OSI Model – Extended Notes
Additional Content for Assignment
1. Why the OSI Model Was Created
Before OSI, networking equipment from different vendors could not communicate reliably because each vendor
used proprietary standards. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) introduced the OSI model in
1984 to create a universal set of rules so that hardware and software from different manufacturers could interoperate.
It is a reference model, not a protocol itself — it describes what each layer should do, not how to implement it.
2. PDU (Protocol Data Unit) at Each Layer
Layer PDU Name Header Info Added
Application/Presentation/Session Data Application-specific data
Transport Segment (TCP) / Datagram Port numbers, sequence number, flow co
(UDP)
Network Packet Source & destination IP address
Data Link Frame Source & destination MAC address, erro
Physical Bits Encoded as electrical/optical/radio signa
3. OSI vs TCP/IP Model — Comparison
OSI Model (7 Layers) TCP/IP Model (4 Layers)
Application Application
Presentation Application
Session Application
Transport Transport
Network Internet
Data Link Network Access
Physical Network Access
● OSI is a theoretical/reference model; TCP/IP is a practical, implemented model (used on the real internet).
● OSI has 7 layers, TCP/IP has 4 (sometimes shown as 5).
● OSI separates Session and Presentation layers; TCP/IP merges them into the Application layer.
● TCP/IP was developed first and the internet runs on it, while OSI is mainly used for teaching and
troubleshooting concepts.
4. Detailed Functions — Layer by Layer
Physical Layer — Key Functions
● Bit synchronization: provides the clock that controls both sender and receiver, ensuring bit-level sync.
● Bit rate control: defines the number of bits sent per second.
● Physical topologies: defines how devices/nodes are arranged (bus, star, ring, mesh).
● Transmission mode: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.
Data Link Layer — Key Functions
● Framing: divides the stream of bits from the network layer into manageable data units called frames.
● Physical addressing: adds MAC address of sender/receiver to each frame.
● Flow control: prevents a fast sender from overwhelming a slow receiver.
● Error control: detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames (CRC checks).
● Access control: decides which device has control of the shared link at a given time (e.g., CSMA/CD).
Network Layer — Key Functions
● Logical addressing: assigns IP addresses so packets can be identified on a network of networks.
● Routing: selects the best path from source to destination using routing protocols (OSPF, RIP, BGP).
● Packetizing: encapsulates data received from the transport layer into packets.
Transport Layer — Key Functions
● Segmentation and reassembly: breaks data into segments at sender, reassembles at receiver.
● Connection control: TCP is connection-oriented (3-way handshake); UDP is connectionless.
● Flow control: end-to-end, unlike Data Link layer's node-to-node flow control.
● Error control: performed end-to-end; ensures full, error-free message reaches destination.
Session Layer — Key Functions
● Dialog control: allows communication between two systems in half-duplex or full-duplex mode.
● Synchronization: adds checkpoints (sync points) into a stream of data; if a crash occurs, only data after the
last checkpoint needs to be resent.
Presentation Layer — Key Functions
● Translation: converts data between different formats (e.g., EBCDIC to ASCII) so systems with different
encodings can communicate.
● Encryption/Decryption: secures data before it is transmitted.
● Compression: reduces the number of bits to be transmitted, important for multimedia.
Application Layer — Key Functions
● Provides interfaces and protocols needed by user applications: browsers, email clients, file transfer tools.
● Common protocols: HTTP/HTTPS (web), FTP (file transfer), SMTP/POP3/IMAP (email), DNS (name
resolution), Telnet/SSH (remote login).
5. Advantages of the OSI Model
● Standardizes networking so equipment from different vendors can interoperate.
● Breaks complex networking tasks into smaller, manageable layers.
● Simplifies troubleshooting — problems can be isolated to a specific layer.
● Supports modular engineering — changes in one layer don't require changes in others.
● Facilitates teaching and understanding of networking concepts.
6. Disadvantages / Limitations of the OSI Model
● Purely theoretical — the internet does not strictly follow OSI; it follows TCP/IP.
● Session and Presentation layers have very limited real-world implementation.
● Layering can add processing overhead compared to a simpler model.
● Was developed after TCP/IP protocols were already in wide use, limiting its adoption as an implementation
standard.
7. Example: Sending an Email (End-to-End Walkthrough)
● Application Layer: User composes email using SMTP-based mail client.
● Presentation Layer: Email content may be encrypted/compressed.
● Session Layer: A session is established between mail client and mail server.
● Transport Layer: Message is segmented; TCP ensures reliable delivery with port 25/587.
● Network Layer: Segments are packetized and IP addresses of sender/receiver added; routers forward
packets.
● Data Link Layer: Packets are framed with MAC addresses for each hop across the network.
● Physical Layer: Frames are converted into electrical, optical, or radio signals for transmission.
At the receiving mail server, the exact reverse process (de-encapsulation) occurs — each layer strips its own header
until the original data (email) is delivered to the Application layer.
8. Important Devices Mapped to OSI Layers
Layer Devices
Physical Hub, Repeater, Cables, Network Interface Card (physical part)
Data Link Switch, Bridge, NIC (logical part)
Network Router, Layer-3 Switch
Transport Gateway (in some contexts), Firewall (stateful)
Application Application-layer Firewalls, Load Balancers (L7)
Summary Points for Quick Revision
● 7 layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, Application.
● Mnemonic top-down: All People Seem To Need Data Processing.
● Mnemonic bottom-up: Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away.
● Encapsulation: Data → Segments → Packets → Frames → Bits.
● OSI = reference model (7 layers); TCP/IP = implemented model (4 layers).