: EVOLUTION:

Biological evolution = change in the genetic composition

of organisms from one generation to the next.
• Macroevolution → speciation / formation of new species
over a long period of time.
• Microevolution → variation in species (change in allele frequency).
→ Can occur through natural selection, mutation and gene ow.
EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION
1 FOSSIL RECORDS
Fossils = remains / traces of organisms that lived
millions of years ago.
Fossils show:
• Development over time
→ More complex structures
4 More diverse / di erent organisms
• Relationships between extinct and existing organisms
• Transitional fossils
→ Fossils showing traits of di erent groups
→ Help show evolutionary relationships.
8S Geologist → Scientist who studies the structure of the Earth.
Palaeontology → Study of fossils.
2 BIOGEOGRAPHY
Biogeography = study of the distribution of species.
Geographical separation
• Once all land was part of Gondwana.
• Continental drift separated the land.
• Ancestral species formed before separation.
• They then evolved independently in di erent places.
Vestigial structures → Structures that developed in an organism but have no/very little function,
while having had a function in an ancestor.
3 DESCENDENT WITH MODIFICATION + GENETICS
Descent with modi cation:
→ Inherited characteristics change over time in related organisms.
Genetics
DNA → genes → parents → o spring
• Similarity in DNA shows relationships between organisms.
• All organisms have the same basic nucleotides:
A, T, G, C
• All genes code for proteins.
Relatedness
• More chromosomes / mDNA shared → more closely related.
• Fewer chromosomes / mDNA shared → more distantly related.
STRUCTURES & EVOLUTION
ANALOGOUS STRUCTURES
→ Features that appear similar in function but have di erent structures/ origins.
Example:
Bird wing vs butter y wing.
→ Similar function, but di erent underlying structure.
HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURES
→ Characteristics in related organisms that were inherited from a common ancestor, but may
have di erent functions.
CONVERGENT EVOLUTION
→ Unrelated organisms independently evolve similar adaptations.
DIVERGENT EVOLUTION
→ Organisms evolve from a common ancestor and develop di erent
characteristics
Human
Bat
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 ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
Arti cial selection → Humans select traits of animals/plants with desirable characteristics that
bene t humans.
→ Does not necessarily bene t the organism.
DOMESTICATED ANIMALS
Examples:
• Race horse → fast
• Come → incrensed
milk production
• Chickens → increased
egg production Tr
HYPOTHESIS vS THEORY
HYPOTHESIS THEORY
Idea for something that is not yet proven Explanation/model supported by facts and
reasoning
Unproven starting point for an experiment Heavily veri ed, not disproven
Often starts with Wide explanation of phenomena
"If... then..."
Speci c More general
NATURAL SELECTION
Natural selection = when individuals of a species
show variation, and environmental conditions favour some characteristics over others.
Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection
A large range of variation exists in o spring.
• Some have favourable characteristics.
• Others have unfavourable characteristics.
2
) A change in environmental conditions or competition occurs.
• Individuals with suited characteristics will survive.
• Individuals with unfavourable traits are less suited and may die.
Survivors reproduce.
• They pass favourable characteristics to their o spring.
④
The next generation will have more individuals with favourable characteristics.
SPECIATION
Speciation = formation of new species
Theory of Evolution → Scienti c theory regarded as a scienti c theory because hypotheses have
been tested and veri ed over time.
DARWINISM
Charles Darwin
Theory by Natural Selection
1. More o spring are produced than are needed.
2. There is natural variation between individuals.
3. The environment creates selection pressures, such as:
• Competition
• Predation
• Temperature
• Limited resources
Traits are inheritable.
Natural Selection → Individuals with favourable characteristics are more likely to survive and
reproduce, passing those characteristics to their o spring.
PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM
• Gaps in the fossil record?
• Evolution involves periods of long-term stability in species with short periods of rapid change.
• New species may form relatively rapidly over a short period.
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 • Associated with Stephen Jay Gould.
GRADUALISM
→ Model of evolution by means of slow, gradual change.
VARIATION
Species → A group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile o spring.
Population → A group of organisms of the same species, living in the same place at the same
time, that can interbreed and produce fertile o spring.
CONTINUOUS VS DISCONTINUOUS VARIATION
CONTINUOUS
DISCONTINUOUS
VARIATION
VARIATION
Characterictice
Choracteristics
that show a
of a species with
gradual range
limited possible
of values.
values.
Examples:
Examples:
• Height:
• Blood group:
70cm - 150 cm
A / B / AB / O
• Weight:
• Sex:
55 kg - 70 kg
Male / Female
Characteristics:
Characteristics:
• In uenced by the
• Not in uenced by
environment
the environment
• Controlled by
• Controlled by
many genes → polygenic
few genes → monogenic
CROP SPECIES
Example:
• Maize → kept/interbred the plants with desirable traits and did not allow others to reproduce.
• Aim - higher yields.
SPECIES POPULATION
• Organisms that can interbreed and produce • Group of the same species living in the same
fertile o spring. place at the same time.
• Di erent species → • Individuals in a population can interbreed
cannot produce fertile o spring. • Made up of a group of individuals.
• Represents a single individual when referring
to an organism.
GEOGRAPHICAL ISOLATION
Geographical isolation can occur when a population is separated by a geographical barrier, e.g.:
• River
• Mountain
STEPS
Population separated by geographical barrier.
• Population splits into separate populations.
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 * No gene ow between populations.
Each population is exposed to a di erent environment.
• Selection pressures may be di erent.
Natural selection occurs independently in both populations.
Populations become very di erent in phenotype and genotype.
Even when they mix again, they may not be able to interbreed and produce fertile o spring.
They become two di erent species.
REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION O
Reproductive isolation = stopping populations
from exchanging genes during reproduction.
TYPES:
1. Temporal isolation → Breed at di erent times.
2. Behavioural isolation → Species have species-speci c courtship patterns.
3. Mechanical isolation → Reproductive structures do not t.
4. Gamete isolation → Prevents the gamete from one species from successfully fertilising the
gamete of another species.
5
Infertile o spring → Species produce a cross-species hybrid that is infertile.
NATURAL vS ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
NATURAL SELECTION
ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
Environmental pressures
Human choice
Involuntary
Intentional
Survival is important
Bene cial traits are selected
Usually slower
Usually faster
PROBLEMS WITH ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
X Removes variation in a population → increased risk of dying
X Genetic disordere x Superbugs
X 4 survival instincts
X Dependence on humans
QUICK EXAM MEMORY
Evolution → Evidence →
Variation → Natural Selection
→ Speciation
Geographical isolation → No gene ow → Di erent selection pressures → Di erences accumulate
→ Reproductive isolation -
New species

Hypothesis Theory
Idea for something that is not yet proven Explanation/model supported by facts and
reasoning
Unproven starting point for an experiment Heavily veri ed, not disproven
Often starts with "If.. then..." Wide explanation of phenomena

Evolution
Biological Evolution
Hypothesis vs Theory
• Change in the genetic composition of organisms from one generation to the next.
Macroevolution
Microevolution
→ Speciation / formation of
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 → Variation in species
new species over a long
(change in allele frequency).
period of time.
• Can occur through natural selection, mutation and gene ow.
Speci c
More general
Theory of Evolution: Scienti c theory regarded as a scienti c theory because hypotheses have
been tested and veri ed over time.
Evidence of Evolution
1) Fossil Records
• Fossils= remains / traces of organisms that lived millions of years ago.
Fossils show:
• Development over time - more complex structures, more diverse / di erent organisms.
• Relationships between extinct and existing organisms.
• Transitional fossils-fossils showing traits of di erent groups, help show evolutionary
relationships.
Geologist
→ Scientist who studies
Palaeontology
→ Study of fossils.
the structure of the Earth.
Darwinism
Theory by Natural Selection
1
More o spring are produced than are needed.
2
There is natural variation between individuals.
3
The environment creates selection pressures, such as:
• Competition • Predation • Temperature • Limited resources
4
Traits are inheritable.
Natural Selection-Individuals with favourable characteristics are more likely to survive and
reproduce, passing those characteristics to their o spring.
2) Biogeography
• Study of the distribution of species.
Geographical separation:
• Once all land was part of Gondwana.
• Continental drift separated the land.
• Ancestral species formed before separation.
• They then evolved independently in di erent places.
Punctuated Equilibrium
• Gaps in the fossil record?
• Evolution involves periods of long-term stability in species with short periods of rapid change.
• New species may form relatively rapidly over a short period.
• Associated with Stephen Jay Gould.
Gradualism + Model of evolution by means of slow, gradual change.
Vestigial structures:
• Structures that developed in an organism but have no/very little function, while having had a
function in an ancestor.
Variation
3) Descendent With Modi cation + Genetics
Descent with modi cation:
→ Inherited characteristics change over time in related organisms.
Genetics:
• DNA → genes→ parents→ o spring
• Similarity in DNA shows relationships between organisms.
• All organisms have the same basic nucleotides: A, T, G, C.
• All genes code for proteins.
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ff
fi
fi
fi
fi
ff
ff
ff
ff
fl
fi
ff
 Relatedness:
• More chromosomes / mtDNA shared → more closely related.
• Fewer chromosomes / mtDNA shared → more distantly related.
Species
• A group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile o spring.
• Di erent species → cannot produce fertile o spring.
• Represents a single individual when referring to an organism.
Population
• A group of organisms of the same species, living in the same place at the same time, that can
interbreed and produce fertile o spring.
• Individuals in a population can interbreed.
• Made up of a group of individuals.
Continuous vs Discontinuous Variation
Structures & Evolution
Continuous Variation
• Characteristics that show a gradual range of values.
• Examples:
- Height: 70 cm - 150 cm
- Weight: 55 kg - 70 kg
• Characteristics:
- In uenced by the environment
- Controiled by many genes → polygenic
Discontinuous Variation
• Characteristics of a species with limited possible values.
• Examples:
- Blood group: A / B / AB / 0
- Sex: Male / Female
• Characteristics:
- Not in uenced by the environment
- Controlled by few genes →
monogenic
functions.
Example: Bird wing vs butter y wing → Similar function, but di erent underlying structure.
Natural Selection - Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection
1. A large range of variation exists in o spring. Some have favourable characteristics, others
have unfavourable characteristics.
2. A change in environmental conditions or competition occurs. Individuals with suited
characteristics will survive. Individuals with unfavourable traits are less suited and may die.
3. Survivors reproduce. They pass favourable characteristics to their o spring.
4. The next generation will have more individuals with favourable characteristics.
Analogous Structures Convergent Homologous Divergent Evolution
Evolution Structures
Features that appear Unrelated organisms Characteristics in Organisms evolve
Similar in function but independently evolve related organisms that from a common
have di erent Similar adaptations. were inherited from a ancestor and develop
structures/ origins. common ancestor, but di erent
may have di erent characteristics.
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