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[Link] FIRST YEAR
ACADEMIC YEAR: 2026-2027
COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS
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COURSE CODE : PHY1001
LECTURE SERIES NO : 01 (ONE)
CREDITS : 4
MODE OF DELIVERY : POWER POINT PRESENTATION
COURSE COORDINATOR:
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DR. SHASHI SHEKHER TIWARY | DR. ABHIK MUKHERJEE
EMAIL-ID : [Link]@[Link] | [Link]@[Link]
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“UNDERSTAND THE
SESSION OUTCOME BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
WAVE OPTICS”
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QUIZ
MID TERM EXAMINATION
LAB PRACTICAL
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ASSESSMENT CRITERIA'S
END TERM EXAMINATION
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INTERFERENCE
Contents:
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Introduction: Light as a wave
Superposition of Waves
Coherence
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Young’s Double-slit Interference
Interference from thin film
Newton’s Ring
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Text Book:
PHYSICS VOL 2 by Halliday, Resnick and Krane (5th Edition)
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SUPERPOSITION
OF WAVES
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Superposition of waves: Introduction
The general equation of a plane progressive (or traveling) harmonic wave
moving along the positive x-axis is:
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Where:
• y = displacement of the particle at position x and time t || A = amplitude of the wave
• (kx - ω t + φ) → phase term || k = angular wave number (2π/λ)
• ω = angular frequency (2πf) || φ = initial phase angle
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• The principle of superposition of
waves tells us that when two or
more waves overlap in space, the
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the vector addition of the individual
disturbances of the respective
waves.
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Vector Addition of
Amplitudes
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• Let us say two waves are travelling alone, and the displacements of
any element of these two waves can be represented by y1(x, t) and y2(x,
t).
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• When these two waves overlap, the resultant displacement can be
given as y(x,t).
• Mathematically, y (x, t) = y1(x, t) + y2(x, t).
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Problems for Practice:
Hints and Solution
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Hints and Solution
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Application of Superposition of waves
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COHERENCE
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COHERENCE
Two waves are said to be coherent when they are of :
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• same phase or are of a constant phase difference
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• Laser light is highly coherent whereas a laboratory
monochromatic light source (sodium vapor lamp) may be
partially coherent.
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Conditions to obtain coherent sources
• The coherent sources of light must have
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originated from a single source.
• They must be monochromatic (that is they
have a single wavelength) in nature.
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Laser light is highly coherent,
whereas a laboratory
monochromatic light source
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(sodium vapor lamp) may be
partially coherent.
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INTERFERENCE
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Superposition of Coherent waves
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INTERFERENCE
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• When identical waves from two
or more coherent sources
overlap at a point in space, the
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combined wave intensity at that
point can be greater or less than
the intensity of either of the two
waves. This effect is called
interference.
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Condition for Sustained Interference
For a sustained interference of two light waves,
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I. Both the sources should be identical (same amplitude
and frequency).
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II. Both the sources should be coherent (same phase or
phase difference between the two waves).
III. Both the waves should travel in the same direction and
interfere at small angles.
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DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE: YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT
• Young's Double-Slit Experiment, performed by Thomas Young (1801),
demonstrated the wave nature of light by producing an interference
pattern of alternating bright and dark fringes on a screen.
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• Experimental Setup:
• A monochromatic light source illuminates a narrow slit S₀.
• The S₀ illuminates two closely spaced (d) slits S₁ and S₂, acts as a pair of
coherent sources.
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• A screen is placed at a distance ‘D’ >> d, from the slits, to observe an
interference pattern.
• Assumptions:
• The slit widths are very small compared to their separation
• Both slits are assumed to emit waves of equal amplitude (or nearly equal
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intensity).
• Distance between slits and screen is much larger than slit separation.
• Light propagates through a homogeneous medium (usually air).
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Results and Observations:
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fringe width (β)
Key Observations:
➢ Bright and dark fringes appear
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alternately.
➢ Fringes are equally spaced and equally
intense.
➢ Central fringe is bright. B –Bright/Maxima and D – Dark/Minima
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DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE:
Position of maxima and minima
mth maximum is located at ym given by mth minimum is located at ym given by
𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷
𝑦𝑚 = 𝑚
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--- (Eq. 1) 𝑦𝑚 = (𝑚 + 1/2) --- (Eq. 2)
𝑑 𝑑
where m = 0, 1, 2, . . . (order of maxima) where m =0, 1, 2, . . . (order of minima)
Fringe-width (β) = 𝑦𝑚+1 − 𝑦𝑚
𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷
= (𝑚 + 1)
𝑑
− 𝑚
𝑑
; β =
𝑑
---- (Eq. 3)
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β
Intensity Relation: YDSE
𝝋
𝑰 = 𝟒𝑰𝟎 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝟐 ---- (Eq. 4)
𝟐
I0 = Intensity of individual source
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φ → phase diff. between, waves
overlapping at a particular position
on the screen
𝝅 𝒅 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝝋=
𝝀
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Problems for Practice:
DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE
Problem: SP 41-1
The double slit arrangement is illuminated by light of
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wavelength 546 nm. The slits are 0.012 mm apart and
the screen on which interference pattern appears is
55cm away.
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a) What is the angular position of (i) first minima and (ii)
tenth maxima?
b) What is the separation between two adjacent
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maxima?
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DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE
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Problem: E 41-2
Monochromatic light illuminates two parallel slits a
distance d apart The first maximum is observed at
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an angular position of 15°. By what percentage
should d be increased or decreased so that the
second maximum will instead be observed at 15° ?
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DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE
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Problem: E 41-5
A double-slit arrangement produces interference
fringes for sodium light (wavelength = 589 nm) that
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are 0.23° apart. For what wavelength would the
angular separation be 10% greater ? Assume that the
angle is small.
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DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE
Problem: E 41-8
In an interference experiment in a large ripple tank (as shown in
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figure below) the coherent vibrating sources are placed 120 mm
apart. The distance between maxima 2.0 m away is 180 mm. If
the speed of the ripples is 25 cm/s, calculate the frequency of
the vibrating sources.
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DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE
Problem: E 41-11
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In a double-slit experiment the distance between slits is
5.22 mm and the slits are 1.36 m from the screen. Two
interference patterns can be seen on the screen, one
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due to light with wavelength 480 nm and the other due
to light with wavelength 612 nm. Find the separation on
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the screen between the third-order interference fringes
of the two different patterns.
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DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE
Problem: E 41-15
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Source A of long-range radio waves leads source B by
900. The distance rA to a detector is greater than the
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distance rB by 100m. What is the phase difference at the
detector?
Both sources have a wavelength of 400m.
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DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE
Problem: S 41-17
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Suppose in the double-slit arrangement, d= 0.150 mm
(distance between two slits), L=120 cm (distance of the slit
system from the screen), λ= 833 nm, and y = 2.00 cm (linear
distance of a point P from the centre of the screen)
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(a) What is the path difference (δ) for the rays from the two
slits arriving at the point ‘P’ on the screen?
(b) Express this path difference in terms of λ.
(c) Find the intensity at point P?
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(d) Does point P correspond to a maximum, a minimum, or
an intermediate condition?
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THIN-FILM
INTERFERENCE
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Thin-film
interference
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• Thin-film interference is the phenomenon that is a
result of light wave being reflected/transmitted off
two surfaces that are at a distance comparable to
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its wavelength.
• When light waves that reflect off the top and
bottom surfaces interfere with one another, we
see different coloured patterns. During this, the
light reaches the boundary between two media
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and part of it gets reflected, and some part gets
transmitted.
– Thickness of the film is comparable with the wavelength.
– Greater thickness spoils the coherence of the light to
produce colour.
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INTERFERENCE FROM THIN FILMS
Phase change on Reflection:
It has been observed that if the medium beyond the interface
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has a higher index of refraction, the reflected wave undergoes a
phase change of (=180o).
If the medium beyond the interface has a lower index of
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refraction, there is no phase change of the reflected wave.
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INTERFERENCE FROM THIN FILMS: Single layer film
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0
0
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0 0
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n1 < n2
If here; d ~ λ
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INTERFERENCE FROM THIN FILMS: Multi-layer films
π π 2π 3π
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0 π
2π 3π
na < nb < nc
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If here; d ~ λ
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INTERFERENCE FROM THIN FILMS:
Condition for maxima and minima
Special Case: For Normal incidence (i = 0)
Path difference = 2 d + (½) n
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Reflection from first surface
Constructive interference:
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2 d + (½) n = m n m = 1, 2, 3, . . . (maxima)
Destructive interference:
2 d + (½) n = (m-½) n m = 1, 2, . . . (minima)
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Note:
• Here, n is wavelength in the film of refractive index n.
• If is the wavelength in the vacuum then n = / n
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Problems for Practice:
INTERFERENCE FROM THIN FILMS
Problem: SP 41-3
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P1: A soap film (n=1.33) in air is 320nm thick. If it is
illuminated with white light at normal incidence, what
color will it appear to be in reflected light?
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P2: A monochromatic light of wavelength 5893 Å is
incident normally on a soap film of refractive index 1.42.
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What is the least thickness of the film that will appear (i)
bright and (ii) dark by reflection.
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Anti-reflective coating
Light is reflected from both surfaces of the coating. In both reflections
the light is reflected from a medium of greater index than that in which
it is traveling, so the same phase change occurs in both reflections.
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The thickness of the non-reflective coating can be a quarter-wavelength. (t = λn/4) .
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Problems for Practice:
INTERFERENCE FROM THIN FILMS
Problem: SP 41-4
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Lenses are often coated with thin films of transparent
substances such as MgF2 (n=1.38) to reduce the
reflection from the glass surface. How thick a coating is
required to produce a minimum reflection at the center
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of the visible spectrum? ( wavelength = 550nm)
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INTERFERENCE FROM THIN FILMS
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Problem: E 41-23
A disabled tanker leaks kerosene (n=1.20) into the Persian
Gulf, creating a large slick on top of water (n = 1.33).
(a)If you look straight down from aeroplane on to the region
of slick where thickness is 460nm, for which wavelengths
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of visible light is the reflection is greatest?
(b)If you are scuba diving directly under this region of slick,
for which wavelengths of visible light is the transmitted
intensity is strongest?
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INTERFERENCE FROM THIN FILMS
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Problem: E 41-25
If the wavelength of the incident light is λ = 572 nm,
rays A and B in Fig 41-24 are out of phase by
1.50 λ. Find the thickness d of the film.
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NEWTON’S
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RINGS
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• Newton's rings are formed due to interference
between the light waves reflected from the
top and bottom surfaces of the air film formed
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between a plane and curved surface of large
radius of curvature.
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Newton’s Ring Experiment
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• A plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature is placed on a plane glass plate to
get an air film of circular symmetry. This set up is placed below a traveling
microscope.
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• The air film is illuminated normally by reflecting the horizontal beam of a
monochromatic source, e.g., sodium lamp, using an inclined glass plate.
• The traveling microscope is focused and the Newton’s rings (bright and dark
circular interference fringes) are observed.
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Newton’s Ring: White light source
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Why different colors? for any given difference in path length, the
condition ΔL = (m-1/2) n might be satisfied for some wavelength but
not for some other. A given color might or might not be present in the
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visible image.
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INTERFERENCE FROM THIN FILMS
Newton’s rings: (radius of circular fringe)
Constructive interference
2d = (m - ½) (n = 1 for air film)
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d = R− R2 − r 2
1
r
2 2
= R − R 1 −
R
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r R 1 using binomial expansion
1 r
2
r2
d = R − R 1 − + . . .
2 R
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2R
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INTERFERENCE FROM THIN FILMS O
Newton’s rings
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Substituting d in
2d = (m - ½) A B
we get
r = (m − 21 ) R
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m = 1, 2, . . . (maxima)
𝑟= 𝑚𝜆𝑅
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𝑚 = 0, 1, 2, . . . (m𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎)
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Problems for Practice:
INTERFERENCE FROM THIN FILMS
P1. When a liquid is introduced between the lens
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and the plate in a Newton's ring arrangement, the
diameter of the nth dark ring changes from 0.30 cm
to 0.25 cm. Calculate the refractive index of the
liquid.
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P2. In a Newton's ring experiment, the diameter of
4th and 12th dark rings are 0.4 cm and 0.7 cm,
respectively. Deduce the diameter of 20th dark ring.
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Also calculate the radius of curvature of lens, if the
wavelength of light is 590 nm.
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INTERFERENCE FROM THIN FILMS
Problem: E41-33
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In a Newton’s ring experiment, the radius of curvature R of
the lens is 5.0m and its diameter is 20mm.
(a) How many ring are produced?
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(b) How many rings would be seen if the arrangement is
immersed in water (n = 1.33)?
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(Assume wavelength = 589nm)
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MODEL QUESTIONS – INTERFERENCE
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• What is the necessary condition on the path length difference
(and phase difference) between two waves that interfere (A)
constructively and (B) destructively.
• Explain the term coherence.
• Explain the term phase-shift in reflection.
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• Explain the conditions necessary for two light sources to produce
observable interference patterns. Why is coherence important in
producing stable interference fringes?
• A soap bubble has a thickness of 200 nm. If white light falls normally
on the bubble, what is the range of colours observed due to thin film
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interference?
• Why the Newton’s ring’s are circular in shape. Deduce the expression
to find out radius of curvature of plano-convex lens in terms of
diameter of Newton’s rings.
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MODEL QUESTIONS – INTERFERENCE
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• Describe the experimental setup of Young's double-slit experiment. How does it
demonstrate the wave nature of light, and what factors affect the interference pattern
produced?
• Explain the phenomenon of thin film interference. How do the thickness and
refractive index of the film influence the constructive and destructive interference of
light reflected from the film’s surfaces?
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• Why do soap bubbles and oil films on water show vivid colors? How do the
thickness variations in these films lead to different interference effects for various
wavelengths of light?
• Describe the formation of Newton’s rings in a plano-convex lens placed on a flat
glass surface. How can the radius of the rings be used to determine the wavelength of
light or the radius of curvature of the lens?
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• Discuss the practical applications of interference phenomena in modern technology
and engineering. How are principles like thin film interference used in anti-reflective
coatings or interferometers?