Advanced Condensed Matter Physics

Lecture Notes: Free Particle Propagator & Introduction to Second

Quantization (Part 1)

Course: Advanced Condensed Matter Physics (IIT Guwahati)

Lecture Source: YouTube - Second Quantization Part 1

August 5, 2026

Abstract
These lecture notes cover the topics presented in ”Second Quantization Part 1” of the
Advanced Condensed Matter Physics course at IIT Guwahati. The lecture consists of two
main parts: (1) explicit calculation of the single-particle propagator G(x, x′ , t) for a non-
relativistic free particle in a continuum using plane-wave basis states, and (2) introductory
conceptual foundations of Second Quantization, contrasting first vs. second quantization,
defining creation/annihilation operators on Fock space, and setting up many-particle states
for bosons and fermions (including symmetric/antisymmetric wavefunctions and permuta-
tion signatures).

Contents
1 Free Particle Propagator in Continuum 2
1.1 Free Particle Basis and Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Derivation of the Propagator G(x, x′ , t) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Gaussian Integration Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Physical Evolution and Causality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Introduction to Second Quantization 3

2.1 First vs. Second Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Creation and Annihilation Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3 Symmetric and Anti-Symmetric Many-Particle Wavefunctions . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1
1 Free Particle Propagator in Continuum
1.1 Free Particle Basis and Dispersion
For a non-relativistic free particle of mass m moving in a continuous 1D spatial domain, the
ℏ2 d2
Hamiltonian is H = − 2m dx2
. The energy-momentum dispersion relation is:

p2 ℏ2 k 2
E(p) = = (1)
2m 2m
The continuous energy/momentum eigenstates are plane waves |p⟩ with spatial wavefunctions:
1 1
up (x) = ⟨x|p⟩ = √ eipx/ℏ = √ eikx (2)
2πℏ 2π
satisfying the Dirac delta completeness and orthogonality relations:
Z ∞ Z ∞
up (x)u∗p (x′ ) dp = δ(x − x ), ′
up (x)u∗p′ (x) dx = δ(p − p′ ) (3)
−∞ −∞

Alternatively, using an explicit energy-basis density of states representation:

√
m 1/4 1 i 2mE x
  !
uE (x) = √ exp ± (4)
2E 2πℏ ℏ

1.2 Derivation of the Propagator G(x, x′ , t)

Using the general spectral expansion of the quantum propagator for time t > 0:
Z ∞
iE(p)t
 
′
G(x, x , t) = up (x)u∗p (x′ ) exp − dp (5)
−∞ ℏ

Substituting the plane-wave basis functions up (x):

1 ip(x − x′ )
!
ip2 t
Z ∞  
′
G(x, x , t) = exp exp − dp (6)
2πℏ −∞ ℏ 2mℏ
1
" #
iℏk 2 t
Z ∞
′
= exp ik(x − x ) − dk (7)
2π −∞ 2m

1.3 Gaussian Integration Evaluation

We rewrite the exponent by completing the square with respect to k:
2
iℏt 2 iℏt m(x − x′ ) im(x − x′ )2

− k + i(x − x′ )k = − k− + (8)
2m 2m ℏt 2ℏt
R∞ q
Using the standard Gaussian integral identity −aq 2 dq = π
with complex parameter
−∞ e a
a= 2m :
iℏt

2πm
Z ∞ r
iℏt 2
 
exp − q dq = (9)
−∞ 2m iℏt
Combining these factors gives the exact analytical free particle propagator:

im(x − x′ )2 m(x − x′ )2
r " # 1/2 " #
m m

′
G(x, x , t) = exp = exp − (10)
2πiℏt 2ℏt 2πiℏt 2iℏt

2
1.4 Physical Evolution and Causality
Given the initial wavefunction ψ(x′ , 0) at t = 0, the wavefunction at any subsequent time t > 0
is obtained by integral convolution:
Z ∞
ψ(x, t) = G(x, x′ , t)ψ(x′ , 0) dx′ (11)
−∞

The Retarded and Advanced propagators are defined by multiplying by step functions:

GR (x, x′ , t) = G(x, x′ , t)θ(t) (12)

GA (x, x′ , t) = G(x, x′ , t)θ(−t) (13)

2 Introduction to Second Quantization

2.1 First vs. Second Quantization

Feature First Quantization (QM) Second Quantization

(QFT/Many-Body)
Observables Represented by operators (e.g., Represented by operators
x̂, p̂ = −iℏ∇)
State Vectors Represented by continuous spatial Represented by Operators acting
wavefunctions ψ(r1 , . . . , rN ) on a vacuum state |0⟩
Particle Number Fixed N particle Hilbert space HN Variable particle number (Fock
space)
Symmetry Built manually via symmetrized Built automatically via opera-
product states or Slater determi- tor algebra (commutation/anti-
nants commutation)

Table 1: Comparison of First and Second Quantization formalisms.

2.2 Creation and Annihilation Operators

In second quantization, many-body states are constructed from an empty state with zero par-
ticles, called the vacuum state |0⟩, defined by:

⟨0|0⟩ = 1, aλ |0⟩ = 0 (14)

where aλ is the annihilation operator for a particle in single-particle state |λ⟩.

The creation operator a†λ creates a particle in state |λ⟩:

a†λ |0⟩ = |λ⟩ (15)

• They are Hermitian adjoints of each other (a†λ = (aλ )† ).

• They are non-Hermitian and not self-adjoint (a†λ ̸= aλ ).

• Repeated operation builds N -particle states:

|λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λN ⟩ = a†λ1 a†λ2 · · · a†λN |0⟩ (16)

3
2.3 Symmetric and Anti-Symmetric Many-Particle Wavefunctions
For a 2-particle system in position space with coordinates x1 , x2 and single-particle states λ1 , λ2 :

(2) 1
Ψλ1 λ2 (x1 , x2 ) = √ [ψλ1 (x1 )ψλ2 (x2 ) + P ψλ1 (x2 )ψλ2 (x1 )] (17)
2
where:
+1 for Bosons (Symmetric wavefunction)
(
P = (18)
−1 for Fermions (Anti-symmetric wavefunction)
For an N -particle non-interacting system, the normalized wavefunction is:
1 1−sgn(K)
Ψλ1 ...λN (x1 , . . . , xN ) = p ψλK1 (x1 )ψλK2 (x2 ) · · · ψλKN (xN ) (19)
X
P 2
N! λ nλ ! K
Q

where K represents coordinate transpositions/permutations, and sgn(K) = +1 for even trans-

positions and −1 for odd transpositions:

• Even transpositions (sgn(K) = +1): Exponent is 0, phase is P 0 = 1 (no sign change for
either bosons or fermions).

• Odd transpositions (sgn(K) = −1): Exponent is 1, phase is P 1 = −1 for fermions (picks

up negative sign) and +1 for bosons.