable, and recyclable products, and enforcing

23
EPR schemes. The strategy also mandates sustainable funding, mandatory take-back programs, and design for the
environment (DfE) principles to enhance recyclability. Additionally, it fosters recycling innovation through
collaborative research, driving a sustainable and resource-efficient textile industry [7],[8].
Regional strategies, such as the EU strategy for sustainable and circular textiles and the eco-design for sustainable
products regulation (ESPR), target sustainable textile design and life-cycle management within Europe [10]. In the
United States, the Government Accountability Office has recommended establishing interagency mechanisms to
oversee textile waste-reduction strategies and promote recycling. This includes the development of nationwide
recycling programs and coordinated federal actions to mitigate waste [6]. Additionally, California's Responsible
Textile Recovery Act of 2024 mandates that producers implement stewardship programs for the collection and
recycling of apparel and textile products unsuitable for reuse, aiming to facilitate repair, reuse, and recycling efforts
[9]. Australia, the Seamless Scheme aims to develop a national textile recycling system by establishing nationwide
collection and sorting networks in collaboration with local governments and charities [10]. Similarly, India's textile
sustainability initiatives focus on integrating recycling practices into the textile industry to reduce waste and enhance
resource efficiency through investments in recycling hubs and the promotion of textile-to-textile recycling
innovations [11, 12]. Japan's Circular Fashion Promotion Act seeks to strengthen circular practices to minimize
textile waste and encourage consumer responsibility by incentivizing recycling and resale programs and promoting
sustainable consumer behavior [13, 14].
Collectively, these policies and regulations underscore a global commitment to sustainable textile waste
management, emphasizing producer responsibility, consumer awareness, and the development of infrastructure to
support recycling and reuse initiatives, thereby mitigating the environmental impacts of textile production and
consumption. In the case of pre-consumer textile waste, regulations include waste minimization, restrictions on the
destruction of unsold materials, and the promotion of textile-to-textile recycling. On the other hand, policies such as
incentives for the repair, reuse, and recycling of post-consumer garments should be prioritized.

Table 5: Policy and regulations regarding textile waste management

Policy and regulation Objective Recommendations Ref(s)
UNEP textile circularity Promote circular textile practices  Provide funding for textile waste [1],[2]
initiatives globally, with a focus on waste reduction management programs.
and innovation in recycling.  Develop international standards for
textile recycling.
United Nations SDG 12: Encourage sustainable practices and  Support circular economy models. [4],[5]
sustainable consumption and minimize textile waste through  Promote public awareness and
production sustainable consumption and production. sustainable production methods.

U.S. Government Accountability Establish interagency mechanisms to  Develop nationwide recycling [6]
Office (GAO) recommendations oversee textile waste reduction strategies programs.
on textile waste and promote recycling.  Coordinate federal actions to
reduce waste.
EU strategy for sustainable and Promote a circular textile economy by  Stop the destruction of unsold or [7],
circular textiles 2030, focusing on sustainability, returned textiles; [8]
durability, and reduced environmental  Design and develop durable,
repairable, and recyclable textiles

24
 impact. using eco-friendly materials.
 Implement EPR.
Shift responsibility for waste  Green claims
management to producers, ensuring  Establish sustainable funding.
proper disposal, recycling, and reuse of  Mandate take-back programs.
textiles.  Adopt DfE principles.
 Foster recycling innovation
through shared agendas.
Responsible Textile Recovery Act Promote producer responsibility and  Implement statewide take-back [9]
of 2024 (State of California) expand textile recycling infrastructure programs.
within California.  Require companies to establish
drop-off locations for textiles by
2030.
ESPR Ensure transparency and recyclability  Introduce digital product passports [10]
within the EU to reduce waste and (DPP) for textiles.
resource extraction.  Provide life-cycle and recycling
data to consumers.
Australian government seamless Develop a national textile recycling  Establish nationwide collection [10]
scheme (Australia) system to address clothing waste. and sorting networks.
 Collaborate with local
governments and charities.
Indian textile sustainability Integrate recycling practices into India’s  Invest in recycling hubs. [11,
initiatives textile industry to reduce waste and  Promote textile-to-textile recycling 12]
boost resource efficiency. innovations.
Circular fashion promotion act Strengthen circular practices to minimize  Incentivize recycling and resale [13,
(Japan) textile waste and encourage consumer programs for textiles. 14]
responsibility.  Promote sustainable consumer
behavior and awareness.

6 Socioeconomic Advantage of Recycling

The recycling of textile waste has the potential to give both environmental and economic benefits. Several brands
and companies that work with upcycling in fashion have significant socioeconomic benefits. They developed a
centralized storage bank for textile waste, where local industry donates its waste. Then, this textile waste is sent to
the registered community for reuse [119]. H&M, Houdini, Lindex, and several other brands collect post-consumer
products, recycle them into fibers, produce textile products, and then sell them to market with a recycled tag. This
whole process creates job opportunities and reduces the environmental impacts caused by landfilled textile waste
[120]. In the case of recycling pre-consumer textile waste, significant socioeconomic benefits can be achieved by
reducing costs and creating new business opportunities. Post-consumer textile waste contributes to sorting and resale
markets through take-back programs that promote sustainable fashion.

7 Challenges in Textile Waste Recycling

There are many challenges to recycling textile waste, including technological, economic, environmental, policy and
regulatory, behavioral, logistical, and other challenges, as shown in Fig. 10.

25
 Fig. 10: Challenges and solutions related to recycling textile waste

7.1 Technological Barriers

7.1.1 Material Complexity

Blended textiles comprising natural and synthetic fibers present significant challenges for effective separation and
processing during recycling. Current technologies are neither efficient nor scalable enough to address these
complexities. The heterogeneous composition and structural variability of textiles, which are predominantly multi-
material rather than mono-material, further hinder recovery processes [86]. Post-industrial textile waste, including
cutting scraps, end-of-roll fabrics, and leftover materials, is often incinerated due to brand protection policies,
limited recyclability, and contamination from dyes and other organic substances. Similarly, post-consumer garments
present additional obstacles, as they often contain multiple components, such as zippers, labels, and buttons, that
must be meticulously removed before recycling. Recycling post-consumer clothing is more challenging than
recycling pre-consumer textiles, in which garments are often multi-component [121]. Even mono-material garments,
like those made from 100% cotton, require the separation of ancillary components, such as sewing threads
composed of different materials. The unique fiber blends, chemical treatments, and contamination in each garment

26
add further complexity to sorting and recovery processes, making recycling efforts highly challenging. Material-
specific challenges significantly impact textile recycling processes, with synthetic and natural fibers presenting
distinct obstacles. Synthetic fibers, such as polyester, pose recycling difficulties due to their intricate molecular
structures and the inclusion of chemical additives, which complicate processing and recovery. Conversely, natural
fibers such as cotton and wool, though inherently recyclable, undergo quality degradation during recycling. This
issue is particularly pronounced in chemically treated or dyed fabrics, where such modifications further compromise
fiber integrity and limit their reuse in high-value applications. In the case of post-consumer waste, they face more
problems because they contain multiple components, such as zippers, labels, and buttons. These need to be removed
during a specific recycling technique. Also, sorting them is a significant concern for post-consumer textile waste.

7.1.2 Quality Barriers

Mechanical and chemical recycling processes frequently degrade the structural quality of fibers, restricting their
application in high-value products. Mechanical recycling of cotton typically results in a reduction in fiber length and
a decrease in tensile strength compared to virgin cotton yarns [122]. This fiber shortening and the overall lower
quality of the recycled product are significant challenges associated with mechanical cotton recycling. Preserving
the mechanical and functional integrity of recycled fibers remains a critical challenge. Recycled fibers, such as those
derived from cotton and plastics, have limited durability, with cellulose fibers typically enduring only 4–6 cycles
and plastics lasting 7–9 cycles before significant degradation occurs [123]. Mechanical recycling often produces
shorter fibers, necessitating the development of optimized shredding and sorting techniques to improve output
quality. Similarly, chemical recycling struggles to effectively process materials with high cellulose content, further
complicating the recycling process. Quality degrades more in case of post-consumer textile waste as it goes through
repeated use by consumers.

7.1.3 Color and Chemical Complexity

The presence of numerous chemicals, including dyes, mordants, and functional coatings, poses substantial
challenges for textile recycling processes. Residual dyes, such as disperse dyes commonly found in polyester,
significantly hinder polymerization efficiency during recycling, reducing material quality. For example, the presence
of disperse dyes in polyester fabric during the recycling process can lead to a decrease in the degree of
polymerization during the melting phase [124]. Additionally, functional coatings designed for properties such as
water repellency require chemical-intensive degradation techniques, further complicating recycling operations.
These chemical complexities not only increase processing difficulty but also raise concerns about environmental
sustainability and operational efficiency in recycling workflows. Pre-consumer textile waste faced fewer chemical
complexities, leading to fewer challenges in this regard.

7.1.4 Process Scalability

27
While advanced recycling methods, such as nanofiber production, offer potential solutions for fabric waste,
significant technological and infrastructural hurdles impede their industrial-scale implementation. The primary
barriers include the lack of cost-effective technologies capable of operating at full scale and the high chemical,
energy, and time demands of processes like chemical recycling and solvent extraction. While progress has been
made in separating fiber blends, issues such as the high volume of chemicals required, specific temperature and
pressure conditions, and elevated costs remain unresolved. In case of mechanical recycling, fiber quality degrades,
processing inefficiency, blended fiber separation etc. [125, 126]. Although mechanical recycling offers a chemical-
free alternative, further advancements are necessary to enhance the quality of recycled fibers to match virgin
materials and to enable efficient separation of fiber blends. Additionally, in the chemical recycling process, chemical
contaminants such as dyes, finishes, additives, high-energy consumption processes, limited scalability, and
economic viability are major concerns [127]. On the other hand, biological and biochemical recycling have a slow
degradation rate, limited fiber compatibility that is reduced in application on various fibers, limited industrial
feasibility etc. as constraints here [128]. Also, blend fibers and chemical treatments affect the recycling efficiency.
These obstacles not only increase processing costs but also discourage recycling of waste. As post-consumer waste
faces repeated wear, washing and exposure to environmental conditions exposure, this leads to degradation of fibers.
When mechanical recycling is performed, the strength of fibers is reduced compared to pre-consumer waste. The
lack of economically viable and environmentally sustainable recycling technologies currently limits the widespread
adoption of waste recycling practices. For example, while automated sorting technologies such as near-infrared
spectroscopy [129] and attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy [130] hold promise for
automating waste sorting, their high cost and limited scalability currently hinder industrial-scale implementation.

7.2 Economic Barriers

Economic barriers significantly impede the advancement and scalability of textile recycling technologies. A
pertinent research article identified the economic barriers hindering textile waste recycling [129, 130]. The key
barriers include high investment costs, limited market demand, fluctuating operating expenses, inadequate business
models, consumer perceptions and preferences, insufficient industry support, and the absence of supportive policies.
Chemical recycling, in particular, requires substantial capital investment in specialized equipment, solvents, and
infrastructure, posing financial challenges for small and medium enterprises that often lack resources. The higher
cost of recycled fibers compared to cheaper virgin materials reduces market demand, creating an economic
imbalance that limits adoption. A key example is the limited adoption of chemically recycled polyester, such as
polyethylene terephthalate (rPET). Its production involves costly chemical processes, specialized equipment and
expensive solvents. rPET often costs more than virgin PET. As a result, manufacturers frequently choose cheaper
virgin PET, particularly in regions lacking subsidies or policy support. This economic disparity emphasizes the
challenges in scaling textile recycling technologies. Fluctuating raw material prices and elevated operational costs
further undermine profitability, especially in regions without subsidies or policy-driven incentives.

28
Consumer perceptions also hinder market growth, as recycled textiles are often perceived as inferior in quality,
reducing their acceptance. Additionally, inadequate industry support for waste management infrastructure
complicates the collection, sorting, and processing of textile waste. The absence of scalable business models and
financial incentives, such as tax relief or subsidies, further discourages investment and innovation in recycling
technologies.
Overcoming these barriers requires financial support, public awareness initiatives, and advancements in cost-
effective recycling technologies to ensure the sustainability and adoption of textile waste recycling practices. It is
easier to manage economically pre-consumer textile waste as it is more uniform and mostly mono-material and be
created during the manufacturing process.

7.3 Environmental Concerns

Environmental concerns present critical challenges in textile recycling. Chemical recycling processes involve the
use of solvents and reagents that, if improperly managed, pose significant risks of environmental contamination.
Additionally, energy-intensive methods such as pyrolysis and thermal decomposition require substantial energy
inputs, thereby increasing carbon emissions and raising concerns about their overall ecological sustainability.
Furthermore, the generation of by-products and residual waste during recycling processes necessitates efficient
management strategies to mitigate secondary environmental impacts and ensure the sustainability of these
operations.

7.4 Regulatory and Policy Gaps

Regulatory and policy gaps significantly impede advancements in textile recycling. The lack of globally
standardized guidelines for recycling processes and product certification results in inconsistencies in the quality and
marketability of recycled materials. Furthermore, insufficient policy support, including the absence of robust
incentives such as subsidies for recycled products or penalties for excessive waste generation, restricts the adoption
of sustainable practices [95]. Regional disparities in recycling infrastructure and policy enforcement exacerbate
these challenges, particularly in developing nations, where inadequate facilities and resources hinder the effective
implementation of recycling initiatives. Insufficient policy support and the lack of guidelines affect post-consumer
waste rather than pre-consumer textile waste.

7.5 Social and Behavioral Challenges

Social and behavioral challenges play a critical role in hindering the effectiveness of textile recycling initiatives.
Limited public awareness regarding the environmental and economic benefits of textile recycling sustains
unsustainable consumption habits and improper disposal practices. Additionally, the absence of efficient systems for
waste collection and segregation exacerbates the issue, leading to inadequate handling of textile waste. These factors
contribute to the under-utilization of recycling opportunities and the persistence of environmentally detrimental

29
disposal methods. Public awareness, unsustainable consumption habits create challenge for post-consumer textile
waste compared to pre-consumer textile waste.

7.6 Issues in Reverse Logistics

Reverse logistics for textile waste, involving collection, sorting, and reprocessing, presents significant challenges.
The full potential of fabric recycling remains unrealized, partially due to the complexities associated with reverse
logistics, including efficient collection and sorting processes [131]. The labor-intensive nature of these operations,
coupled with the often-outsourced responsibility to third-party entities, contributes to increased costs and operational
complexity. Furthermore, geographical disparities in access to affordable recycling infrastructure, particularly
pronounced in developing regions, exacerbate the issue, leading to a higher proportion of textile waste being
disposed of in landfills. As geographical disparities remain, efficient and affordable recycling infrastructure is
limited. Thereby, collecting of post-consumer waste is more costly and time-consuming.

7.7 Research and Development Needs

Continued advancement in textile waste recycling necessitates a focus on innovative technologies. Bio-based
recycling methods, hybrid approaches that combine mechanical and chemical processes, and technologies for
efficient solvent recovery are crucial for enhancing both the efficiency and scalability of textile waste recycling
operations [132]. While mechanical recycling offers a chemical-free approach, it often yields lower-quality fibers
than virgin materials and faces significant challenges in effectively separating fiber blends. Conversely, chemical
recycling methods, particularly effective in separating fiber blends such as polyester, are associated with high energy
consumption, substantial costs, and potential environmental impacts.
Furthermore, comprehensive life cycle assessments are critical for evaluating the environmental and economic
performance of various recycling processes. These assessments should include a detailed analysis of resource
consumption, energy use, greenhouse gas emissions, and economic costs at each stage of the textile recycling
process. Such data is essential for refining existing methodologies, identifying areas for improvement, and
establishing robust sustainability metrics for the textile recycling industry. As diverse fibers can remain in post-
consumer textile waste, they require more focus in research and development than pre-consumer textile waste.

7.8 Contamination
The contamination of pre- and post-consumer textile waste includes dyes & finishes, toxic residue, zippers, buttons,
food stains & mold, and bodily fluids & germs. Recycling becomes challenging because of these contaminations.
Post-consumer textile waste is more challenging than pre-consumer textile waste. Because medical fabrics like
gowns, face masks, and bed linens can become contaminated with germs and other pathogens, disposing of them
poses a particular concern. Sustainability issues get worse because the majority of post-consumer textile waste ends
up in landfills. Public awareness, identification, and appropriate segregation are crucial in addressing the issue. In
addition, before recycling, disinfection techniques like heat, UV light, or chemical treatment can assist reduce

30
contamination. One of the biggest problems with post-consumer garments worldwide is microfiber contamination.
Hazardous gases like methane and ammonia are released when biological fibers break down, whereas synthetic
fibers linger in the environment for longer. Emissions are substantially increased when post-consumer textile waste
is burned. Microfibers released from clothing, particularly synthetic materials, contaminate the air, water, and soil,
endangering ecosystems and entering the food chain. This can be lessened by investigating cutting-edge recycling
techniques that decompose textiles without releasing microfibers, which present chances for sustainable research.
With 70% of industry pollution coming from textile chemical processes, dye and colorant contamination from post-
consumer garments is a serious environmental hazard. Discharged dyes have negative effects on aquatic life, water
quality, and human health. Promoting natural dyes, using synthetic dyes with high fastness to prevent shedding, and
prioritizing recycled fibers to reduce re-dying are some solutions. Government assistance, retailer recycling
initiatives, and consumer awareness can all strengthen sustainability initiatives in the textile sector. Furthermore,
halogen-based compounds such as hexabromocyclododecane and tris(2,3-dibromopropyl) phosphate, ammonium
polyphosphate, inorganic chemicals such as aluminum hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide etc., are utilized as flame-
retardant chemicals in the textile industry [133]. Post-consumer waste has greater contamination issues, as it
contains biological contaminants such as bacteria, viruses, sweat, and bodily fluids. Therefore, recycling post-
consumer waste faces more challenges than recycling pre-consumer waste.

8 Solution for Textile Waste Management

Addressing the challenges in textile waste recycling requires a multidimensional approach involving technological
advancements, economic incentives, regulatory frameworks, and public awareness campaigns. Interdisciplinary
collaboration among policymakers, researchers, and industry stakeholders is imperative to create scalable and
sustainable solutions. Here are the key focuses:

8.1 Source Reduction Strategy

Implementing sustainable consumption and production practices is crucial for minimizing textile waste generation.
To effectively manage textile waste, businesses should conduct thorough waste audits to characterize the types and
quantities of waste generated. Furthermore, a continuous evaluation and refinement of the waste management
program is essential to ensure its ongoing effectiveness.

8.2 Recycling and Upcycling

Textile recycling encompasses the process of repurposing or transforming used textiles into new products. This
involves breaking down waste materials into their raw material state, which is then reprocessed to create new,
functional products. In doing so, it contributes to waste reduction, sustainability, and the promotion of a more CE.
Upcycling refers to the process of reusing or repurposing discarded items without breaking them down into their
base components, thereby creating new products with enhanced value, functionality, or aesthetic appeal, effectively
extending their life cycle. Upcycling contributes to sustainable waste management by minimizing resource

31
consumption and reducing environmental impact. Upcycling re-purposes waste into higher-value products without
decomposition, offering sustainable valorization.

8.3 Specialized and Emerging Recycling Modality

Innovative recycling technologies play a crucial role in addressing textile waste management challenges. These
innovative technologies, such as mechanical recycling, chemical recycling, and biological recycling, address the
challenges associated with managing textile waste. They focus on converting waste textiles into reusable materials
or products, contributing to sustainability, waste reduction, and the promotion of a CE. They are integral to effective
textile waste management strategies. Key approaches include mechanical, chemical, biological, and biochemical
recycling.

8.3.1 Advanced Fiber Reclamation Using Mechanical System

This method physically breaks down used textiles into fibers, which are then spun into new yarns and fabrics. The
process involves sorting by material type and color, followed by shredding, carding, and spinning. While commonly
used for natural fibers, mechanical recycling can result in lower textile quality due to fiber shortening. A carding
machine can be added to the mechanical recycling process for better formation of the fibers. More technological
advancements and hybrid recycled approaches can be utilized to enhance recycling efficiency.

8.3.2 Molecular Regeneration Process

This technique decomposes textiles at the molecular level, separating and extracting polymers or fibers for
reassembly into high-quality materials comparable to virgin textiles. Chemical recycling is particularly effective for
synthetic materials, preserving fiber quality. A potential remedy for the drawbacks of conventional recycling
techniques is the chemical recycling of textile waste, especially for mixed-fiber fabrics. Higher-quality material
recovery is enabled by chemical recycling, which breaks down polymers into their monomers, whereas mechanical
recycling degrades fiber quality and struggles with multi-fiber mixes. In under 15 minutes, polyester and spandex
may be depolymerized into monomers using sophisticated methods such as microwave-assisted glycolysis with ZnO
catalysts, while cotton and nylon can be successfully separated via solvent dissolution. This technique effectively
handles the intricate composition of post-consumer textile waste, including dyes and finishes, and opens the door for
the upcycling of materials into useful goods. Such procedures could greatly raise the rate of textile recycling
worldwide and support sustainable circular economies with additional improvement [134]. A study by Darai and his
research team discussed the difficulties posed by structural variations and additives in the chemical recycling of PET
fibers. They assessed the efficiency and environmental impact of processes such as solvolysis (e.g., hydrolysis and
glycolysis) using a green metric. In line with green chemistry and the SDGs, the findings emphasize the importance
of enzymatic pathways, renewable catalysts, and optimal mechanisms in promoting sustainable recycling [135].
Another study investigated the chemical recycling of cellulose-based textile waste via acid hydrolysis, providing a
fiber-to-fiber recycling alternative to downcycling. This technique shows the possibility of effectively converting

32
cotton fibers into glucose without the need for enzymes, which could lead to the manufacture of sustainable
chemicals or fuel [136]. To mitigate the challenges of this highly promising process, more investment in innovative
chemical recycling methods is needed. Design for recycling principles or take-back schemes etc. CE models can
raise the processability of the recycling system.

8.3.3 Bio-Catalytic Textile Deconstruction

This emerging method is an innovative, eco-friendly approach to managing the increasing burden of textile waste; it
focuses on mimicking natural degradation pathways, making the process eco-friendly and aligned with green
principles. This method leverages biological processes, including enzymatic and microbial technologies, to degrade
and recycle textile fibers into reusable materials, offering a sustainable solution for waste management. In enzymatic
hydrolysis, specific enzymes break down natural fibers, such as cotton or wool, into their monomeric components
(e.g., glucose, amino acids). These monomers can then be repurposed to produce new materials or bio-based
chemicals. On the other hand, in microbial degradation, certain microorganisms metabolize synthetic polymers such
as polyester and nylon. Advanced strains of microbes can convert these materials into simpler compounds that can
serve as precursors for creating new fibers. Several steps can be taken to minimize challenges in implementing the
biological recycling process. Microbial strain enhancement and enzyme engineering can be a way to minimize the
slow degradation rate of the biological recycling process[137]. Enhanced fiber separation technique using near-
infrared light can be used for a more efficient process [138].

8.3.4 Synergistic Biochemical Recovery System

Biochemical recycling focuses on reducing or eliminating the use of harsh chemical processes by leveraging
biological mechanisms to manage textile waste. However, small-scale, environmentally benign chemical
interventions are sometimes necessary to enhance biological activity and improve process efficiency. These
interventions are significantly less intensive and environmentally harmful compared to conventional chemical
recycling methods, such as hydrolysis with strong acids or alkalis. For instance, pretreatment processes may involve
the use of eco-friendly chemical agents to clean, soften, or separate textile components, such as removing dyes,
finishes, or coatings, to facilitate subsequent biological degradation. Similarly, pH optimization often requires
adding mild acids or bases to create an environment conducive to enzymatic or microbial activity, thereby ensuring
efficient fiber breakdown. Additionally, sterilization with chemicals such as ethanol or mild disinfectants may be
employed to prepare the waste for microbial treatments, thereby preventing contamination and enhancing process
effectiveness. These minimal chemical inputs are carefully chosen to align with sustainability principles, ensuring
minimal environmental impact while supporting the success of biochemical recycling. To overcome these
challenges, processing conditions such as temperature, reaction time, and pH can be optimized to accelerate the
biochemical process.

8.4 CE Model

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The CE offers effective solutions for managing textile waste by adopting the reduce, reuse, and recycle principles of
CE. It emphasizes designing durable, recyclable textiles and employing techniques like zero-waste cutting to
minimize waste. CE fosters reuse through repair services, rental platforms, and upcycling, extending product
lifespans. Ecosystems, economies, and societies have all benefited from this shift from a linear to a circular "take-
make-dispose" approach.
Advanced recycling methods, including mechanical, chemical, and biological recycling, convert waste into high-
quality materials, reducing dependency on virgin resources. CE also promotes consumer education, sustainable
business models like resale platforms, and take-back programs, enhancing resource efficiency [90]. By reducing
waste, pollution, and resource extraction, CE aligns with SDGs, fostering environmental preservation and economic
growth. The circular value chain for textile waste recycling is illustrated in Fig. 11. It focuses on creating a closed-
loop system that minimizes textile waste. The process begins with the production of virgin fibers, which are then
processed into yarns, fabrics, and garments. Recycled textiles are collected, sorted, and pre-processed after
consumer use. As a result, recycled fibers are reintegrated into manufacturing processes, reducing the need for virgin
raw materials. In addition to textile waste streams, industrial scraps are also recycled. It reduces landfill waste,
conserves resources, and lowers environmental impact, but it faces challenges such as material complexity,
infrastructure gaps, and consumer awareness. Closed-loop recycling focuses on collecting textile materials for
recycling and reintroducing them into the same or similar types of textiles, preserving material quality and
maximizing resource circularity. This method tends to provide more sustainable environmental savings in the long
term by reducing virgin material consumption and waste generation but typically involves higher-purity feedstocks,
advanced sorting technologies, and complex recycling systems. On the other hand, open-loop recycling chains
upcycle textile waste into products aimed for different final applications like insulation material, composites,
adsorbents or construction materials. Even though open-loop recycling does create a valid pathway to landfill
diversion and prolonging the lifespan of the textile, continued downcycling can depreciate material quality and
ultimately lead to disposal. Hence, closed-loop recycling tends to be the sustainable choice for delivering a circular
textile economy; whilst open-loop recycling remains a complementary strategy for processing mixed, contaminated
or challenging textile waste.

34
 Fig. 11: Circular value chain of textile material recycling

8.5 Material Innovation

Research into biodegradable polymers, natural dyes, and eco-friendly finishes has shown promise in reducing
environmental impacts. Sustainable alternatives to conventional synthetic fibers also contribute to improving textile
recyclability. Textile waste can be reproduced into different materials for construction, automobile, and industrial
applications with enhanced properties in an eco-friendly way. This will encourage people to recycle the wastage
from textile and will meet the demand in various applications. This enables the recovery of pure fibers and reduces
the contamination, which ensures efficient material production.

8.6 Innovative Business Model

Innovative business models are transforming textile waste management by promoting sustainability and resource
efficiency.

8.6.1 Clothing Rental Platform

These platforms promote sustainable consumption by reducing the need for frequent purchases, thereby extending
the life cycle of garments. By offering shared access to clothing, rental models minimize resource depletion and
support a culture of reuse, effectively curbing waste generation.

8.6.2 Resale and Re-Commerce

35
Online marketplaces for second-hand clothing significantly expand the CE by facilitating the redistribution of pre-
owned textiles. These platforms encourage the resale of garments, fostering resource efficiency and reducing
reliance on virgin textile production.

8.6.3 Repair and Upcycling Service

Repair initiatives and creative upcycling solutions enable the re-purposing of garments, encouraging consumers to
prolong the usability of clothing. Such models not only minimize waste but also inspire innovative approaches to
sustainable fashion.

8.7 Sustainable Design Strategy

Sustainable design strategies are essential for minimizing the environmental impact of the textile waste
management. Designers are adopting innovative approaches to reduce waste and enhance the longevity of products
[139]. These strategies focus on maximizing resource efficiency, reducing waste, and ensuring that materials can be
reused or recycled, contributing to a more sustainable future for fashion [63]. Also, it aims to optimize fabric usage
during production by employing innovative cutting techniques that minimize or eliminate textile waste, contributing
to more sustainable manufacturing practices.

8.7.1 Circular Design

Circular design in the textile industry is a pivotal strategy aimed at mitigating environmental impacts by extending
product life-cycles and facilitating material reuse. This approach encompasses the creation of garments that are
durable, easily repairable, and recyclable, thereby fostering a closed-loop system that minimizes waste and resource
consumption. A comprehensive review by Ramírez-Escamilla et al. highlights various circular economy strategies
within the textile sector, emphasizing the importance of designing products for longevity and recyclability to
achieve sustainability goals [140]. Implementing circular design involves several key practices. Designing for
durability ensures that garments withstand prolonged use, reducing the frequency of replacement and thus
conserving resources. Ease of disassembly is another critical factor, as it facilitates the separation of different
materials during the recycling process, enhancing the efficiency of material recovery. Additionally, selecting eco-
friendly materials that can be safely reintegrated into the environment or recycled into new products is essential for
maintaining the closed-loop system. A study by Sandvik and Stubbs (2019) discusses the integration of upcycling
into mass production, demonstrating how design strategies can be adapted to support circularity in fashion [141].
The European Commission's strategy for sustainable and circular textiles underscores the need for such systemic
changes, advocating for design requirements that enhance product durability, reusability, and recyclability.

8.8 Technological Innovation

Technological Innovations are revolutionizing the sustainability landscape in the textile and fashion industry,
offering advanced solutions to address waste and inefficiencies [142]. Artificial intelligence in sorting utilizes

36
machine learning algorithms and sensor-based technologies (e.g., IoT) to improve accuracy in identifying and
segregating materials, enabling efficient recycling processes and reducing contamination in waste streams.
Additionally, implements decentralized digital ledgers to monitor and document every stage of a garment's life
cycle, enhancing transparency, accountability, and traceability across the supply chain, thereby fostering ethical and
sustainable practices.

8.9 Consumer Engagement and Awareness

Raising awareness through campaigns, repair workshops, and clothing swap events promotes sustainable
consumption and fosters community involvement. Once consumers are learned the way to recycle and the benefits
of it, they can be a great part of waste recycling. Keeping the wastage according to its characteristics will beneficial
for the waste collector and waste recycling personals. Also, the consumer can have innovative ideas by increasing
the sincerity about the harm of wastage. For this, campaigns, promotional activities in social media and television
etc. can attract consumers towards waste recycling.

8.10 Policy and Industry Initiatives

Policy and Industry Initiatives play a crucial role in advancing sustainability within the fashion and textile sectors.
Globally, EPR frameworks are being implemented to hold manufacturers accountable for the end-of-life
management of their products, significantly improving recycling rates and reducing environmental impact. Such
initiatives include harmonized standards, consistent recycling regulations, tax incentives, subsidies and recycled-
content mandates to encourage technology adoption while enhancing international collaboration in the search for
business solutions as well as accelerating investment and ownership of sustainable textile recycling. These policies
incentivize the design of more durable, recyclable products while encouraging the development of efficient waste
management systems. Concurrently, corporate commitments of many corporations are embracing sustainability
through circular fashion goals, integrating practices such as closed-loop manufacturing, material recovery, and eco-
conscious design. These commitments align with global sustainability objectives, driving industry-wide
transformation toward a greener future.

9 Emerging CE Strategy for Sustainable Textile Recycling

9.1 Digital Product Passports (DPPs)

DPPs are among the most hopeful developments which is a digital ledger that contains extensive information about a
textile product (e.g., its fiber content, chemical treatments used on it, its manufacturing history, its repair instructions
and end-of-life management options for the garment) [143]. This information allows for product maintenance, reuse
and recycling decisions by manufacturers, consumers, recyclers and policymakers. These accurate composition data,
largely absent today is even more important for textile recycling. Clothing usually contain blended fibers, coatings,
dyes, buttons, zippers and plastics as well as other commodities which make preparation for recycling less efficient.

37
But without accurate information, recyclers often cannot tell if a garment is fit for mechanical recycling or chemical
recycling or reuse or safe disposal. The DPP enables sorting and recycling operators to identify fiber types and
percentages, hazardous chemicals, detachable components as well as recommended recycling processes. This will
improve separation of the textile waste into cleaner and better homogeneous material streams while also minimizing
contamination so that there will be a higher quality of recovered fibers. It may also enable closed-loop recycling
where post-consumer textile waste is converted into fibers, yarns and fabrics for new textiles products [144]. The
DPP advocates for circularity beyond recycling by prolonging the lifespan of products. Things related to care,
washing, maintenance of clothes, how and where to find spare parts in case of damage or even help with repair all
can lead not only fabrics longer life. The market data gives repair businesses the confidence to choose the relevant
repair methods, and resale/rental platforms with more detailed information regarding product authenticity or
material quality, previous usage/condition [144]. If reuse is no longer possible, recyclers can even retrieve end-of-
life instructions and recover valuable materials. Thus, the DPP allows products to proceed through a ranking of
circular strategies maintenance, repair, reuse, resale remanufacturing, and recycling before disposal. It also results in
lower demand for virgin fibers, saving water and energy, limited waste generation and mitigates the environmental
impacts of textile production. It assist businesses, consumers and policymakers in verifying sustainability claims,
making well-informed decisions, tracking environmental impacts and finding credible information about materials.
DPPs help regulatory compliance, data loss and efficiency in resource and energy use as well as sustainable
production, purchasing and business models [145]. Key implementation challenges, around what lifecycle data to
populate what granularity and how best to maintain the information through reuse, repair, recycling. Concerns about
access to data, confidentiality, IP protection and cybersecurity are joined by those over fragmented infrastructure
and regulatory integration, as well as inadequate sustainability policies. The nature of products has also changed, so
information focused on what is effective, and whose role the individual user plays along the value chain would
provide clearer messaging for consumers [146].

9.2 Material Circularity Indicators (MCIs)

Material Circularity Indicators (MCIs) are tools to measure how well textile materials stay in a circular system rather
than going through the linear take–make–use – dispose model. An MCI typically considers factors such as the ratio
of virgin to recycled fibers, durability of products, likelihood of use intensity and whether they can be repaired or
reused; collection rates (the amount that is collected for recycling); recycling efficiency; and waste going to
landfill/diverted from incineration. Which means a textile product will score better on its circularity the more
recycled content it contains, as long as there remains in use for a longer span of time, can be repaired or reused, and
is after all eventually recycled into new fibers. At the other hand, short-lived products with virgin or blent fibers
which are more difficult to separate has higher residual production limit [147].
With respect to textile recycling, heterogeneous MCIs can help companies identify if their products enable closed-
loop or fiber-to-fiber recycling. They are also capable of identifying weaknesses such as low recycled content, poor
recyclability, limited collection systems and high material losses during recycling. This reviewed paper states that

38
because textile circularity is still very limited and recycling of end-of-life textiles back into marketable new-textile
products occurs only to a small extent, design for longevity, repairability, disassembly for reuse and recyclability is
crucial [147]. DPPs can facilitate MCI assessment through the provision of verifiable data on fiber composition,
recycled content, product longevity, repair history, reuse and post-consumer treatment. MCIs act as the framework
for measuring this, and DPPs give us much of the product-level data required to actually calculate and monitor
textile circularity. They can help facilitate sustainable design, make more informed recycling choices, minimize
virgin -resource use, and accelerate a circularism that is transparent and can be quantified in textles.

9.3 Eco-Design and Design for Repair (DfR)

The act on eco-design and DfR at the earliest stages of product development, these aspects have earned their role as
principles or guidelines to be followed for circular textile production. Eco-design integrates the entire life cycle of a
textile; from selection and processing of raw-material, to manufacturing, distribution, use, maintenance and repair
and end-of-life management. It promotes the utilization of renewable, recycled, recyclable, biodegradable and non-
toxic materials further minimizing energy use, water consumption, chemical inputs and production waste. It also
encourages robust construction, timeless design, repairability and modularity, so that textile products can remain
useful for a longer period of time with fewer replacements required [148]. DfR, in particular makes sure that textiles
are suitable for collection, sorting and processing into secondary raw materials after their use [149]. These strategies
of eco-design and DfR play a shift in textile production from waste management to waste prevention. These
strategies reduce the reliance on virgin resources, upgrade the quality of recycled fibers and promote closed-loop
textile systems by producing robust, style friendly, celebrated standards that are achieved from products that can be
repaired at end of life. But they can only be successfully implemented with collaborations of designers,
manufacturers, consumers/ collectors and recyclers along with appropriately matched recycling technologies and
standardized material information. Eco-design and DfR are intimately related to the textiles circular economy in that
they enhance product longevity, repairability, reusability and recyclability at the design stage Through the use of
safer materials, minimizing complex fiber blends and assisting disassembly, these approaches lower textile waste,
retain material, aid fiber-to-fiber recycling and reduce reliance on virgin resources [150].

10 Sustainability Assessment of Textile Recycling Technology

10.1Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

LCA is an internationally standardized methodology for quantifying the environmental impacts attributed to a
product, process, or service throughout its life cycle. In textile recycling, LCA offers a holistic framework to assess
the sustainability of different recycling technologies as it covers the entire life cycle of all processes involved from
acquisition of raw materials and collection phase through transportation, recycling, manufacturing or garment
production and a garment's usage up until an end-of-life stage for used clothing waste [151]. In contrast to standard
assessments that analyze recycling at a specific phase (e.g., recyclability, industrial recovery), life cycle analysis

39
aboards the issue with a cradle-to-grave or cradle-to-cradle approach enabling more comprehensive comparison of
the environmental performance. In textile recycling, it identifies environmental hot spots and aids decision-makers
with informed technology choice and process optimization. LCA analyses energy, water and material consumption
of textiles over the whole value chain from fiber production to disposal to assess environmental impacts. LCA
makes it possible to compare conventional and circular textile systems, thus guiding policymakers, manufacturers
and consumers in more sustainable practices [152]. However, LCA can assess several common impact categories
such as global warming potential (carbon emissions), cumulative energy demand, water consumption, acidification,
eutrophication, ozone depletion and photochemical smog formation as well as human and ecotoxicity. Such
indicators enable researchers and industry actors to quantify the environmental benefits and burdens that different
recycling pathways would provide [153]. Limitations of LCA include reliance on data availability and quality, the
potential for uncertainty in impact assessment methods, and challenges comparing systems built under different
assumptions with different system boundaries. It can be very time-and-resource-intensive, and sometimes broader
considerations like social impacts, changes in consumer behavior or adoption of new technologies are not included.
Hence, LCA results must be viewed with caution and complemented by additional means of sustainability
assessment [154, 155].

10.2Techno-Economic Analysis (TEA)

Techno-Economic Analysis (TEA) is a critical assessment method to assess the technical feasibility, economic
performance and commercial readiness of textile waste recycling systems. It integrates process design, cost
estimates, energy analysis and market analysis for the assessment of industrial scale recycling systems. TEA: In
textile waste recycling, TEA examines the anticipated transformation of discarded textiles into valuable products
like recycled fibers, chemicals, fuels or energy while assessing factors such as investment requirements operating
costs resource consumption and potential economic benefits [156]. A TEA for textile waste recycling typically takes
into account both capital expenditure (CAPEX) involving costs incurred in the formulation of things like recycling
equipment, processing facilities, sorting systems, and other related infrastructure components and operating
expenditure (OPEX), which comprise costs concerning waste collection and transportation, workforce salaries,
maintenance and repairs to machinery/transportation methods, energy consumption associated with operations and
footing chemical requirements [157].

10.3Carbon Footprint
Carbon footprint is the sum of all greenhouse gas emissions that result from a product or process, measured in CO₂-
equivalent. It is then measured in textile and material industries as embodied carbon over a product LCA. It is noted
that how a large portion of emissions can be avoided therefore through recycled materials and circular production
models that reduce embodied carbon. Materials based on recycled textile waste, show promise for reducing carbon
emissions via minimizing raw resource utilization and waste generation [158].

40
Conclusion
This review has examined the technical, economic, environmental, policy, and logistical aspects of textile waste
recycling over the past 15 years. It highlights both persistent barriers and emerging opportunities. Material
complexity, particularly blended fibers and multi-component garments. It demonstrated that no single technology of
recycling can sufficiently fulfill the complexity of textile waste. The mechanical recycling determined the most
commercially mature option, on the other hand chemical, biological and biochemical recycling provides good
opportunity for recovering high quality materials from complex textile sections. These technical constraints are
reinforced by high operational costs, a price gap between virgin and recycled fibers, and inconsistent policy support,
especially in developing regions where most textile manufacturing occurs and recycling infrastructure is limited.
Regulatory frameworks promoting circularity are gaining momentum worldwide. The integration of CE frameworks
with the recycling technologies is necessary for intensify the resource efficiency and minimize environmental
hazards. However, scalable infrastructure and standardized systems remain insufficient. Also, separation of mixed
fibers, removal of the dyes and finishes from textiles, lack of standardize LCA and TEA is major research challenge
for textile waste recycling area. Future progress depends on solving these limitations and deploying advanced
sorting and traceability technologies and strengthening policy enforcement in manufacturing hubs. Additionally, by
promoting EPR, introducing each manufacturing sector DPP, establishing recycled content standards, policymakers
can take step into sustainable recycling process. Interdisciplinary research is also needed to improve environmental
performance and economic viability. Collectively, these efforts can transform textile recycling into a central pillar of
the circular economy.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors have no relevant conflicts of interest to disclose.
Acknowledgements: The corresponding author thankfully acknowledged all co-authors.

Funding: The research team did not receive grants or funds from public, private, or commercial organizations.

Ethical Approval: Not applicable.

Clinical Trial: Not applicable

Consent to Participate and Consent to Publish declarations: not applicable.

Declaration of interests

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Competing Interests: The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.

41
Data Availability Statement: All data presented herein are consistent with the published literature.

Declaration of Generative AI and AI-Assisted Technologies in The Manuscript Preparation Process

During the preparation of this work, the author(s) used Grammarly to improve the clarity and grammatical accuracy.
After using this tool/service, the author(s) reviewed and edited the content as needed and take(s) full responsibility
for the content of the published article.

Permission to Reproduce Material from Other Sources

Approval and consent were obtained where necessary. Where approval has been waived, credit has been given via
appropriate citation.

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