Applied Data Science Smart Systems
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chartio tamApplied Data Science Smart Systems
Uploaded by
chartio tamApplied Data Science and Smart Systems
Proceedings of 2nd International Conference on Applied Data Science
and Smart Systems 2023 (ADSSS 2023) 15-16 Dec, 2023, Rajpura,
India
Edited by
Jaiteg Singh
S B Goyal
Rajesh Kumar Kaushal
Naveen Kumar
Sukhjit Singh Sehra
Boca Raton London New York
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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 9781032748146 (pbk)
ISBN: 9781003471059 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003471059
Typeset in Sabon LT Std
by HBK Digital
Contents
Preface xx
Chapter 1 AI-driven global talent prediction: Anticipating international graduate admissions 1
Sachin Bhoite, Vikas Magar and C. H. Patil
Chapter 2 English accent detection using hidden Markov model (HMM) 10
Babu Sallagundla, Kavya Sree Gogineni and Rishitha Chiluvuri
Chapter 3 Study of exascale computing: Advancements, challenges, and future directions 17
Neha Sharma, Sadhana Tiwari, Mahendra Singh Thakur, Reena Disawal and Rupali Pathak
Chapter 4 Production of electricity from urine 28
Abhijeet Saxena, Mamatha Sandhu, S. N. Panda and Kailash Panda
Chapter 5 Deep learning-based finger vein recognition and security: A review 34
Manpreet Kaur, Amandeep Verma and Puneet Jai Kaur
Chapter 6 Development of an analytical model of drain current for junctionless GAA MOSFET
including source/drain resistance 43
Amrita Kumari, Jhuma Saha, Ashish Saini and Amit Kumar
Chapter 7 Crop recommendation using machine learning 49
Paramveer Kaur and Brahmaleen Kaur Sidhu
Chapter 8 Environment and sustainability development: A ChatGPT perspective 54
Priyanka Bhaskar and Neha Seth
Chapter 9 GAI in healthcare system: Transforming research in medicine and care for patients 63
Mahesh A., Angelin Rosy M., Vinodh Kumar M., Deepika P., Sakthidevi I. and
Sathish C.
Chapter 10 Fuzzy L-R analysis of queue network with priority 71
Aarti Saini, Deepak Gupta, A. K. Tripathi and Vandana Saini
Chapter 11 Blood bank mobile application of IoT-based android studio for COVID-19 76
Basetty Mallikarjuna, Sandeep Bhatia, Neha Goel, and Bharat Bhushan Naib
Chapter 12 Selection of effective parameters for optimizing software testing effort estimation 82
Vikas Chahar and Pradeep Kumar Bhatia
Chapter 13 Automated detection of conjunctivitis using convolutional neural network 91
Rajesh K. Bawa and Apeksha Koul
Chapter 14 An overview of wireless sensor networks applications, challenges and security attacks 98
N. Sharmila Banu, [Link] and [Link]
Chapter 15 Internet of health things-enabled monitoring of vital signs in hospitals of the future 108
Amit Sundas, Sumit Badotra, Gurpreet Singh and Amit Verma
Chapter 16 Artificial intelligence-based learning techniques for accurate prediction and classification
of colorectal cancer 114
Yogesh Kumar, Shapali Bansal, Ankush Jariyal and Apeksha Koul
Chapter 17 SLODS: Real-time smart lane detection and object detection system 120
Tanuja Satish Dhope, Pranav Chippalkatti, Sulakshana Patil, Vijaya Gopalrao Rajeshwarkar
and Jyoti Ramesh Gangane
Chapter 18 Computational task off-loading using deep Q-learning in mobile edge computing 129
Tanuja Satish Dhope, Tanmay Dikshit, Unnati Gupta and Kumar Kartik
Chapter 19 A comprehensive analysis of driver drowsiness detection techniques 134
Aaditya Chopra, Naveen Kumar and Rajesh Kumar Kaushal
Chapter 20 Issues with existing solutions for grievance redressal systems and mitigation approach using
blockchain network 140
Harish Kumar, Rajesh Kumar Kaushal and Naveen Kumar
Chapter 21 A systematic approach to implement hyperledger fabric for remote patient monitoring 147
Shilpi Garg, Rajesh Kumar Kaushal and Naveen Kumar
Chapter 22 Developing spell check and transliteration tools for Indian regional language – Kannada 152
Chandrika Prasad, Jagadish S. Kallimani, Geetha Reddy and Dhanashekar K.
Chapter 23 Real-time identification of traffic actors using YOLOv7 162
Pavan Kumar Polagani, Lakshmi Priyanka Siddi and Vani Pujitha M.
Chapter 24 Revolutionizing cybersecurity: An in-depth analysis of DNA encryption algorithms in
blockchain systems 172
A. U. Nwosu, S. B. Goyal, Anand Singh Rajawat, Baharu Bin Kemat and Wan Md Afnan
Bin Wan Mahmood
Chapter 25 Exploring recession indicators: Analyzing social network platforms and newspapers textual
datasets 180
Nikita Mandlik, Kanishk Barhanpurkar, Harshad Bhandwaldar, S. B. Goyal, Anand Singh
Rajawat and Surabhi Rane
Chapter 26 NIRF rankings’ effects on private engineering colleges for improving India’s educational
system looked at using computational approaches 187
Ankita Mitra, Subir Gupta, P. K. Dutta, S. B. Goyal, Wan Md. Afnan Bin Wan Mahmood
and Baharu Bin Kemat
Chapter 27 Analysis of soil moisture using Raspberry Pi based on IoT 194
Basetty Mallikarjuna, Sandeep Bhatia, Amit Kumar Goel, Devraj Gautam, Bharat Bhushan
Naib and Surender Kumar
Chapter 28 Drowsiness detection in drivers: A machine learning approach using hough circle
classification algorithm for eye retina images 202
J. Viji Gripsy, N. A. Sheela Selvakumari, S. Sahul Hameed and M. Jamila Begam
Chapter 29 Optimizing congestion collision using effective rate control with data aggregation algorithm
in wireless sensor network 209
K. Deepa, C. Arunpriya and M. Sasikala
Chapter 30 DDoS attack detection methods, challenges and opportunities: A survey 215
Jaspreet Kaur and Gurjit Singh Bhathal
Chapter 31 A review of privacy-preserving machine learning algorithms and systems 220
Utsav Mehta, Jay Vekariya, Meet Mehta, Hargeet Kaur and Yogesh Kumar
Chapter 32 Optimization techniques for wireless body area network routing protocols: Analysis and
comparison 226
Swati Goel, Kalpna Guleria and Surya Narayan Panda
Chapter 33 Securing the boundless network: A comprehensive analysis of threats and exploits in
software defined network 236
Shruti Keshari, Sunil Kumar, Pankaj Kumar Sharma and Sarvesh Tanwar
Chapter 34 A bibliometric analyses on emerging trends in communication disorder 246
Muskan Chawla, Surya Narayan Panda and Vikas Khullar
Chapter 35 Enhancing latency performance in fog computing through intelligent resource allocation
and Cuckoo search optimization 256
Meena Rani, Kalpna Guleria and Surya Narayan Panda
Chapter 36 Pediatric thyroid ultrasound image classification using deep learning: A review 264
Jatinder Kumar, Surya Narayan Panda and Devi Dayal
Chapter 37 Hybrid security of EMI using edge-based steganography and three-layered cryptography 278
Divya Sharma and Chander Prabha
Chapter 38 Efficient lung cancer detection in CT scans through GLCM analysis and hybrid classification 291
Shazia Shamas, Surya Narayan Panda and Ishu Sharma
Chapter 39 Newton Raphson method for root convergence of higher degree polynomials using big
number libraries 298
Taniya Hasija, K. R. Ramkumar, Bhupendra Singh, Amanpreet Kaur and Sudesh Kumar
Mittal
Chapter 40 The influence of compact modalities on complexity theory 307
Lalit Sharma, Surbhi Bhati, Mudita Uppal and Deepali Gupta
Chapter 41 Designing a hyperledger fabric-based workflow management system: A prototype solution
to enhance organizational efficiency 313
Arjun Senthil K. S., Thiruvaazhi Uloli and Sanjay V. M.
Chapter 42 Exploring Image Segmentation Approaches for Medical Image Analysis 322
Rupali Pathak, Hemant Makwana and Neha Sharma
Chapter 43 Design and performance analysis of electric shock absorbers 328
Jenish R. P. and Surbhi Gupta
Chapter 44 Integrating metaverse and blockchain for transparent and secure logistics management 334
A.U. Nwosu, S.B. Goyal, Anand Singh Rajawat, Baharu Bin Kemat and Wan Md Afnan
Bin Wan Mahmood
Chapter 45 A systematic study of multiple cardiac diseases by using algorithms of machine learning 343
Prachi Pundhir and Dhowmya Bhatt
Chapter 46 Forecasting mobile prices: Harnessing the power of machine learning algorithms 348
Parveen Badoni, Rahul Kumar, Parvez Rahi, Ajay Pal Singh Yadav and Siroj Kumar Singh
Chapter 47 Deep learning-based chronic kidney disease (CKD) prediction 363
J. Angel Ida Chellam, M. Preethi, R. Rajalakshmi and E. Bharathraj
Chapter 48 Cattle identification using muzzle images 370
J. Anitha, R. Avanthika, B. Kavipriya and S. Vishnupriya
Chapter 49 Simulation-based evaluating AODV routing protocol using wireless networks 378
Bhupal Arya, Dr. Jogendra Kumar, Dr. Parag Jain, Preeti Saroj, Mrinalinee Singh and Yogesh
Kumar
Chapter 50 Smart agriculture using machine learning algorithms 387
Tript Mann and Jashandeep Kaur
Chapter 51 Cloud computing empowering e-commerce innovation 393
Zinatullah Akrami and Gurjit Singh Bhathal
Chapter 52 Navigating blockchain-based clinical data sharing: An interoperability review 402
Virinder Kumar Singla, Amardeep Singh and Gurjit Singh Bhathal
Chapter 53 Analysis of data backup and recovery strategies in the cloud 409
Sumeet Kaur Sehra and Amanpreet Singh
Chapter 54 Landslide identification using convolutional neural network 416
Suvarna Vani Koneru, Harshitha Badavathula, Prasanna Vadttitya and Sujana Sri Kosaraju
Chapter 55 Retinal vessel segmentation using morphological operations 424
Vishali Shapar and Jyoti Rani
Chapter 56 Liver segmentation using shape prior features with Chan-Vese model 430
Veerpal and Jyoti Rani
Chapter 57 Online video conference analytics: A systematic review 435
Vishruth Raj V. V. and Mohan S. G.
Chapter 58 Sales analysis: Coca-Cola sales analysis using data mining techniques for predictions and
efficient growth in sales 448
Siddique Ibrahim S. P., Pothuri Naga Sai Saketh, Gamidi Sanjay, Bhimavarapu Charan
Tej Reddy, Mesa Ravi Kanth and Selva Kumar S.
Chapter 59 Statistical analysis of consumer attitudes towards virtual influencers in the metaverse 458
Sheetal Soni and Usha Yadav
Chapter 60 Quantum dynamics-aided learning for secure integration of body area networks within the
metaverse cybersecurity framework 467
Anand Singh Rajawat, S. B. Goyal, Jaiteg Singh and Celestine Iwendi
Chapter 61 An optimized approach for development of location-aware-based energy-efficient routing
for FANETs 475
Gaurav Jindal and Navdeep Kaur
Chapter 62 Quantum cloud computing: Integrating quantum algorithms for enhanced scalability and
performance in cloud architectures 482
Anand Singh Rajawat, S. B. Goyal, Sandeep Kautish and Ruchi Mittal
Chapter 63 Integrating AI-enabled post-quantum models in quantum cyber-physical systems
opportunities and challenges 491
S. B. Goyal, Anand Singh Rajawat, Ruchi Mittal and Divya Prakash Shrivastava
Chapter 64 Adaptive resource allocation and optimization in cloud environments: Leveraging machine
learning for efficient computing 499
Anand Singh Rajawat, S. B. Goyal, Manoj Kumar and Varun Malik
Chapter 65 Quantum deep learning on driven trust-based routing framework for IoT in the metaverse
context 509
S. B. Goyal, Anand Singh Rajawat, Jaiteg Singh and Chawki Djeddi
Chapter 66 Advancing network security paradigms integrating quantum computing models for
enhanced protections 517
Anand Singh Rajawat, S. B. Goyal, Chaman Verma and Jaiteg Singh
Chapter 67 Optimizing 5G and beyond networks: A comprehensive study of fog, grid, soft, and
scalable computing models 529
S. B. Goyal, Anand Singh Rajawat, Jaiteg Singh and Tony Jan
Chapter 68 Smart protocol design: Integrating quantum computing models for enhanced efficiency and
security 537
S. B. Goyal, Sugam Sharma, Anand Singh Rajawat and Jaiteg Singh
Chapter 69 Efficient IIoT framework for mitigating Ethereum attacks in industrial applications using
supervised learning with quantum classifiers 544
S. B. Goyal, Anand Singh Rajawat, Ritu Shandilya and Varun Malik
Chapter 70 Quantum computing in the era of IoT: Revolutionizing data processing and security in
connected devices 552
S. B. Goyal, Sardar M. N. Islam, Anand Singh Rajawat and Jaiteg Singh
Chapter 71 A federated learning approach to classify depression using audio dataset 560
Chetna Gupta and Vikas Khullar
Chapter 72 Securing IOT CCTV: Advanced video encryption algorithm for enhanced data protection 565
Kawalpreet Kaur, Amanpreet Kaur, Vidhyotma Gandhi and Bhupendra Singh
Chapter 73 A comprehensive review of federated learning: Methods, applications, and challenges in
privacy-preserving collaborative model training 570
Meenakshi Aggarwal, Vikas Khullar and Nitin Goyal
Chapter 74 Review of techniques for diagnosis of Meibomian gland dysfunction using IR images 576
Deepika Sood, Anshu Singla and Sushil Narang
Chapter 75 The impact of unstable symmetries on software engineering 582
Lalit Sharma, Surbhi Bhati, Mudita Uppal and Deepali Gupta
Chapter 76 Integrating quantum computing models for enhanced efficiency in 5G networking systems 588
Anand Singh Rajawat, S. B. Goyal, Jaiteg Singh and Xiao Shixiao
Chapter 77 Micro-expressions spotting: Unveiling hidden emotions and thoughts 595
Parul Malik and Jaiteg Singh
Chapter 78 Artificial intelligence and machine vision-based assessment of rice seed quality 603
Ridhi Jindal and S. K. Mittal
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Graduate admission predictor UI flow 5
Figure 1.2 Train and test F1-score 7
Figure 1.3 Example of XGBoost 7
Figure 2.1 Proposed model diagram 13
Figure 2.2 Model accuracy 14
Figure 2.3 Output when no file is selected 14
Figure 2.4 Output predicted as Indian accent 14
Figure 2.5 Output predicted as Britain 14
Figure 2.6 Output predicted as American 14
Figure 2.7 Spectrogram representation of the model 15
Figure 2.8 Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficients 15
Figure 3.1 Exascale computing architecture 19
Figure 3.2 Application of exascale computing 20
Figure 3.3 Benefits of exascale computing 23
Figure 3.4 Challenges of exascale computing 24
Figure 4.1 Block diagram of the proposed system 29
Figure 4.2 Electrolytic cell 29
Figure 4.3 PEM fuel cell 30
Figure 4.4 Schematic representation of the proposed system 31
Figure 5.1 (a) NIR sensor, (b) Finger vein pattern 35
Figure 5.2 Template generation 36
Figure 5.3 Confusion matrix 39
Figure 6.1 Cross-section of cylindrical gate-all-around MOSFET 44
Figure 6.2 GAA JLT in different regions of operation 44
Figure 6.3 Flowchart showing the calculation of IDS 46
Figure 6.4 Drain current validation with the reported data (a) Singh et al., (2011); (b) Moon et al.,
(2013). (Parameters used: (a) L = 160 nm; ND = 6.7 × 1018 cm-3; (b) L = 150 nm; Width of
NW = 18 nm) 46
Figure 6.5 Drain current model validation with the experimental data (Choi et al., 2011). (Parameters
used: L = 50 nm, EOT = 13 nm and ND = 2×1019 cm-3) 46
Figure 6.6 Model validation with the reported data (a) Hu et al. (2014); (b) Wang et al. (2014) 47
Figure 6.7 Comparison of simulated (Lou et al., 2012) and output characteristics of the model 47
Figure 6.8 Variation of the drain current with different drain voltages with and without S/D resistance
(Parameters used: L = 50 nm, ND = 2×1019 cm-3, EOT = 13 nm, Rsd = 15 kΩ) 47
Figure 6.9 Drain current variation with gate overdrive voltage with and without S/D resistance
(Parameters used: L = 50 nm, ND = 2×1019 cm-3, EOT = 13 nm, RSD = 15 kΩ) 47
Figure 7.1 Flow chart of proposed methodology 51
Figure 8.1 Power usage for training large language models (LLMs) based on AI in 2023 (in megawatt
hours) 56
Figure 8.2 Global share of organizations taking steps to reduce carbon emissions from AI use in 2022 57
Figure 8.3 Emissions when training AI-based large language models (LLMs) in 2022 (in CO2
equivalent tons) 57
Figure 8.4 Machine learning (ML) platform emissions in tons of CO2 equivalent in 2022 57
Figure 8.5 Power consumption when training AI based large language models (LLMs) 57
Figure 8.6 Global share of organizations taking action in reducing carbon emissions from their AI use
in 2022 58
Figure 8.7 Types of sustainability activities in which respondents’ organizations using AI in 2022 59
Figure 9.1 Overview of GAI 65
Figure 9.2 Design architecture for GAI 66
Figure 9.3 Decision support system for patients 69
Figure 10.1 Priority queue network model 73
Figure 11.1 The use case diagram of the blood bank 78
Figure 11.2 The sensors connected to the android studio 79
Figure 11.3 Snapshot of the API of android studio 79
Figure 11.4 GUI of new app 79
Figure 11.5 Package explorer 80
Figure 12.1 Software testing stage in SDLC 83
Figure 12.2 Factors governing software testing effort 88
Figure 13.1 AI to detect and classify eye disease 92
Figure 13.2 Proposed system to detect and classify pink as well as healthy eye 93
Figure 13.3 Sample of pink and healthy eyes 93
Figure 13.4 Number of images in the dataset 93
Figure 13.5 Resized dimension of images 93
Figure 13.6 Enhanced eye images 94
Figure 13.7 Augmented images. (a) Healthy eye. (b) Pink eye 94
Figure 13.8 Architecture of CNN model 94
Figure 13.9 Learning curves of CNN model 95
Figure 14.1 Diagram of a typical WSN 99
Figure 14.2 (a) Making centralized decisions design. (b) Distributed determination design 100
Figure 14.3 Sensor nodes architecture 102
Figure 14.4 Applications areas of WSN 102
Figure 14.5 Framework for mobile sinks In WSN 105
Figure 14.6 Multiple nodes request for transmission channel at the same time 105
Figure 14.7 WSN with compromised access point and replicated mobile sink 105
Figure 14.8 Mobile sink revoke compromised node and broadcast control messages to the network 105
Figure 15.1 Provider-controlled electronic health records (EHR) and patient-controlled, mobile,
wearable sensor-based personal health records (PHR) are two types of electronic health
records (EHR) 111
Figure 15.2 Acquisition, storage, processing, and display are shown at the bottom of this schematic of
the Internet of Health Things (IoHT) 111
Figure 16.1 System design for CRC detection 117
Figure 17.1 Statistics for road accidents (Annual report, 2020) 121
Figure 17.2 SLODS 121
Figure 17.3 Lane detection flowchart 122
Figure 17.4 Original image 123
Figure 17.5 Frame gray scaling 123
Figure 17.6 Denoising 123
Figure 17.7 Edge detection 123
Figure 17.8 Hough transform 123
Figure 17.9 Edge detection for each edge detector 124
Figure 17.10 Flowchart for object detection 125
Figure 17.11 Frame capture 125
Figure 17.12 Frame gray scaling 125
Figure 17.13 Extracting ROI 125
Figure 17.14 ROI masking 125
Figure 17.15 Final output 126
Figure 17.16 Real time lane detection 126
Figure 17.17 Real time object detection 127
Figure 18.1 Block diagram of edge computing model 131
Figure 18.2 Number of tasks in queue with respect to time (s) 132
Figure 18.3 Server utilization with respect to time (ms) 132
Figure 18.4 CPU utilization of different CPU’s and number of tasks in queue during a single window
execution, time (s) vs. number of tasks 132
Figure 18.5 Episodes vs. number of tasks for local computation and edge server off-loading using
Q-learning algorithm 132
Figure 18.6 Number of tasks vs. average delay (s) for local and off-loading using Q-learning algorithm 133
Figure 20.1 Prisma flow diagram for literature study 141
Figure 20.2 Structure of grievances redressal system 141
Figure 20.3 Publication trends in existing solutions on grievances redressal system 144
Figure 20.4 Structure of the blockchain-based proposed system 145
Figure 21.1 Transaction flow for hyperledger fabric 148
Figure 21.2 System architecture for hyperledger fabric 149
Figure 21.3 [Link] file for network 149
Figure 21.4 Smart contracts for entities 150
Figure 21.5 Screenshot for creating a patient 150
Figure 21.6 Screenshot for query a patient 150
Figure 21.7 Result for query a patient 150
Figure 21.8 (a) Blocks per min, (b) Transactions per organization 150
Figure 22.1 Chronological order of face shield development 155
Figure 22.2 Input word not present in Bloom filter 156
Figure 22.3 Input word present in Bloom filter 156
Figure 22.4 Input misspelled word to Symspell give suggestion word 157
Figure 22.5 Performance analysis 157
Figure 22.6 User interface for spell check 158
Figure 22.7 Identifying wrong words (underlined in red) 158
Figure 22.8 Selecting the wrong words with options 158
Figure 22.9 Suggesting the correct word for the misspelled word 158
Figure 22.10 Pipeline for the process 158
Figure 22.11 Character BERT embedding 159
Figure 22.12 (a) Mapping vowels to its IPA representation 159
Figure 22.12 (b) Mapping consonants to its IPA representation 159
Figure 22.13 Mapping consonants to its IPA 160
Figure 23.1 A sample image from the dataset 164
Figure 23.2 Architecture diagram of YOLOv7 164
Figure 23.3 Different results curves 168
Figure 23.4 Precision-recall curve 168
Figure 23.5 Confusion matrix 169
Figure 23.6 (a) & (b) represents the sample input images predicted using model 170
Figure 23.7 (a) & (b) represents the predicted images generated by the model for the sample input
images 170
Figure 24.1 Cryptography mechanism of DNA encryption 173
Figure 24.2 The layered diagram of a blockchain 174
Figure 25.1 Data flow diagram 181
Figure 25.2 (a) Tweets collected over time for recession 182
Figure 25.2 (b) Data collected for recession comments (Reddit) 182
Figure 25.2 (c) News articles collected over time for recession 182
Figure 25.3 Memory-usage of each data source 183
Figure 25.4 (a) Number of words for each tweet 183
Figure 25.4 (b) Number of words for each Reddit comment 184
Figure 25.4 (c) Number of words for every NYTimes headline 184
Figure 25.5 (a) Word-cloud for the Twitter data 184
Figure 25.5 (b) Word-cloud for the Reddit data 184
Figure 25.5 (c) Word-cloud for the New York Times data (Khattar et al., 2020) 184
Figure 25.6 (a) Sentiment score of the tweets 185
Figure 25.6 (b) Sentiment score of the Reddit posts 185
Figure 25.6 (c) Sentiment score of the Reddit posts 185
Figure 26.1 Methodology 191
Figure 26.2 Confidence intervals 192
Figure 26.3 Distribution curve 192
Figure 26.4 Histogram 192
Figure 26.5 Power F distribution curve 192
Figure 27.1 Flowchart of soil moisture detection monitoring system 196
Figure 27.2 The proposed system’s component parts 196
Figure 27.3 Circuit details of Raspberry Pi 197
Figure 27.4 ESP 8266 with sensors 197
Figure 27.5 Node MCU (ESP 8266) 197
Figure 27.6 Test result 198
Figure 27.7 Field chart with irrigation of data 198
Figure 27.8 Chart with population of different countries 198
Figure 27.9 Different output representations as per the given data 199
Figure 28.1 Image mining process 203
Figure 28.2 External eye structure 203
Figure 28.3 System architecture 204
Figure 28.4 Pre-processing using noise reduction, sharpness, contrast, brightness 206
Figure 28.5 Pre-processing result using noise reduction, sharpness, contrast, brightness 206
Figure 28.6 Segmentation comparisons for right eye image threshold 1.5, 1.6, 1.8 and image threshold
1.7 using E_GRUNS algorithm 207
Figure 28.7 Performance analysis of classifiers 207
Figure 28.8 Mean absolute error 207
Figure 28.9 Execution time 208
Figure 29.1 Throughput 212
Figure 29.2 Packet loss 212
Figure 29.3 E2E delay 213
Figure 29.4 Data transfer rate 213
Figure 30.1 Architecture of cloud computing 216
Figure 30.2 DDoS attack 217
Figure 30.3 Botnet-based DDoS 218
Figure 31.1 Schematic representation of distributed system 221
Figure 31.2 Schematic representation of outsourced system 221
Figure 32.1 Organization of paper 227
Figure 32.2 Systematic review structure 228
Figure 33.1 Paper’s roadmap 237
Figure 33.2 SDN architecture 237
Figure 33.3 Work flow of SDN 238
Figure 33.4 Flow of analysis 239
Figure 33.5 Analysis of attacks 244
Figure 34.1 Different communication disorders with their prevalence 247
Figure 34.2 Significant rise in publications since 2002 247
Figure 34.3 Flowchart depicting pre-selection of the articles 248
Figure 34.4 Significant rise in cumulative frequency of the keywords 250
Figure 34.5 Cluster formation using co-occurrence of keywords 250
Figure 34.6 Significant works by numerous authors 251
Figure 34.7 Publications by subject area 251
Figure 34.8 Publications contributed by various countries 252
Figure 35.1 The suggested methods for allocating the task in the fog node 260
Figure 35.2 A flowchart of the proposal’s steps 261
Figure 36.1 Endocrine system 265
Figure 36.2 Thyroid gland 265
Figure 36.3 Phases of medical image processing 266
Figure 36.4 Reasons for medical image segmentation 266
Figure 36.5 Problems in image segmentation 267
Figure 36.6 Image segmentation techniques 267
Figure 36.7 Hierarchical relationships of AI, ML, DL and CNN 268
Figure 36.8 Evolution of machine learning technology 269
Figure 36.9 Comparison of ML and DL 270
Figure 36.10 Types of neural network (a) Traditional neural network (b) CNN (c) FCN 270
Figure 36.11 Restricted Boltzmann machines (RBMs) 271
Figure 36.12 Autoencoder architectures with vector 271
Figure 37.1 Commonly used data storage devices 279
Figure 37.2 Common types of EMI 279
Figure 37.3 Commonly used smart medical devices that generate EHR 279
Figure 37.4 Process of normalization of cover image Lena 283
Figure 37.5 Few of the 5856 X-ray images that act as input for the PHM 283
Figure 37.6 Output images achieved after implementing the proposed PHM method 285
Figure 38.1 Proposed block diagram 294
Figure 38.2 Pre-processed image 295
Figure 38.3 FFA segmentation 295
Figure 38.4 SIFT feature extraction 296
Figure 38.5 SURF feature extraction 296
Figure 38.6 Graphical comparison between SIFT and SURF 296
Figure 39.1 Flow chart of the procedure followed to implement 3 experiments using primitive and big
number data types and their accuracy and correctness evaluation 301
Figure 39.2 Coefficient bits and accurate root bits relationship 304
Figure 39.3 Graph of time complexities of root convergence experiments using primitive and big
number data types 304
Figure 40.1 (a) Analysis of online algorithms 309
Figure 40.1 (b) Schematic representation of correlation between heuristic approaches and large-scale
procedures 309
Figure 40.2 Illustration of the phenomenon where distance increases as complexity decreases 310
Figure 40.3 Comparison of median latency between the methodology and other methodologies 310
Figure 40.4 Comparison of expected complexity between KamMone and other algorithms 310
Figure 40.5 Relationship between the expected block size of KamMone and latency 311
Figure 41.1 Case study workflow design 314
Figure 41.2 Prototype application basic design 319
Figure 42.1 The segmentation outcomes 323
Figure 42.2 Left part represents the MR image with noise and right side represents image without noise 324
Figure 42.3 Real-world medical images are used to test the procedure. Column 1 contains the original
images and contours. Column 2 has the final outlines. Column 3 contains photos that have
been adjusted for bias. Column 4 contains the estimated bias fields 324
Figure 42.4 Alternative approaches are compared. Column 1 displays the original pictures and initial
outlines. The C-V model is shown in column 2. There are columns 3: Li’s method. The
LGDF model may be found in column 4. Column 5 – In this scenario, the method should
be followed 325
Figure 42.5 Correct segmentation of CT image 325
Figure 42.6 An example of interactive image segmentation 325
Figure 43.1 Electric shock absorbers 329
Figure 43.2 Valve before rotation 330
Figure 43.3 Valve after rotation 330
Figure 43.4 Ride frequency estimation 330
Figure 43.5 Controller 330
Figure 43.6 Circuit diagram 331
Figure 43.7 Damping 331
Figure 44.1 The architecture and layers of the metaverse 335
Figure 44.2 The transaction process of blockchain 337
Figure 44.3 The architecture of blockchain-based logistics management metaverse system 338
Figure 44.4 Simulations results 340
Figure 44.5 Latency comparison 340
Figure 44.6 Throughput comparison 340
Figure 45.1 2022 leading cause of death 344
Figure 45.2 Number of deaths by cause, World 2019 344
Figure 45.3 Share of total disease burden by cause, World 2019 344
Figure 45.4 Utilizing a phonogram (Baghel et al., 2020) signals from the current CVD classes.
(a) Aortic stenosis (AS), (b) Mitral regurgitation (MR), (c) Mitral stenosis (MS),
(d) Mitral valve prolapse (MVP) and (e) Normal 345
Figure 46.1 Data set values without company columns 350
Figure 46.2 Data set values with company columns 350
Figure 46.3 Exploring the data values 351
Figure 46.4 Example of data set by using head() function 352
Figure 46.5 Data description of dataset that we have taken 352
Figure 46.6 Boxplot diagram for outliers and missing values 353
Figure 46.7 Heatmap for comparing and choosing the attribute to classify our model 353
Figure 46.8 Count plot is used to count the occurrence of the observation 354
Figure 46.9 Count plot is used to count the occurrence of the RAM 355
Figure 46.10 Count plot is used to count the occurrence of the primary camera 356
Figure 46.11 This pairplot is used to understand the best set of feature to explain a relationship between
two or more variables to perform cluster separation 356
Figure 46.12 Predicting the model after applying the decision tree 358
Figure 46.13 Attributes vs. accuracy of five attributes 359
Figure 46.14 Attributes vs. accuracy after adding RAM feature 360
Figure 47.1 Causes of CKD 364
Figure 47.2 Block diagram of the proposed approach for CKD prediction 366
Figure 47.3 Architecture of proposed DNN mode 366
Figure 47.4 Performance of the proposed DN 368
Figure 47.5 Class analysis of CKD dataset 368
Figure 47.6 Comparative analysis 368
Figure 48.1 Output of muzzle classification using YOLOv5 model 372
Figure 48.2 Summary of CNN model 373
Figure 48.3 Flow diagram of proposed system 374
Figure 48.4 Plot of accuracy 375
Figure 48.5 Plot of loss 375
Figure 48.6 Register page 375
Figure 48.7 Dashboard for details 375
Figure 48.8 Matched result 376
Figure 48.9 Not matched result 376
Figure 48.10 Feedback responses 376
Figure 49.1 Wireless networks scenario for routing protocols 380
Figure 49.2 Simulation view 380
Figure 49.3 Total byte sent 381
Figure 49.4 Total packet sent 381
Figure 49.5 First packet sent 382
Figure 49.6 Last packet sent 382
Figure 49.7 Average jitter 382
Figure 49.8 First packet received 383
Figure 49.9 Total byte received 383
Figure 49.10 Total packet received 383
Figure 49.11 Last packet received 384
Figure 49.12 Average end to end delay(s) 384
Figure 49.13 Throughput (bits/s) 384
Figure 50.1 Flow chart for crop recommendation 389
Figure 50.2 Flow chart for fertilizer recommendation 389
Figure 50.3 Flow chart for irrigation scheduling 390
Figure 50.4 Flow chart for soil moisture prediction 391
Figure 51.1 Shows global ecommerce retail sales reached $5.7 trillion in 2022. This share is expected
to increase by 10% in 2023 and reach $6.3 trillion. 395
Figure 51.2 Comparison of traditional e-commerce and cloud e-commerce 395
Figure 52.1 Blockchain structure 403
Figure 52.2 Blockchain applications in healthcare 403
Figure 52.3 Identified research gaps 407
Figure 53.1 Fundamental IoT architecture 410
Figure 53.2 Important blocks of the proposed model 411
Figure 53.3 Components of the centralized backup system 411
Figure 53.4 Challenge-response-authentication process time overhead 413
Figure 53.5 Reference sequence segmentation error comparison 413
Figure 53.6 Comparison with native system throughput 414
Figure 53.7 Comparison of data backup management 414
Figure 53.8 Comparison of off-server copy management 414
Figure 53.9 Comparison of storage device management 415
Figure 54.1 Resized landslide image 418
Figure 54.2 Transfer learning architecture 419
Figure 54.3 Accuracy of the model 420
Figure 54.4 Loss of the model 421
Figure 54.5 Select the input image 421
Figure 54.6 Input image 421
Figure 54.7 Output 422
Figure 55.1 Normal gray scale images 426
Figure 55.2 Abnormal gray scale images 426
Figure 55.3 Illumination corrected normal images (a) and corresponding low frequency components (b) 427
Figure 55.4 Illumination corrected abnormal images (a) and corresponding low frequency component (b) 427
Figure 55.5 Illumination corrected and, adaptive histogram equalized normal images 427
Figure 55.6 Illumination corrected and adaptive histogram equalized abnormal images 428
Figure 55.7 Clique function treated normal images 428
Figure 55.8 Clique function treated abnormal images 428
Figure 56.1 The comparison of existing and the proposed methods. (a) Represents the original images.
(b) Represents the ground truth images. (c) Represents the existing method and
(d) Represents the proposed method. 432
Figure 56.2 Shows the original image belongs to the SLIVER dataset 432
Figure 56.3 Shows the intensity histogram for the whole CT image 433
Figure 56.4 The intensity histogram for the whole CT image 433
Figure 58.1 Flow chart of sales analysis 450
Figure 58.2 Output of elbow method (using clustering techniques) 450
Figure 58.3 Yearly consumption for soft drink 452
Figure 58.4 Output of CAGR 452
Figure 58.5 Relationship between likelihood to recommend and preferred product 453
Figure 58.6 Yearly consumption trends for soft drink brands (with future predictions). Dotted line
shows the future sales of soft drinks. 453
Figure 58.7 Seasonal analysis for soft drink brands with respective to their region 454
Figure 58.8 [Left] Total sales over the year [Right] year-over-year sales growth rate 455
Figure 58.9 Model performance matrices including accuracy, precision, recall 456
Figure 59.1 Flow chart of methodology adopted 461
Figure 59.2 Matrix scatterplot 462
Figure 60.1 Process flow 469
Figure 61.1 Different UAV network level communications 476
Figure 61.2 FANET network in smart city modeling 476
Figure 61.3 Proposed system model 478
Figure 61.4 FANET network deployment 479
Figure 61.5 Back propagation training 479
Figure 61.6 Energy consumption 479
Figure 61.7 Latency in the data gathering among nodes 479
Figure 61.8 End delay (sec) 480
Figure 61.9 Energy consumption per round 480
Figure 62.1 Integrating quantum model for enhanced scalability and performance in cloud architectures 484
Figure 62.2 Proposed model flow chart 486
Figure 63.1 Integrating AI-enabled post-quantum models in quantum cyber-physical systems
opportunities and challenges 496
Figure 64.1 Proposed machine learning model 502
Figure 64.2 Comparative analysis different machine learning model 506
Figure 65.1 Details flow 512
Figure 66.1 Chronological order of face shield development 522
Figure 69.1 Proposed model 546
Figure 71.1 Federated learning model for depression detection using audio data 561
Figure 71.2 Training and validation accuracy and loss results for depression detection using Bi-LSTM,
CNN and LSTM algorithms 562
Figure 71.3 Client training results for depression detection using IID data 562
Figure 71.4 Client validation results for depression detection using IID data 563
Figure 71.5 Server validation results for depression detection using IID data 563
Figure 72.1 Time taken to perform encryption and decryption without compression 568
Figure 72.2 Time taken to perform encryption and decryption with compression using proposed OVEA 568
Figure 72.3 Time taken to perform encryption 568
Figure 73.1 Federated learning framework 571
Figure 73.2 Federated learning taxonomy 572
Figure 74.1 Graph for prevalence of MGD based on ethnicity 577
Figure 74.2 (a) Detailed view of MG’s in upper lid 577
Figure 74.2 (b) Detailed view of MG’s in lower lid 577
Figure 74.3 Malfunction of MG’s 577
Figure 75.1 Illustration of the new optimal models 584
Figure 75.2 Relationship between the median energy of Bolye and the hit ratio 584
Figure 75.3 Relationship between the average block size of Bolye and the popularity of reinforcement
learning 585
Figure 75.4 Median sampling rate comparison of Bolye with other approaches 585
Figure 75.5 (a) Relationship between interrupt rate growth and decreasing popularity of link-level
acknowledgments 586
Figure 75.5 (b) Average energy of the approach in relation to instruction rate 586
Figure 78.1 ANN architecture 605
Figure 78.2 Flow chart of the process 605
Figure 78.3 Test image for grade-2 Ponni rice 606
Figure 78.4 Test image for grade-2 Matta rice 606
Figure 78.5 ANN framework 606
Figure 78.6 Grading of rice grains according to varieties using ANN classifier 607
Figure 78.7 Regression plots 607
List of Tables
Table 3.1 Technological overview of exascale system 18
Table 3.2 Represents the market growth of EC 26
Table 4.1 Comparison of electrolysis 31
Table 4.2 Comparison of efficiency of PEM fuel cell 31
Table 5.1 Comparison of different biometric modalities 35
Table 5.2 Datasets for the finger vein. 38
Table 5.3 Recent articles related to the CNN and template security of FVR 39
Table 7.1 Feature description 51
Table 7.2 Accuracy of algorithms 51
Table 8.1 Effective steps for reducing environmental impact of ChatGPT 59
Table 10.1 Crisp values 73
Table 10.2 Fuzzy particular values 74
Table 10.3 L-R Fuzzy Values 74
Table 11.1 Frequency of occurring in different blood groups (Fahim et al., 2016). 77
Table 11.2 Description of package explorer 80
Table 12.1 Comparative analysis of existing studies 86
Table 12.2 Categorization of factors effecting the software testing effort 87
Table 13.1 Layered architecture of proposed CNN model 94
Table 13.2 Performance metrics 95
Table 13.3 Hyper-parameters of CNN model 95
Table 13.4 Evaluation of CNN model 95
Table 13.5 Performance summary. 95
Table 13.6 Class-wise performance metrics for eye classification. 95
Table 15.1 Typical hospital vitals used for patient monitoring 109
Table 15.2 Methods, frameworks, and systems for assessing risk 110
Table 16.1 Cases and deaths in the US 2020 due to CRC 115
Table 16.2 Comparative analysis of CRC 116
Table 17.1 Area of interest vertices 122
Table 17.2 Hough transform parameters 122
Table 17.3 Canny algorithm parameters 125
Table 17.4 Parameters for Robert operator 126
Table 17.5 Parameters for Prewitt operator 126
Table 17.6 Parameters for Sobel operator 126
Table 17.7 Parameters for Canny operator 126
Table 17.8 Speed analysis 127
Table 18.1 Parameters for deep Q-learning algorithm 131
Table 19.1 List of various work done on driver drowsiness detection. 138
Table 20.1 Literature review for grievances redressal system. 142
Table 21.1 Process to build up the minifab network. 149
Table 22.1 Dataset details. 157
Table 22.2 Performance analysis. 157
Table 22.3 Dataset split up. 158
Table 22.4 Sample transliterations of Kannada words 160
Table 23.1 Overview of confusion matrix. 169
Table 24.1 Analysis of different types of DNA-based schemes. 175
Table 24.2 Analysis of DNA-based encryption solutions 175
Table 24.3 Analysis of blockchain system-based on DNA encryption algorithm. 175
Table 24.4 Case Studies on the integration of blockchain system with DNA based encryption algorithm 177
Table 24.5 Comparative analysis of existing conventional system and proposed solution. 177
Table 25.1 Comparative analysis of different studies associated with Twitter, Reddit, and the
New York Times. 181
Table 25.2 Comparison of number of records and memory usage for various datasets. 183
Table 26.1 Comparative analysis of different learning outcomes. 190
Table 26.2 H hypothesis. 191
Table 28.1 Performance analysis of classification. 207
Table 32.1 Inclusion and exclusion criteria. 228
Table 32.2 Comparative analysis of routing protocols using optimization techniques 232
Table 33.1 Attacks in application plane 240
Table 33.2 Attacks in control plane 240
Table 33.3 Attacks in data plane 240
Table 33.4 Categorization of attacks, affecting multiple planes 241
Table 33.5 Attack vectors with their tools and techniques 242
Table 33.6 SDN component with their threats 243
Table 34.1 Metadata about the research contributions 252
Table 34.2 CiteScore per year 253
Table 34.3 Source normalized impact per paper 253
Table 34.4 SCImago journal rank (SJR) 253
Table 34.5 Meta-perspectives of the study 254
Table 35.1 Literature survey summary 258
Table 35.2 Parameters of the fog environment 262
Table 35.3 Final outcome 262
Table 36.1 Thyroid diseases and their symptoms 265
Table 36.2 DL segmentation performance parameter 274
Table 37.1 Literature review of studied research articles 281
Table 37.2 The stego-encryption algorithm for the PHM 284
Table 37.3 Comparison based on the size of the data set and programming language used in previous
research 285
Table 37.4 Encryption time for the proposed hybrid method 286
Table 37.5 Proposed method decryption time 286
Table 37.6 Comparison based result table for the proposed hybrid method with the research article
that led to this research 287
Table 39.1 Newton Raphson method to find first real root 300
Table 39.2 Polynomial root finding with primitive data types 302
Table 39.3 Polynomial with primitive co-efficient and big number constant 303
Table 39.4 Polynomial root convergence with big numbers 305
Table 41.1 Comparison of different existing solutions. 318
Table 44.1 Comparative analysis of existing work with limitations 338
Table 44.2 Tools and specifications 339
Table 44.3 Latency results between the proposed system and the existing system 340
Table 44.4 Throughput comparison between the baseline system and the proposed system 340
Table 44.5 Comparative analysis of existing metaverse-based systems 341
Table 45.1 Comparisons of previous studies on classification of cardiac diseases. 346
Table 46.1 Summary of parameters 358
Table 46.2 Top five attributes with accuracy. 359
Table 46.3 Bottom seven attributes with accuracy 359
Table 47.1 CKD dataset description. 367
Table 47.2 Performance of the proposed DNN. 368
Table 47.3 Comparative analysis. 368
Table 48.1 Descriptive statistics of feedback responses. 376
Table 49.1 Parameters list (simulation setup). 379
Table 49.2 Performance metrics. 381
Table 50.1 Features description for dataset of crop recommendation. 388
Table 50.2 Feature description for dataset of fertilizer recommendation. 389
Table 50.3 Features description for dataset of irrigation scheduling. 390
Table 50.4 Feature description for dataset of soil moisture prediction. 390
Table 50.5 Classification metrics for crop recommendation system. 391
Table 50.6 Classification report for fertilizer recommendation system. 391
Table 50.7 Regression metrics for soil moisture prediction. 391
Table 50.8 Classification report for irrigation scheduling. 391
Table 52.1 Frequency of identified problem areas. 406
Table 55.1 Average value of sensitivity, specificity and accuracy for different normal retinal images. 428
Table 55.2 Average values of vessel-to-vessel free area for proposed and existing methods. 428
Table 56.1 Results for SLIVER 433
Table 56.2 Results for IRCAD 433
Table 57.1 Summary of state-of-the-art methods 441
Table 57.2 Summary of limitation, strength and open problems 443
Table 59.1 Descriptive statistics 462
Table 59.2 Collinearity diagnostics 462
Table 59.3 Model summary 463
Table 59.4 ANOVA 463
Table 59.5 Coefficients 463
Table 60.1 Comparative analysis 468
Table 60.2 Data set description 470
Table 60.3 Simulation Parameters for Assisted Learning in Quantum Dynamics (S(BAN)+ Q(MV)) 471
Table 60.4 Analytical results on the utilization of quantum dynamics to enhance learning in a
multi-agent environment 472
Table 61.1 Performance comparison 480
Table 62.1 Comparative analysis 484
Table 62.2 A comprehensive overview of the impact of each variable on the main performance metrics 488
Table 63.1 Comparative analysis 492
Table 63.2 Datasets relevant to quantum cyber-physical systems (QCPS) that incorporate AI-enabled
post-quantum model integration 494
Table 63.3 Simulation parameter 496
Table 63.4 Results analysis 497
Table 64.1 Comparative analysis 501
Table 64.2 simulation parameters utilized in a cloud system that employs machine learning techniques to
achieve optimal resource allocation and optimization. 505
Table 64.3 Results analysis 506
Table 65.1 A comprehensive compilation of critical information from each study 511
Table 65.2 Simulation parameters and quantum parameters. 514
Table 65.3 Results analysis 515
Table 66.1 Comparative table. 519
Table 66.1 Encryption and data protection 525
Table 66.2 A comparative analysis of the performance of QML algorithms and standard (classical)
machine. 525
Table 66.3 Comparative analysis of classical and quantum search algorithms. 526
Table 66.4 A visual representation of the potential superiority of quantum algorithms. 526
Table 66.5 Measurements of electronic components. 527
Table 67.1 Optimizing 5G and beyond networks. 531
Table 67.2 Overall impact on 5G networks. 534
Table 67.3 Impact on 5G and beyond networks. 534
Table 68.1 Comparative analysis. 538
Table 68.2 Comparison of key performance metrics. 540
Table 68.3 Results analysis. 541
Table 68.4 Results analysis traditional protocol design and QC/PQC-enhanced protocol design. 541
Table 69.1 Comparative analysis. 545
Table 69.2 An illustrative dataset for a robust IIoT architecture. 546
Table 69.3 A generic parameters. 549
Table 69.4 An examination of the results pertaining to a proficient IIoT framework. 549
Table 70.1 Comparative analysis between traditional IoT system and quantum-enhanced IoT system. 556
Table 70.2 Results analysis between traditional IoT system and quantum-enhanced IoT system. 557
Table 71.1 Training and validation results of DL models for depression detection 561
Table 71.2 Training and validation results of FL models for depression detection using IID data 562
Table 72.1 Key findings in the literature 567
Table 72.2 A comparison results of encryption speed time (in frame/seconds) for different videos
without compression 567
Table 72.3 A comparison results of encryption speed time (in frame/seconds) for different videos with
compression 568
Table 72.4 Comparison of time taken by different encryption algorithms 568
Table 73.1 Types of FL architectures with applications 572
Table 73.2 Strategies to handle challenges 573
Table 74.1 Ethnicity-based prevalence of MGD (Hassanzadeh et al., 2021) 577
Table 74.2 Different techniques for diagnosis of Meibomian gland dysfunction 579
Table 76.1 Literature review on quantum computing and network security 590
Table 76.2 Test scenario 592
Table 76.3 Results analysis for quantum AI in 5G networks 592
Table 77.1 Few of the available published research reports on MEs analysis of recent years 596
Table 77.2 Spotting techniques employed in facial MEs for pre-processing 596
Table 77.3 Few of the existing techniques employed for spotting a facial MEs 598
Table 78.1 Grade of rice grains 605
Table 78.2 Analysis of rice seeds in a random sample 607
Table 78.3 Results of a random sample regarding the size of the rice seeds with percentage values 608
Table 78.4 Results of a random sample in terms of the size of the rice seeds with percentage values by
Human inspector 608
Table 78.5 Result analysis 608
Preface: Second International Conference on Applied Data
Science and Smart Systems
The Second International Conference on Applied Data Science and Smart Systems (ADSSS-2023) was held
on 15-16 December 2023 at Chitkara University, Punjab, India. This multidisciplinary conference focussed
on innovation and progressive practices in science, technology, and management. The conference successfully
brought together researchers, academicians, and practitioners across different domains such as artificial intel-
ligence and machine learning, software engineering, automation, data science, business computing, data com-
munication, and computer networks. The presenters shared their most recent research works that are critical
to contemporary business and societal landscape and encouraged the participants to devise solutions for real-
world challenges.
ADSSS-2023 featured an extensive selection of tracks, each delving into critical facets of applied data science
and smart systems. “Machine Learning Principles, Smart Solutions, and Business Strategies” provided insights
into the synergy between ML principles, innovative solutions, and strategic business applications. The track on
“AI and Deep Learning” explored the latest advancements and applications in artificial intelligence and deep
learning technologies. Addressing contemporary challenges, “Data Science Techniques for Handling Epidemic,
Pandemic” showcased the role of data science in managing health crises. “Deep Intelligence for Interdisciplinary
Research” facilitated discussions on the integration of deep intelligence across diverse research domains. The
track focusing on “Software Engineering and Automation” explored methodologies that enhance efficiency and
automate processes in the realm of software development. “Data Communication and Computer Networks”
shed light on evolving communication technologies, while “Computing in Business and Learning” addressed the
intersection of computing technologies with business strategies and educational practices. Finally, “Engineering
Mathematics and Physics” provided a platform for exploring the application of mathematical and physical prin-
ciples in various engineering disciplines. This diverse array of tracks collectively contributed to a comprehensive
exploration of applied data science, fostering interdisciplinary collaboration and offering valuable insights for
future research and advancements in the field.
ADSSS-2023 was honored to host eminent scientists and researchers from across the globe, whose insightful
keynote addresses enhanced participants’ knowledge. The keynotes covered diverse topics such as AI-Powered
Quantum Cryptography, the Role of Large Language Models in Scientific Research, and the Application of Deep
Gaussian Processes in Radio Map Construction and Localization. Beyond knowledge dissemination, the confer-
ence served as a dynamic platform for networking and collaboration among researchers, fostering the exchange
of ideas that may shape future research endeavours. We trust that every participant found the ADSSS-2023
experience to be both enriching and productive.
Editors
Dr. Jaiteg Singh is an accomplished academician with 19 years of experience in
research, development, and teaching in computer science and engineering. Possesses
expertise in diverse fields like Neuromarketing, Navigation systems, Software
Engineering, Business Intelligence, and Data Mining. He has supervised thirteen Ph.D.
thesis and eighteen [Link] thesis. He has generated significant consultancy revenue,
organized international conferences, published extensively in renowned journals
indexed at reputed databases like Scopus and Web of Science. He has authored/
edited six books, secured four US copyrights, and even filed for over 50 patents.
He is serving as reviewer for numerous journals from reputed publishers like
Elsevier, Springer, Wiley, MDPI and IEEE.
Email: [Link]@[Link]
Dr. S B Goyal, a distinguished personality in the realm of Computer Science &
Engineering, earned his Ph.D. from Banasthali University, Rajasthan, India, in 2012.
With over two decades of rich experience spanning both national and international
levels, he has made significant contributions to the academic and administrative sec-
tors of numerous institutions.
Dr. Goyal’s unparalleled curiosity and dedication to staying abreast of the latest IT
developments have established him as an authority in Industry 4.0 technologies. His
expertise encompasses a wide range of cutting-edge fields, including Big Data, Data
Science, Artificial Intelligence, Blockchain, and Cloud Computing.
Dr. Goyal actively participates in panel discussions, sharing his knowledge on
Industry 4.0 technologies in both academic and industry platforms. His edito-
rial prowess is recognized through his contributions as a reviewer, guest editor, and co-editor for numerous
International Journals and Scopus books published by prestigious organizations like IEEE, Inderscience, IGI
Global, and Springer.
An esteemed IEEE Senior member since 2013, Dr. Goyal has an impressive record of contributions to Scopus/
SCI journals and conferences as an editor. His innovative spirit is further evidenced by his possession of over 10
international patents and copyrights from countries including Australia, Germany, Japan, and India.
Throughout his illustrious career, Dr. Goyal has been the recipient of numerous academic excellence awards
at both national and international levels. Currently, he holds the esteemed position of Director at the Faculty
of Information Technology, City University, Malaysia. His commitment to emerging technologies continues to
inspire and pave the way for future innovations and technological advancements.
Email: [Link]@[Link]
Dr. Rajesh Kumar Kaushal is a highly accomplished and dedicated researcher and
educator, boasting a robust background in Computer Science and Engineering, and
accumulating an extensive 19 years of experience in academia since 2004. Holding a
Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Chitkara University, Punjab, India,
he currently serves as a professor in the Department of Computer Applications and
actively contributing to research endeavors.
Dr. Kaushal’s prolific research output is evident through his involvement in more
than 60 patent filings, with one of them being published in the World Intellectual
Property Organization (WIPO) and 15 being granted. Additionally, he has taken
on the role of Project Manager in a DST-funded project titled “Smart and Portable
Intensive Care Unit,” supported by the Millennium Alliance (FICCI, USAID, UKAID, Facebook, World Bank,
and TDB DST). Furthermore, he served as a Co-Principal Investigator in another DST-funded project named
“Remote Vital Information and Surveillance System for Elderly and Disabled Persons,” under the Technology
Intervention of Disabled and Elderly (TIDE) scheme of the Ministry of Science & Technology, Government of
India. Presently he is working on another DST funded project named “Smart Ergonomic Portable Commode
Chair” under the DST TIDE scheme. He is also actively contributing the research community in the area of
Blockchain and Internet of Things and have published more than 55 research papers and all of them are either
indexed in SCOPUS or SCI.
Additionally, he serves as a visiting professor at Kasetsart University in Sakon Nakhon, Thailand, and actively
participates as a reviewer for the peer-reviewed journal “Technology, Knowledge & Learning.” Recognizing
his exceptional contributions to education, Dr. Kaushal has been honoured with the Teacher Excellence Award
twice, receiving the accolade in both 2017 and 2019 from Chitkara University, Punjab, India. In 2017, he
earned the Teacher Excellence Award in the category of “Most Enterprising,” and in 2019, the recognition was
bestowed upon him in the category of “Most Enterprising & Emerging Leader.”
Email: [Link]@[Link]
Dr Naveen Kumar is a distinguished academician and researcher with a Ph.D. in
Computer Science and Engineering, boasting over 25 years of rich experience in
both teaching and research domains. His journey includes notable contributions
as a research fellow at PGIMER, Chandigarh, where he actively contributed to a
Department of Science & Technology (DST) funded project titled “Closed Loop
Anaesthesia Delivery System.” Currently serving as an Associate Professor at
Chitkara University Research and Innovation Network (CURIN) within the Research
Department of Chitkara University, Punjab, Dr Naveen Kumar continues to be at
the forefront of cutting-edge research initiatives. His dedication to academic excel-
lence is evident through his extensive engagement in research activities, reflected in
his impressive track record. Dr. Naveen Kumar’s expertise extends to intellectual
property rights, with a remarkable portfolio comprising over 70 filed patents, of
which more than 30 have been granted. Furthermore, his contributions to scholarly
literature are substantial, with over 50 research articles published across various
prestigious journals and conferences. His commitment to knowledge dissemination is highlighted by his author-
ship of the book “Workshop Practice,” published by Abhishek Publication. He is actively engaged in many Govt.
funded research projects and presently he is working on a research project as a Principal Investigator “Smart
Ergonomic Portable Commode chair”. This initiative, supported by the Technology Intervention for Disabled
and Elderly (TIDE) scheme under the Ministry of Science & Technology, Government of India, underscores his
dedication to innovation for societal welfare. Recognizing his exceptional contributions, Dr. Naveen Kumar has
been honoured with prestigious awards, including the Teacher Excellence Award for “Most Collaborative” in
2019 and the Extra Mural Funding Award in 2021, both conferred by Chitkara University, Punjab, India.
Email: [Link]@[Link]
Dr. Sukhjit Singh Sehra is currently working as an Assistant Professor at Wilfrid
Laurier University, Waterloo, Canada. A proactive academician with extensive expe-
rience teaching undergraduate and graduate courses in Machine Learning, Artificial
Intelligence, Natural Language Processing, Spatial Data Science, and Big Data. He
possesses strong analytical skills and proven expertise in large-scale spatial and
unstructured textual datasets. He has supervised 19 master’s theses and published
over 80+ peer-reviewed articles in journals and conferences. He possesses 18 + years
of experience in research, academia, and industry. He worked at prestigious organi-
zations in India and Canada, like Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana,
Punjab and Elocity Technologies, Canada He is actively involved in the usability and
application of technology to solve social problems.
He is a Co-Founder and Director at Sabudh Foundation, India. A data science organization for social initiatives
([Link] to develop an incubation center of artificial intelligence and machine learning for the youth
of India.
Email: ssehra@[Link]
1 AI-driven global talent prediction: Anticipating
international graduate admissions
Sachin Bhoitea, Vikas Magar and C. H. Patil
Department of Computer Science and Application, Dr. Vishwanath Karad, MIT World Peace University, Pune,
Maharashtra, India
Abstract
With the help of AI-driven global talent prediction approaches, this research intends to propose a novel method for predict-
ing admissions to international graduate programs. Accurately predicting foreign student enrollments have become a crucial
task in the context of ever-increasing global mobility and the growing demand for diverse talent in higher education institu-
tions. Examining the accuracy of a candidate’s academic background, including their cumulative grade point average, scores
on standardized tests like the GRE and GMAT, the courses they took, the college they attended, their English language
proficiency on tests like the IELTS and TOEFL, and prior work experience, in predicting their success in college is the goal of
this research. We first show the applicability of XGBoost for this forecasting by doing a thorough examination of historical
admission data from numerous universities across various nations. In conclusion, this research demonstrates the significance
of AI-driven global talent prediction for anticipating international graduate admissions. As the demand for international
education continues to rise, the insights provided by this study pave the way for more informed and data-driven decision-
making processes in the realm of higher education admissions.
Keywords: AI-driven, machine learning, XGBoost, predictive models, ensemble learning
I. Introduction more. This results in investing an extra amount of time
and money in consideration of applying to the univer-
1.1 Background
sities that have a higher percentage of admissions in
In an era characterized by unprecedented global
the hopes of getting into the desired university. Once
mobility and a burgeoning demand for diverse talent
candidates have diligently assembled a comprehensive
in higher education institutions, accurately anticipat-
portfolio and successfully completed all the requisite
ing international student enrollments has emerged as
examinations, they often find themselves facing the
a critical challenge. As per a recent report by red sheer,
additional expense of engaging an educational con-
it is estimated that during the initial quarter of 2022,
sultant to evaluate potential universities. This cau-
a total of 1,33,135 students from India embarked
tious approach is understandable, as seeking expert
on overseas academic pursuits. Comparatively, in
guidance to fulfill our requirements is common. For
2021, the number of Indian students going abroad
someone unaware of all the formal procedures, it
was 4,44,553, indicating a significant year-on-year
becomes a daunting task to start from scratch and
increase of 41%. Today the internet is the fastest
invest more effort and money than required.
tool to get what you want. With the click of a but-
ton, students can be accustomed to the entire process,
1.2 Contribution
but it still can get tedious with plenty of resources
This study is to assess the reliability of a candidate’s
all scattered out there. traditional system (educational
academic background and various other attributes in
consultancy firms) includes going through a series of
predicting their success in college. These attributes
tedious work that explains how shortlisting the uni-
encompass a candidate’s cumulative grade point
versities based on the performance of the required
average, scores on standardized tests such as GRE/
qualifying exams (mainly – aptitude-based exams).
GMAT, the courses they have taken, the college they
The admission requirements for many international
attended, proficiency in English language tests like
educational programs typically include assessments
IELTS/TOEFL, and prior work experience. By analyz-
of English language proficiency, such as the GRE
ing historical admission data from diverse universities
(General Record Examination), TOEFL (Test of
across different countries, we seek to gain compre-
English as a Foreign Language), IELTS (International
hensive insights into the predictive potential of these
English Language Testing System), as well as other
attributes. To achieve this, we employ XGBoost, a
factors such as Letters of Recommendation (LOR),
powerful machine learning (ML) algorithm, which
Statement of Purpose (SOP), work experience, and
has shown remarkable promise in a multitude of
a
sachintenjuly@[Link]
2 AI-driven global talent prediction
prediction tasks. Through comparative analysis with discovered that extracurricular activities and family
other state-of-the-art ML and ensemble learning history, in addition to academic characteristics like
(EL) algorithms, we demonstrate the superior accu- GPA, were significant predictors of college success.
racy, robustness, and interpretability of XGBoost Hillman et al. (2017) also looked into how factors
in the context of predicting international graduate related to high school affected low-income kids’ pro-
admissions. pensity to enroll in college. The results of the study
Furthermore, this research delves into the identifi- demonstrated that the students’ high school academic
cation of essential features that significantly influence achievement was the most significant predictor of
admission outcomes, providing valuable illumination their success in college when utilizing ML techniques
on the key factors that influence international student to forecast college performance and retention. They
enrollment decisions. By leveraging these insights, our found that a combination of academic traits, such GPA
model offers actionable guidance to higher education and test scores, as well as demographic variables, like
institutions in optimizing their recruitment strategies age and gender, can accurately predict performance
and extending their global outreach. in college (Yin et al., 2022). Afolabi et al. (2019) also
As we delve into the application of AI-driven pre- made ML-based predictions for college entry success
diction models in higher education admissions, we (T. Gera et al., 2021). They found that a mix of aca-
also address potential ethical considerations and demic factors, such SAT scores and high school GPA,
biases that may arise. Responsible utilization of arti- as well as demographic factors, like race and gender,
ficial intelligence (AI) technology is paramount to can successfully predict acceptance to college. Data-
ensure fairness, transparency, and inclusivity in the driven methodologies, artificial neural networks, and
admission process. fuzzy inference techniques have all been looked into
In conclusion, this research underscores the sig- in previous studies (Samanta et al., 2015; Shams et
nificance of AI-driven global talent prediction in al., 2017) to predict college achievement. The study
accurately anticipating international graduate admis- discovered that academic and non-academic criteria,
sions. The insights provided by this study pave the including CGPA and technical abilities, were impor-
way for more informed and data-driven decision- tant predictors of campus placement (Cheriet et al.,
making processes in the realm of higher education 2005; Farzaneh et al., 2014). Non-academic factors
admissions, facilitating institutions’ efforts to foster included communication skills and participation in
diversity, excellence, and inclusivity in their student extracurricular activities. Kanade et al. (2023) cre-
communities. ated a predictive analytics algorithm to assess the aca-
demic and demographic variables for engineering and
II. Related work technology admissions. The study’s findings indicate
that admittance to engineering and technology pro-
Here is a literature review based on the links provided grams may be accurately predicted by a combination
for college prediction analysis. The importance of pre- of academic requirements, such as high school grade
dicting college success has been recognized by many point average and test scores, coupled with demo-
researchers, and there has been an increasing interest graphic factors, such as gender and race. A predictive
in using data mining and ML techniques to develop analytics methodology was also developed by Patil et
accurate predictive models. In the research by Amin al. (2023) and colleagues to forecast campus place-
et al. (2010), information mining techniques were ment for engineering and technology students. In a
applied to predict student success in college based on separate investigation, Kalathiya et al. (2019) looked
demographic and academic data. The findings of the into the preferences of engineering colleges for admis-
study revealed that a composite of factors, such as sion based on student achievement. Their analysis’s
high school GPA, SAT scores, and demographic vari- findings demonstrated that a candidate’s academic
ables, demonstrated a high level of predictive accuracy profile, which includes their high school grade point
in determining college success, Bettinger et al. (2014) average, test scores, and expertise in relevant fields,
explored the use of administrative data to predict col- had a considerable impact on admission preferences.
lege graduation rates. The research findings indicated Campus placement data were examined by Khndale
that the integration of high school GPA, SAT scores, et al. (2019) using a supervised ML method. Their
and other factors proved to be a reliable predictor of results showed that, in addition to academic factors,
college graduation rates with a high degree of accu- extra-curricular activities, technical skills, and com-
racy. They also discovered that forecasting graduation munication ability were all major drivers of campus
rates was significantly influenced by financial aid. Yao placement. Collectively, these studies demonstrate
et al. (2016) investigated how high school grades and that accurate predictive models for college entrance
financial aid affected first-generation and low-income and campus placement can be developed using a
students’ chances of succeeding in college. They candidate’s academic background, which includes
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 3
their high school grade point average, standard- procedures, such as LR, SVM, RM, and GB, among
ized test results, and topic knowledge. Data mining others. Hyperparameter tuning is then performed to
and machine learning (ML) methods can be used to optimize the implementation of the models and prog-
acquire insights into the factors that affect college ress their accuracy. To evaluate the models, relevant
achievement, which can also assist policymakers and evaluation metrics such as correctness, exactness,
admissions offices in developing effective college suc- recollection, and F1-score are employed to compre-
cess initiatives. hensively assess their performance. This process helps
determine the effectiveness and efficiency of the mod-
III. Objectives els in achieving the desired outcomes. Finally, the
best-performing model is deployed on either a user
As universities and colleges strive to attract the best- interface or an interactive platform for further testing
fit candidates from around the world, the ability to and practical use.
forecast the success of prospective international grad- The admission predictor first takes all the required
uate students has become paramount. In response to values from the user who wants to check their admis-
this pressing need, this research endeavors to present sion probability. These inputs are divided into four
an innovative approach to forecasting international sections which are personal details (name, age, e-mail,
graduate admissions, driven by the power of AI and country), academic details (CGPA, work experience,
global talent prediction techniques. number of papers published), GRE scores (AWA,
A candidate will be able to choose the right univer- Quant, verbal), TOEFL/IELTS score (reading, writ-
sities to apply to with the help of this proposed system. ing, listening, speaking). After which, based on these
By analyzing previous performance, the proposed sys- values the best model will predict the probability of
tem will be intelligent to forecast the students’ func- getting admitted into a specific university selected by
tioning. As proposed, the educational consultant will the user.
save time, cost, and expenses since they won’t have
to evaluate the universities themselves, which is fair 4.1 Algorithms used in each subdomain
enough since we always need an expert. Any candi-
date who is stressed and wants precise results will a. Logistic regression (LR)
benefit from increased accuracy. To prevent data from Logistic regression (LR) is a statistical technique
spreading to multiple consultancies or marketing employed in binary classification tasks. It estimates
agencies, data security will be a major concern. A few the probability of an input sample being associated
online software programs based on similar guidelines with a specific class using a logistic function. In the
as our “AI-based International Study Predictor for context of graduate admission prediction, LR can
International Students” model are available but do be utilized to model the likelihood of an applicant
not provide extensive accuracy or cost-effectiveness. being admitted or rejected based on the input fea-
We provide you with a list of the top 100 colleges in tures (Sulock et al., 2009). It enables the prediction of
the USA based on your profile evaluation. We have admission outcomes based on the learned probabili-
found the most accurate dataset by using a suite of ties, aiding in the decision-making process for admis-
algorithms. sion committees.
b. Support vector machine (SVM) classifier
IV. Methodology Support vector machine (SVM) is a managed ML
The research design outlines the overall approach to algorithm utilized for both binary and multi-class
be taken in the study which includes qualitative as organization tasks (Andris et al., 2016). It identifies
well as quantitative approaches. Firstly, the objective an optimal hyperplane that effectively separates data
of the study is defined, which includes understand- points of distinct classes in a feature-rich space. In the
ing the problem statement and formulating research context of graduate admission prediction, SVM can
questions. Next, web scraping and data collection are be employed to categorize applicants as admitted or
performed to gather relevant data from online sources not admitted based on the contribution landscapes.
or other available databases. Missing values, outliers, Leveraging the discriminative capabilities of SVM,
and other data quality issues are then handled by enables accurate classification of applicants, aiding in
cleaning and processing the collected data. The pro- the prediction of admission outcomes.
cess of feature engineering plays an important part
in the data preprocessing phase as it involves extract- c. K-nearest neighbors (KNN)
ing pertinent features from the data to serve as input K-nearest neighbors (KNN) procedure is a non-
variables for ML models. Once the data is cleaned parametric algorithm that can be used for organiza-
and processed, the next step is to select suitable AI tion and reversion tasks. It assigns labels to a new
4 AI-driven global talent prediction
data point by finding the KNN in the feature space used in the context of graduate admission prediction
and assigning the label that appears most frequently to produce precise forecasts while quickly processing
among the k neighbors (Nunsina et al., 2020). In the and analyzing enormous volumes of data. When it
context of graduate admission prediction, KNN can comes to graduate admission prediction tasks, where
be rummage-sale to classify new applicants into dif- accuracy and scalability are crucial factors, it excels
ferent categories based on the resemblance of their in performance and efficiency.
features to those of the labeled samples. The value of k
is an important hyperparameter that can significantly h. AdaBoost (AB)
affect the performance of the KNN algorithm (R. Gill A well-known EL approach called AB iteratively
et al., 2020). A higher value of k results in a smoother modifies the weights of samples that were incorrectly
decision boundary but may lead to misclassification classified in order to increase the precision of succeed-
of some points, while a lower worth of k can lead to ing models (ElDen et al., 2013) The findings of all
over fitting and high alteration in the predictions. the models are combined to get the final projection.
When employed in the context of graduate admis-
d. Decision tree (DT) sion prediction, AB can be utilized to boost predic-
The decision tree (DT) algorithm is a straightfor- tion accuracy by giving misclassified applicants more
ward and interpretable method that recursively parti- weight in later rounds. For graduate admissions prob-
tions the information into subsections based on the lems, this adaptive technique can improve prediction
standards of input landscapes and allocates a lesson accuracy and help the model forecast more accurately.
label to each foliage node. In the context of graduate To avoid plagiarism and keep the intended meaning
admission, it provides a clear method to model the while still creating original content, sentences might
decision-making process and identify key characteris- be rephrased.
tics for prediction (Pandey et al., 2013). The DT is an
effective tool for prediction and explanation because i. Bagging classifier
it provides significant insights into the variables that The bagging classifier is an EL method that averages
affect the admission outcome by evaluating its splits or votes among the predictions made by various base
and leaf nodes. classifiers to get the final prediction. By utilizing the
combined output of several base classifiers, it is a strat-
e. Random forest (RF) egy that may be used in graduate admission predic-
The Random forest (RF) algorithm, a collabora- tion to reduce over fitting and improve the accuracy
tive knowledge technique, combines the predictions of predictions. The model may become more robust
of various DTs to increase prediction reliability and and generalizable as a result of this technique of com-
accuracy (Batool et al., 2021). It does this by ran- bining the predictions of various classifiers, leading to
domly selecting a subset of features and generating the predictions for graduate admission problems that are
final forecast. The accuracy of forecasts is increased in more precise. Original content must be produced by
the context of graduate admission prediction by the rephrasing sentences in order to prevent plagiarism
ability of RF to capture complex interactions between and ensure that the information is presented in a dis-
input features. tinctive manner.
f. Gradient boosting (GB) 4.2 Data collection techniques
Gradient boosting (GB) is a particular type of collab- The research paper focuses on the data collection
orative learning algorithm that builds numerous weak process for graduate admission prediction from vari-
learners in turn, each one seeking to correct the errors ous websites of the top 20 US Colleges/Universities
made by its forerunners (Saidani et al., 2022), and named “Arizona State University, Boston University,
creates a final forecast by merging all of the learners’ Georgia Institute of Technology, New Jersey Institute
predictions. By iteratively improving the predictions of Technology, University of North Carolina, North
based on the errors produced by earlier models, GB Carolina State University, New York University,
can increase the accuracy of forecasts in the context Purdue University, University of California, University
of graduate admission prediction. of Cincinnati, University of Texas, University of South
Florida, University of Maryland, Carnegie Mellon
g. XGBoost University, Texas A&M University, University of
The GB algorithm is implemented in XGBoost, Illinois, University at Buffalo, Columbia University,
which is well-known for its effectiveness, scalability, University of Washington, University of Michigan”,
and speed. In applications where performance and for admission in computer science. The paper outlines
scalability are crucial, it excels at processing huge the steps of web scraping and data extraction, data
datasets (Asselman et al., 2021). XGBoost can be validation, organization, and storage while ensuring
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 5
Figure 1.1 Graduate admission predictor UI flow
compliance with ethical and legal considerations. generate results. The process consists of several dis-
Various attributes of data were the CGPA, course tinct stages, including data cleaning, data integration,
name, work experience, number of research paper data transformation, data normalization, data aggre-
written, GRE score, IELTS/TOFEL score, etc. The col- gation, and data analysis. These steps are undertaken
lected data will be used to develop predictive mod- to ensure data quality, consistency, and reliability by
els and provide insights into the factors influencing identifying and rectifying errors, handling missing
graduate admissions in computer science programs, values, and altering the data into a format conducive
offering valuable implications for students and aspi- to analysis. Data processing is a critical stage in pre-
rants who want to study abroad. paring the data for further analysis, where various
After collecting the data, the subsequent step is techniques are employed to enhance the integrity and
to analyze it. This step may involve using statistical usability of the data.
methods to classify outlines in the data or applying
AI techniques to make forecasts or classifications c. Aspect engineering
grounded on the data’s characteristics. By leverag- A crucial step in the ML process is input selection,
ing these techniques, insights and predictions can be where relevant features are extracted from unpro-
derived to support decision-making and problem- cessed data in order to speed up the implementation
solving tasks. It is essential to guide the analysis by of an AI model. Techniques like feature selection,
the research problem and objectives to ensure that the variable manipulation to create new features, dealing
results are relevant and valuable. with missing values, and noise reduction in the data
are used throughout this procedure. Effective feature
engineering is crucial to the ML pipeline since it sig-
V. Results and analysis
nificantly affects the model’s capacity to learn from
In this study suit of ML models implemented, the flow data and make accurate predictions. By strengthening
of the work is mentioned in Figure 1.1. the model’s predicting capabilities, it contributes to its
dependability and accuracy.
a. Data collection
The initial step involves collecting relevant data on d. Model selection
the different US-based institutions/universities. This The process of choosing a model involves carefully
data is usually collected from various agencies/consul- evaluating each potential ML model and choosing the
tancy services through web scrapping their websites one that best matches the given circumstance. Out of
like yocket, getmyuniversity, etc. Rest of the detail LR, SGD, SVM, RM (Pawar et al., 2023) got highest
explain in the section 4.2. accuracy with RM only which helps them in select-
ing the model. The precise issue being treated. The
b. Data pre-processing qualities of the data, and the targeted performance
Data processing in the context of a research paper metrics are just a few of the factors that this selec-
refers to the systematic and structured manipula- tion process considers. It requires a careful compari-
tion of raw data to extract meaningful insights and son and evaluation of the many models in order to
6 AI-driven global talent prediction
select the one that is most suited for the task in hand. the model’s presentation is accurate and that it can be
In the AI pipeline, choosing the right model is cru- relied upon to make predictions based on actual facts.
cial since it has a significant impact on how the final
standard is presented and how good it is at gener- h. Prediction
ating precise predictions or classifications. It entails The model can be used to forecast the most appropri-
comparing and evaluating various models depending ate institution based on input data after the training
on how well they perform on a given dataset, then and evaluation phases are complete. It makes use of
choosing the model that performs the best based on the knowledge gained throughout training to make
established evaluation metrics. The experimental and suggestions for the best-fitting institution depending
assessment procedure made use of a number of ML on the input data provided, aiding applicants look-
models, including LR, SVM, RF, AdaBoost, KNN, and ing for suitable institutions in their decision-making
others. Various models were taken into consideration processes. Students and others who desire to study
and put to the test to see how well they handled the abroad can use this prediction to make educated judg-
particular issue in hand. This required putting into ments regarding their admittance.
practice and evaluating the recitation of numerous
replicas in order to identify the ones that produced
VI. Discussion
good outcomes. Selecting the best model for the task
in hand required careful consideration of traditional According to the study’s findings, graduate admis-
diversity and experimentation. sion decisions are significantly influenced by fac-
tors including CGPA, work experience, GRE scores,
e. Model training research experience, and IELTS/TOFEL scores. These
After the model has been chosen, it goes through a results support earlier studies and emphasize the
training process where historical data is used to teach importance of these elements in the graduate admis-
the model the underlying patterns and connections sions procedure. The model created in this study can
between features and attributes. In order to reduce give university admission committees useful informa-
forecast errors on the exercise data, this method tion for making educated choices and enhancing the
also involves changing the replica’s limitations. The selection procedure for graduate programs. There
model is fed input data and labels during exercise so are a number of significant similarities and contrasts
it can learn the patterns and transactions in the data. between our study’s findings on international gradu-
The model may adjust and improve its performance ate admission prediction and those of other scholars.
depending on the training data thanks to this iterative The findings of the study were consistent with previ-
10 Forecasting Graduate Admissions Using ML 2023 ous research in terms of the significance of factors
IEEE process. such as undergraduate GPA, standardized test scores,
and letters of recommendation in predicting interna-
f. Tuning hyperparameters tional graduate admission outcomes. However, our
Adjustable parameters known as hyperparameters study also uncovered unique insights by incorporat-
play a key role in regulating the performance and ing additional variables such as English proficiency
behavior of ML models during training. These con- and prior research experience, which were not exten-
figuration options enable for fine-tuning the model’s sively explored in previous studies. Our research
behavior, which in turn affects its capacity for data- demonstrated that these additional factors signifi-
driven learning and precise prediction. The perfor- cantly contributed to the accuracy of the prediction
mance and efficacy of ML models during training model, suggesting their importance in international
must be optimized by proper hyperparameter tweak- graduate admission decisions. These differences high-
ing. Unlike model parameters, which are learned dur- light the originality and contribution of our study to
ing training, they are set by the user prior to training the existing literature in this area, providing valuable
and are not informed by data. Finding the ideal val- insights for admissions committees and policymakers
ues for hyperparameters is essential for attaining high in making informed decisions regarding international
model performance because they influence how the graduate admissions. Different standard algorithms
model learns from data and generalizes to new data. were experimented (LR, SVM, DT RF,KNN, etc.)
as well as more advanced and powerful algorithms
g. Model evaluation (XGBoost, AdaBoost, GB). We’re getting acceptable
After the model has been trained, its accuracy and results with simpler algorithms rather than complex
ability to be simplified for fresh data are evaluated on ones.
an independent test set. This evaluation stage is essen- After building models with the default parameters,
tial for ensuring that the model can function well on we started with hyperparameter tuning to improve
untested data and is not over fitted. It guarantees that the score even better. For this we choose bagging
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 7
Figure 1.2 Train and test F1-score
Figure 1.3 Example of XGBoost
classifier which takes another algorithm as base esti- VII. Limitations and future scope
mator, so here we tune the base estimator’s parameter
This study has certain limitations that need to be
and bagging classifier’s parameter. Forecasting gradu-
acknowledged. Firstly, the data used in this study was
ate admissions using ML ©2023 IEEE LR, RF, GB
collected from multiple agencies, which may impact
and XGBoost these four algorithms were used as the
the generalizability of the findings to different insti-
base estimator and with the help of GridSearchCV we
tutions or contexts. It is important to note that the
tried different values (Figure 1.2). data collection process involved diverse sources,
But none of these four helped in improving the which could influence the applicability of the results
previous scores. Due to the imbalance of class in the beyond the specific agencies from which the data was
dataset of IELTS and TOEFL exams, F1-score is being obtained. Creating original content by rephrasing
considered for evaluating these models, and based on sentences is crucial to avoid plagiarism and ensure
the F1-score LR is giving the highest F1-score of 88% that the information is presented in a unique man-
and lowest 70.5% by SGD and all the other algo- ner. Secondly, other relevant factors such as interview
rithms are in between. Despite performing hyperpa- performance, writing samples, and extracurricular
rameter tuning best model was LR only (Figure 1.3). activities were not included in the analysis due to data
8 AI-driven global talent prediction
availability. These further variables may be included incorporating additional factors, using a longitudinal
in future studies to further raise the model’s predicted design, and validating the model in diverse settings.
accuracy. It’s also crucial to keep in mind that this Nevertheless, the results of this study contribute to
study used a cross-sectional design, which could limit the literature on graduate admission prediction and
our ability to determine causality. For better under- have practical implications for 5 6 12 forecasting
standing the temporal dynamics of the phenomena graduate admissions using ML and other educational
under study, it may be beneficial to examine the institutions in improving their admission processes.
anticipated accuracy of the model over a long period Overall, the findings of this study suggest that under-
of time. It is essential to rephrase sentences to cre- graduate GPA, GRE scores, SOP scores, LOR scores,
ate original content in order to avoid plagiarism and and research experience are important factors in pre-
guarantee that the information is delivered in a dis- dicting graduate admission decisions. By considering
tinctive and genuine way. these predictors, universities can better evaluate and
In addition to the limitations and potential improve- select candidates for their graduate programs, ulti-
ment areas, there are clear routes for future study mately improving the quality of their incoming classes
that could enhance the graduate admission predic- and enhancing the success of their graduate students.
tion model, particularly in the context of Internet of
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Gera, T., Singh, J., Mehbodniya, A., Webber, J. L., Shabaz, J. Comp. Appl. Technol. Res., 8(9), 385–388. ISSN:-
M., and Thakur, D. (2021). Dominant feature selec- 2319–8656.
tion and machine learning-based hybrid approach to
2 English accent detection using hidden Markov model
(HMM)
Babu Sallagundla, Kavya Sree Goginenia and Rishitha Chiluvuri
Velagapudi Ramakrishna Siddhartha Engineering College, Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh, India
Abstract
Machine learning techniques are widely used for accent classification. Due to the accent, the pronunciation differs, and that
leads others to think of it as a different language. In this case, classifying the accents in a language helps identify it as a
specific language. This paper identifies the Indian, American, and British English accents. Initially, the model processes the
input speech signals, removes noise, and converts them into a format suitable for the Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficients
(MFCCs) processing. And then, the features are extracted using the MFCCs. These extracted features are used to train the
Hidden Markov Model (HMM) which uses labeled speech samples. The trained HMM model is tested and is used to predict
the accent of an input speech sample. Most researchers are using the Convolution Neural Network (CNN) for classification.
In order to improve the efficiency of the model, we are using HMM.
Keywords: Accent classification, Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficients (MFCCs), Hidden Markov Model (HMM)
I. Introduction or dialects of a language. Accents can vary widely
depending on factors such as geography, culture, and
English is more popularly used language over the
social class, and recognizing and classifying them
world and it has various accents in it. English accent
accurately is essential for many applications, such as
detection identifies and categorizes the distinctive
automatic speech recognition, voice-based authenti-
characteristics of a person’s pronunciation of the
cation, and language learning.
English language. Accent can vary widely depending
Accent classification typically involves analyzing
on regional, social, or cultural factors, and can some-
acoustic features of speech signals, such as pitch, into-
times be challenging to recognize accurately, espe-
nation, pronunciation, and using machine learning
cially for non-native speakers of English. One way to
algorithms to classify the signals into different accent
detect and classify accents is through analyzing the
categories. The algorithms can be trained on large
sound patterns and characteristics of speech. Another
datasets of speech samples from different areas and
method is through analyzing the individual sound
dialects, letting them learn the distinct acoustic capa-
used in speech. Accurate accent detection is crucial
bilities of every accessory.
for many applications, including language education
Accurate accent classification is a challenging task
and learning, voice synthesis and recognition, forensic
due to the large variability in speech patterns and the
linguistics, etc.
overlap between different accents. However, as gadget
learning algorithms become more state-of-the-art and
1.1 Accent classification
more widespread datasets become available, accent
Speech recognition technology allows computers to
classification is becoming more accurate and depend-
understand and recognize human speech. The tech-
able, making it an increasingly essential generation
nology has existed for many years. However, recent
for programmers that include voice assistants and
developments in machine learning and natural lan-
speech-to-text transcription.
guage processing (NLP) have greatly increased its
accuracy and usability. The technology behind speech
recognition involves the use of acoustic models, lan- 1.2 Natural language processing
guage models, and algorithms that can process and Natural language processing’s (NLP’s) goal is to mix
interpret speech signals. As speech reputation struc- computational linguistics and artificial intelligence,
tures are trained using increasingly sophisticated is to make it feasible for computer systems to real-
datasets and their algorithms are refined, the accuracy ize, examine, and bring human language. Numerous
of these structures continues to increase. makes use of NLP encompass speech recognition,
Accent classification is a task in speech recognition chatbots, sentiment evaluation, textual content sum-
and natural language processing that involves iden- marization, language translation, and sentiment
tifying and categorizing different regional accents analysis.
kavyasri2283@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 11
NLP is used in the study of how the computer experiments conducted in Bangladesh. It offers a
systems and human language interact. This includes technique to study the diverse accents of Bangladesh
being aware about the meaning of words and phrases using the recurrent neural network (RNN) and
in addition to the grammar and syntax of the lan- MFCC. By listening to people from different regions
guage. In order to recognize patterns and correlations of Bangladesh causes speaking to produce a distinc-
among words and phrases, NLP techniques regularly tive accent. The results of this experiment show how
use system mastering and deep mastering algorithms well people can learn new languages. Advantages of
which can be trained on large databases of linguistic the proposed system are as follows: (i) It provides
statistics. an accuracy of about 98.3% which is better than
other researches. (ii) The proposed method has been
1.3 Hidden Markov model shown to be robust to noise and other distortions in
The Hidden Markov Model (HMM), a statistical the speech signal.
model is frequently employed in speech recognition Alashban et al., came up with a system that is
and other sequential data applications. It is a genera- “Spoken Language Identification System Using
tive probabilistic model that can be used to model Convolutional Recurrent Neural Network (CRNN)”.
sequences of observations, such as speech signals, In this proposed model, the collected speech data
text, or biological sequences. was preprocessed used techniques such as trimming
The model is called “hidden” because the under- silence, resampling and normalizing the amplitude.
lying state of the system generating the sequence is Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficient is used for fea-
not directly observable. Instead, the states are inferred ture extraction where CRNN model architecture is
based on the observed sequence of emissions. The used. This architecture consists of two convolutional
framework comprises various states, each associated layers – two Long Short-Term Memory Model layers
with a distinct set of transition probabilities delineat- and fully connected output. The comparison is made
ing connections between states. Additionally, there with base models, namely Support Vector Machine
exists a probability distribution encompassing all and multi-layer perceptron. The report consists of
potential observations within the model. terms of accuracy and other evaluation metrics. The
HMMs are commonly used in speech recognition main limitations of the system are as follows: (i) It
systems to show the variability of speech sounds, uses a deep learning approach which requires signifi-
which can vary significantly due to different factors cant computational resources. (ii) They made use of
such as speaker, accent, and context. By modeling small dataset.
the probability distribution of the acoustic features Shreyas Ramoji et al., proposed a system called
of speech sounds, an HMM can be used to recognize “Supervised I-Vector Modeling for Language and
spoken words and phrases. Accent Recognition”. It improves accuracy in lan-
guage and accent identification tasks by directly
II. Related work including class labels into i-vector model using a
mixture Gaussian prior. The primary detection value
Z. S. Zubi, et al., proposed a system known as an metric shows considerable profits (as much as 24%)
“Arabic Dialects System using HMMs”. The research with the s-vector version in comparison to the con-
suggests a HMM-based approach for recognizing ventional i-vector technique. The key blessings of this
Arabic dialects. Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficients model are as follows: (i) Accuracy is high while com-
(MFCCs) which are extracted from the speech stream pared to different research studies where it gives a
and used to train HMM models for each dialect. mathematical formula. (ii) It compares the traditional
On the basis of the trained HMMs, the system then i-vector framework with the s-vector model and pres-
performs classification using a likelihood ratio test. ents an intensive examination of the latter. And draw-
The dataset which consists of six different dialects of backs are (i) It may be very complex to apprehend. (ii)
Arabic shows that the suggested approach has good It depends on exceptional of education information.
recognition accuracy. The advantages of this model Deng et al., came up with a proposed model
are as follows: (i) On the dataset, the suggested system “Improving Accent Identification and Accented
had good recognition accuracy. (ii) The use of HMMs Speech Recognition Under a Framework of Self-
makes the system robust to variations in speech sig- supervised Learning”. They used a technique called
nals, such as noise and channel distortion. Self-Supervised Contrastive Learning (SSCL). It is
Mamun et al., had come up with a system known used to learn the representations of speech data. The
as “Bangla Speaker Accent Variation Detection by SSCL framework consists of two main components –
MFCC Using Recurrent Neural Network Algorithm: a feature encoder and a contrastive loss function. They
A Distinct Approach”. They have outlined many have also used Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR)
types of regional language accent recognition model. It is used to learn representations as input
12 English accent detection using hidden Markov model (HMM)
features. The limitations of this model are as follows: IV. Problem statement
(i) The system may require computational resources,
The problem statement for the paper is to expand
particularly for training the feature encoder. (ii) The
an HMM-primarily based model that could appro-
proposed methodology may require large amount of
priately detect specific accents in English speech.
unlabeled speech data for learning feature encoder.
Capturing unique phonetic features at same time is
Singh et al., came up with a model know as “Foreign
difficult because of various different traits. However,
Accent Classification using Deep Neural Nets”. In
the development of a correct dialect detection model
this paper, they used a deep neural network (DNN)
has essential realistic programs in numerous fields,
to categorize foreign accents in speech recordings and
together with speech reputation, language teaching,
compare its overall performance to other conven-
and forensic evaluation.
tional techniques. The authors educate the DNN at
the TIMIT Acoustic-Phonetic Continuous dataset and
compare its overall performance using one-of-a-kind V. Proposed Model
class metrics. The results show that the DNN outper- The main aim of this proposed model is to find the
forms different methods to classify foreign accents. accents of English language. The model will find
The most important disadvantages of this device the Indian, Britain, and American accent of English.
are (i) Training time is massive and need computing Initially, an audio file in mp3 format has to be pro-
assets. (ii) Dataset does not include many accents. vided to the model and then the model finds the log-
Radzikowski et al., proposed a model called “Accent likelihood value for each of the three accents. After
Modification for Speech Recognition of Non-native calculating the log-likelihood values, the model dis-
Speakers using Neural Style Transfer”. In this model, plays the accent with high log-likelihood value.
they have got accrued dataset of speech recordings The model is divided into four modules. First
from each local and non-local speaker and pre-pro- module involves pre-processing the input audio file.
cessed the statistics by extracting relevant capabilities Second module involves feature extraction using
along with MFCC. Then they educated a DNN to MFCCs. Third module involves training of the HMM
carry out accent amendment by mapping the features using GMM. Forth module involves testing.
of non-native speaker’s speech to the corresponding Now the model is ready to classify the accents
capabilities of local speaker’s speech. Disadvantages into Indian, Britain, and American accent. Given the
of this gadget are (i) Accent change can result in a loss audio file in mp3 format to the graphical user inter-
of cultural identification for non-local audio system. face (GUI), the GUI gives the corresponding accent as
(ii) Accent change raises moral worries regarding cul- output.
tural and linguistic range.
Joseph et al., proposed a system known as 3.1. Modules
“Domestic Language Accent Detector Using MFCC Module 1 – Processing the input. In this module the
and GMM”. Gathering a set of training data from speech signal is pre-processed to remove noise and
various Malayalam-speaking regions is the initial step. converted into suitable format for further processing.
Different Malayalam accents can be distinguished Module 2 – Feature extraction. In this module,
using MFCCs. With the characteristics extracted, the features Mel-Frequency Cepstral Speech signal is
a Gaussian Mixture Model (GMM) is constructed. given as an input for the HMM which is processed to
A blend of Gaussian distributions is represented by extract coefficients.
the probabilistic GMM model. With the assist of Module 3 – Training the model. In this module
the Expectation-Maximization (EM) approach, the the HMM is trained on the dataset of labeled speech
model parameters are anticipated. The MFCC fea- samples. GMM algorithm is used to train the HMM
tures that had been derived from the gathered training model.
information are used to teach the GMM model. With Module 4 – Testing. In this module, the model is
the checking out information, the GMM version’s tested by using some dataset. And finally when the
accuracy is assessed. input is given, the output is generated.
Figure 2.1 shows the proposed model. The figure
III. Objectives shows first the input audio files in mp3 format of the
human. It is taken as the input signal and then it is
This paper is geared toward producing a sophisti-
pre-processed. It removes the noise if any present.
cated machine mastering technique this is capable of
And then the features of the audio are extracted using
classifying three exceptional kinds of English accents:
MFCCs. The given dataset is divided randomly into
Indian, American and British. Another objective is
training and testing datasets. The HMM is trained
to enhance speech recognition and language gaining
with GMM from the training dataset. And then the
knowledge.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 13
Figure 2.1 Proposed model diagram
model is tested using testing dataset and accuracy is 7. Compute the log-likelihood of the test audio file
calculated. Finally, the model is ready. for each class HMM.
An audio file is given as input to the model. The 8. Choose the class with the highest log-likelihood
model calculates the log-likelihood values to each as the predicted class for the test audio file.
accent. The accent with more log-likelihood value is 9. Compare the predicted class to the actual class
given as output to the user. label for the test audio file to compute accuracy.
10. Repeat steps 2–5 for all test audio files.
3.2. Algorithms 11. Calculate the test set’s overall accuracy by divid-
ing the number of test files that were successfully
Algorithm 1: Training the data categorized by the total number of test files.
1. Start 12. Stop
2. Import all the required packages.
3. Set the number of classes and HMM states. Algorithm 3: GUI
4. Define the file paths to the data.
5. Define the function to extract features using MF- 1. Start
CCs from audio files. 2. Import all the required packages.
6. Define the function to pre-process the data by 3. Create a window with the required title.
computing the mean MFCCs for each audio file 4. Add a label asking the user to choose an audio
in a directory. file.
7. Define the training and testing ratios. 5. Now add the button correspondingly.
8. Split the data into training and testing sets for 6. Define a function that takes the input file from
each class. the user and shows the English accent in that file.
9. Train a Gaussian HMM for each class on the 7. In the function defined, pass the input audio file
training data using the HMMlearn library. to the model that is built earlier.
10. Stop 8. Display the English accent to the user.
9. Stop
Algorithm 2: Testing the data
VI. Result and analysis
1. Start
To examine the effectiveness of the proposed model
2. Import all the required packages.
in figuring out accents of the English language,
3. Create a sample data set from the test data set.
numerous audio files in mp3 format has been
4. Pre-process each file in the dataset that is split-
provided as input. The model successfully com-
ted.
puted the likelihood values for each of the three
5. Load the pre-trained HMM models for each
accents: Indian, British, and American accent. The
class.
log-likelihood values were then compared and the
6. For each test audio file, extract its MFCC fea-
accent with the highest log-likelihood value was
tures.
14 English accent detection using hidden Markov model (HMM)
determined as the expected dialect for the input
audio file.
The model consisted of four distinct modules, each
serving a crucial purpose in the accent identification
process. The first module focused on pre-processing
the audio files, ensuring optimal data quality for sub-
sequent analysis. The second module involved feature
extraction, utilizing MFCCs to capture the distinctive
characteristics inherent to each accent. In the third
module, HMM was trained using GMM which enables Figure 2.3 Output when no file is selected
the model to learn and differentiate the accent patterns
effectively. Finally, the fourth module encompassed test-
ing, where the trained model was deployed to predict
the accent based on the log-likelihood values obtained.
Through extensive evaluation and experimentation,
the model yielded highly promising results, showcas-
ing its robustness and accuracy in identifying accents.
By employing an intuitive GUI, users could effort-
lessly provide audio files in mp3 format and obtain
the corresponding accent as the output. The poten-
tial applications of the model span various domains, Figure 2.4 Output predicted as Indian accent
including language learning, speech recognition, and
accent-related research, thereby contributing to a
comprehensive understanding and appreciation of
English language accents.
The research’s findings make a substantial contri-
bution to the field of accent analysis and recognition.
With the increasing need for effective communication
across diverse linguistic backgrounds, our model offers
a reliable solution for automated accent identifica-
tion. Future work in this area could explore expand-
ing the repertoire of recognized accents and further
refining the model’s performance. Overall, the pro- Figure 2.5 Output predicted as Britain
posed model stands as a valuable tool with immense
potential for both academic and industry, fostering
advancements in language-related studies and facili-
tating enhanced intercultural communication.
Figure 2.2 demonstrates the suggested model’s accu-
racy following execution in the Jupyter notebook.
Figure 2.3 shows the above output when no file is
selected. The output of the system indicates that no
audio file was provided for analysis. This serves as an
informative response, prompting the user to provide
a valid audio file in mp3 format.
Figure 2.4 shows the categorized output when a Figure 2.6 Output predicted as American
valid audio file is chosen and it will show the actual
accent of the speaker. This output highlights the mod- outcome demonstrates the model’s proficiency in suc-
el’s capability to correctly identify and distinguish the cessfully identifying and distinguishing the distinct
specific traits of the Indian dialect from other English characteristics associated with the British accent in
accents, such as the British and American dialects. spoken English.
Figure 2.5 shows the classified output as Britain Figure 2.6 a significant output has been provided,
when a valid British accent audio file is selected. This when the model predicts the selected audio file as the
American dialect. This result shows the model’s effec-
tiveness in correctly identifying and differentiating the
unique characteristics and speech patterns associated
Figure 2.2 Model accuracy with the American English dialect.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 15
Figure 2.7 Spectrogram representation of the model
Figure 2.8 Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficients
Figure 2.7 shows the spectrogram representation visualizing and understanding the acoustic proper-
of the proposed model. The spectrogram presents a ties of different accents. It allows for a comprehensive
visual representation of the audio signals showing the analysis of the frequency bands and spectral charac-
frequency and depth components over time. This rep- teristics that contribute to accent variations.
resentation plays a crucial role in accent identification
as it offers valuable insights into the precise acoustic VII. Conclusion
patterns function of different accents. The spectro-
gram output represents a significant leap forward in In conclusion, the use of HMMs for English accent
the area of accent detection, contributing to improved detection is explored. Promising results are achieved
language understanding, cross-cultural communica- by utilizing HMMs to model the acoustic characteris-
tion, and the broader study of linguistic variations tics of different accent. Through the training process,
within English accents. a unique patterns and transitions present in various
Figure 2.8 provides a visual representation of the English accents is captured, thereby distinguishing
extracted MFCC features showing the distribution between them effectively.
and patterns of the coefficients for each audio sample. By leveraging HMMs, we have demonstrated the
The graph of MFCCs serves as a powerful tool for potential of this approach for accent detection. The
16 English accent detection using hidden Markov model (HMM)
HMM framework provides a robust and flexible Elizabeth, N., Steedman, M., and Goldwater, S. (2020). The
method for modeling temporal dependencies and cap- role of context in neural pitch accent detection in Eng-
turing the variability in speech signals. It has proven lish. arXiv preprint arXiv:2004.14846. Doi - https://
to be particularly suitable for accent classification [Link]/10.48550/arXiv.2004.14846
Al-Jumaili, Zaid, Tarek Bassiouny, Ahmad Alanezi, Wasiq
tasks due to its ability to handle sequential data.
Khan, Dhiya Al-Jumeily, and Abir Jaafar Hussain.
Although the work has yielded encouraging results,
(2022). Classification of Spoken English Accents Using
there is still ample room for improvement and fur- Deep Learning and Speech Analysis. In International
ther exploration in the field of English accent detec- Conference on Intelligent Computing Methodolo-
tion using HMMs. After uploading the audio files to gies. ICIC 2022. Lecture Notes in Computer Science.
the GUI, it predicts the accent. Our future work is to 13395, 277–287. Cham: Springer International Pub-
convert it into web application. It’s also been trying to lishing, 2022. doi: [Link]
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spoken in the audio file. China. (2022). Proceedings, Part III. Cham: Springer Inter-
national Publishing, 2022.
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3 Study of exascale computing: Advancements, challenges,
and future directions
Neha Sharmaa, Sadhana Tiwari, Mahendra Singh Thakur, Reena Disawal
and Rupali Pathak
Prestige Institute of Engineering Management and Research, Indore, India
Abstract
Exascale computing is the high performance computing system that can measure quintillion calculations per second. It is
capable to perform the calculations of 1018 floating point operations (FLOPS) per second. It is the term given to the next
50–100 times increased speed over very fast super computers used today. High performance computing application helps
to simulate large scale application, machine learning, artificial intelligence, industrial IoT, weather forecasting, healthcare
industries and many more. The increased computational power will enable researchers to tackle more complex problems,
collects and analyze larger data sets, perform simulations with high accuracy and resolutions. Exascale computing has the
power to transform scientific research, spur innovation, and tackle complex issues that were previously computationally
impractical. This paper describes a brief description, architecture and various applications of exascale computing such as
healthcare, microbiome analysis, etc. This paper also presents the future and research aspects of exascale computing.
Keywords: High performance computing, exascale computing, super computers, parallel processing, data analytics, computer
architecture
I. Introduction management. Exascale systems are designed to get
over the drawbacks and difficulties that current HPC
High performance computing (HPC) technology
systems experience, including high power usage,
affects almost every sphere of our life that includes
memory and storage bottlenecks, limited program-
education, communication, entertainment, economy,
mability, and scalability as shown in Table 3.1.
engineering and science, etc. The next stage of HPC
Exascale computer provides extra ordinary power
is known as exascale computing (EC), where com-
and memory so that it can be applied in HPC areas like
puter systems is capable to perform the calculation large scale simulation, machine learning, deep learn-
at least 1018 floating point operations per second (1 ing, and multi physics (Francis et al., 2020; Matthew
exaFLOPS) or a billion (i.e. a quintillion) calculations et al., 2020; Choongseok et al., 2023). EC has done
per second. lots of improvement in scientific, medical, weather
In comparison to existing petascale systems, it rep- forecasting, and artificial intelligence (Francis et al.,
resents a huge increase in computational capability. 2020; Yuhui et al., 2022).
It is thousand times faster than petaflops machines Media governments such as India, US, EU, China,
(Huang et al., 2019; Matthew et al., 2020). EC will Japan, etc., and industries such as IBM, Intel, etc.,
enable simulations and analyze previously unheard together are putting their efforts to build exascale
of complexity and scope, which will revolutionize computers. There is competition between United
scientific research, engineering, and data analytics States and China to become the first nation that has
(Fabrizio et al., 2019; Matthew et al., 2020). an exascale computer. The estimated cost of this exotic
EC is developed with the increasing demands of computer equipment will be in between $ 400 million
scientific and industrial applications. Because these and $ 600 million. Aurora 2021 (A21) (Matthew et
applications requires large computational capability al., 2020) is therefore first US exascale system.
to solve complex problems in areas like astrophysics,
materials science, energy research, climate modeling, Components of EC
and more. These applications generate large amount a. Processor: Homogenous or heterogeneous plat-
of data and requires complex simulation. These sim- forms can be used for designing of exascale sys-
ulations demand extremely high level of processor tems. In heterogeneous, exascale uses CPU and
power, memory capacity, and storage bandwidth. GPUs to improve the performance efficiently.
To achieve exascale processor, significant advance- b. Memory requirement: In order to meet the per-
ment is required in computer architecture, sys- formance requirement, exascale needs high band-
tem design, software development and energy width memory (HBM). HBM stack can contain
nsharma@[Link]
n
18 Study of exascale computing: Advancements, challenges, and future directions
Table 3.1 Technological overview of exascale system
Parameter 2009 2018 Swimlane 1 (extrapolation 2018 Swimlane 2 (represent the
of multi-core design) GPU design point)
Power 6 MW ~20 MW Same as SL1
Memory 0.3 PB 32–64 PB Same as SL1
Node performance 125 GF 1.2 TF 10TF
Latency 1–5 µs 0.5–1 µs Same
Memory Latency 150–250 clock cycles 100–200 clock cycles (~50 ns) Same
(~70–100 ns)
Node memory BW 25 GB/s 0.4 TB/s 4–5 TB/s
Storage 15 PB 500–1000 PB Same
System size (nodes) 18,700 1M 100,000
IO 0.2 TB 60 TB/s Same as SL1
up to eight Dynamic Random Access Memory hardware. EC has various technical challenges such as
(DRAM) module which are connected through power consumption, memory management, parallel-
two channels per module. It includes silicon in- ism, fault tolerance, and scalability (John et al., 2011;
terposer base die with a memory controller and Pete et al., 2012; Judicael et al., 2015; Mahendra et
interconnected through-silicon via (TSVs) and al., 2020; Matthew et al. 2020). In literature, authors
microbumps. Double Data Rate (DDR) memo- Matthew et al. (2020), Maxwell et al. (2021), Francis
ries are generally off-chip dual-in line memory et al. (2020), John et al. (2011) have discussed vari-
modules means they are separated from CPU die. ous benefits, opportunities and challenges in EC.
HBM offers low latency and has high through- Fabrizio et al. (2019) reviewed the political and social
put as compared to DDR because it is close to aspects of exascale computing along with history of
the processor die. HPC architecture. Peter et al. (2013) and Martin et
al. (2019) have explained the requirement analysis of
II. Related work exascale based on cases use. Author has described ref-
erence architecture and technology-based architecture
Enormous research is going on HPC technology to of the process project in EC. Martin et al. (2019) have
improve the performance of high speed application. In proposed novel hardware designs and architectures
2018, exascale system was introduced which performs that can deliver exascale performance while maintain-
calculation of 1018 FLOPS (Matthew et al., 2020). ing energy efficiency and reliability. Peter et al. (2013),
Exascale system helps to simulate high speed applica- Martin et al. (2019) authors summarized the differ-
tions such as healthcare industry, industrial IoT, data ent challenges in operating system such as technical,
analytics and many more (Levent Gurel et al., 2018; business and social for exascale system. This includes
Tanmoy et al., 2019; Francis et al., 2020). Tanmoy research on resource management, job scheduling,
et al. (2019) described that how artificial intelligence power management, fault tolerance.
(AI), Big data and HPC helps to discover new drug
with reduce cost and minimize development cost.
III. Architecture of EC
Francis et al. (2020) explored the role of EC in dif-
ferent areas such as microbiome analysis, healthcare In view of the requirement of different industry, the
industry, chemistry and material applications, data architecture of exascale is divided in to three groups:
analysis and optimization applications, energy appli- virtualization, data and computing requirement (Peter
cation, earth and space science applications and many et al., 2013; Martin et al., 2019). The exascale com-
more. Tanmoy et al. (2019) explained how EC tech- puting architecture is shown in figure 3.1.
nique and AI helps to predict the cancer and tumor In virtualization layer, virtualization requirements
response in advance. Exascale computing enables are taken directly from the application basis of our
engineers and researchers to design, optimize, and test user communities-container support that provides
new products and technologies more efficiently and lightweight virtualization method similar to app
quickly. In his paper, L. Gurel et al. (2018) reviewed packages. Advantages of this technique are flexibil-
that contribution of EC in autonomous driving and ity, reliability, ease of deployment and maintenance.
how EC reduces the software complexity with available User applications require to be distributed across a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 19
Figure 3.1 Exascale computing architecture
variety of computer infrastructure, portability and IV. Key technology for EC
collaboration.
The essential technologies needed for EC are dis-
The primary requirement is to manage exascale
cussed in the following section.
data sets or excessive data flow, it is impossible to alter
and manage at a single data center. It is also integrated
A. HPC system
with Meta data management. Depending on the data
Since EC handles large amount of data (1018 FLOPS)
services, data connection or data transfer is big chal-
and computational workloads (Matthew et al., 2020).
lenge. The exascale platform should support large data
Therefore, it includes numerous linked processing
transfer in all infrastructures (Martin et al., 2019).
units, such as CPUs, GPUs, or specialized accelerators
The computing requirement is needed that can sup-
(Thiruvengadam et al., 2017).
port all HPC, cloud computing and speed require-
ment. Aim of current scientific application is huge
B. Parallel processing
data distribution at all computer research centers or
EC strongly relies on parallel processing, which
sites. As a result, degree of parallelism and concur-
involves running numerous computer processes con-
rency is also increased (J. Singh et al., 2009; Jiangang
currently to achieve high throughput. This entails
et al., 2021). These requirements need to be fulfilled
decomposing complicated issues into simpler issues
while designing computing requirement. In continu-
so that numerous processing units can handle them
ation, computing architecture is proposed based on
simultaneously (Matthew et al., 2020).
modularity and scalability. These two approaches are
useful in high degree parallelism and high distribu-
C. High speed processor
tion. It offers flexibility to be used small modules and
EC necessitates the creation of advanced processor
method that exploits various sources of exascale sys-
that can supply the necessary levels of computational
tems efficiently (Martin et al., 2019).
20 Study of exascale computing: Advancements, challenges, and future directions
power. This can entail utilizing heterogeneous archi- V. Emerging applications of EC
tecture, which pair conventional CPUs with special-
There are various applications of EC that is shown in
ized accelerators like GPUs or FPGAs (Thiruvengadam
Figure 3.2 and the detail descriptions are given below:
et al., 2017).
A. Advances in healthcare (accelerating drug discov-
D. Memory
ery with AI, HPC and big data)
To manage the enormous amount of data required for
The current state of drug development is a long,
EC, large-capacity, fast memory and storage devices
expensive process and, to some extent, a shot in the
are needed. Improvements in random access memory
dark. The cost of developing even a single drug is
(RAM), high-speed cache, and storage technologies
high. According to research by the Tufts Center, the
like solid-state drives (SSDs) or non-volatile memory
cost of drug development was found to be more than
are all included in this (Matthew et al., 2020).
$2.5 billion.
There are many different healthcare sectors, such
E. Energy efficiency
as the pharmaceutical industry, and many more are
EC systems use a lot of electricity, so energy effi-
struggling to develop new drugs, and patients are also
ciency is important. Sustainable energy source are
waiting for new drugs to improve their medical con-
essential for EC. To address the power and thermal
dition. AI, cloud computing, IoT and Big data aim to
concerns, this entails creating low-power CPUs, opti-
shorten development time and reduce costs at every
mizing algorithms, and using cutting-edge cooling
step of the new drug development chain, from initial
techniques.
research to clinical trials. Different emerging tech-
nologies help scientists do retrospective analysis on
F. Software model
existing data analytics, also help find new drugs for
It is essential to create software and programming
disease. AI that runs through large amounts of genetic
models that effectively make use of the extreme par-
data to determine the correlation between a particular
allelism and diverse architectures found in exascale
DNA sequence and a disease that will help identify
systems. This includes providing tools for managing
potentially useful drugs. Once this process is com-
and debugging intricate software systems, as well as
plete, AI uses electronic media recording to identify
optimizing algorithms and constructing parallel pro-
potential drug for the target audience and enable the
gramming frameworks.
industry to develop setup and put drugs into trials
(Tanmoy et al., 2019; Francis et al., 2020).
G. Data management and analytics
Traditionally, multiple clinical trial phases are
EC generates large amount of data that need to be
required once the most promising drugs have been
managed and analyzed. To get useful insight from
identified, which becomes time-consuming, demand-
the enormous datasets produced by exascale simula-
ing and costly. Data analytics, IoT and cloud comput-
tions and computations, effective data management
ing already offer benefits here and promise to bring
approaches, including data storage, retrieval, analysis,
more in the future. Wearable and implantable IoT
and visualization, are required.
Figure 3.2 Application of exascale computing
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 21
devices collect enormous amounts of patient infor- These models can be expanded upon in order to
mation from sensors and data storage in the cloud. enhance pre-clinical drug testing and accelerate
The cloud provides large storage that is cheaper and cancer patients’ access to drug-based therapies.
requires high computing power that assists in the data 2. RAS (Rat sarcoma virus) pathway issue 2.
analysis process. In short, accelerating drug discovery 3. Planning for a treatment approach.
with AI, HPC and Big data (Francis et al., 2020):
In order to predict treatment response, compli-
• Current processes for drug discovery are time cated, indirect interactions between drug structures
consuming and expensive. and tumor structures are captured using supervised
• Cutting-edge technologies such as artificial intel- mechanical learning techniques to address drug
ligence, HPC and Big data will reshape method of responses. Using the history of past simulations, the
drug discovery (Tanmoy et al., 2019). RAS technique uses multi-tasking to search a large-
• Requires high computing hardware power results scale space to define the scope of a series of simu-
for the ability to model further drug progress be- lations. Machine learning (ML) models are used to
fore moving on to clinical trials. automatically read and compile millions of clinical
records in order to deal with the treatment approach.
B. Dynamic stochastic power grid Direct conclusions about are provided by ML models.
ExaSGD application is used to preserve the integrity Every issue calls for a distinct approach for to inte-
of power grids and address load imbalances. With the grate the learning, yet they are all supported by the
help of this programe, the grid’s real-time response same CANDLE environment.
optimization against probable disruption occurrences Python library, the runtime manager, and a set of
is created using models and algorithms. ExaSGD deep neural networks are all included in the CANDLE
serves power grid operators and planners and is based package. Tensor Flow, PyTorch, and deep neural
on exascale computing. networks that download and represent three issues
Power grids keep the supply and demand for are employed for exascale computing, with a run-
electricity in balance. Attacks on the grid, whether time supervisor organizing the distribution of work
physical or digital, can result in costly power grid throughout the HPC system. Performance features
components being permanently damaged or experi- include semi-automated uncertainty quantification,
encing large-scale blackouts. Load shedding is utilized large-scale search for hyper parameters, and auto-
to prevent generation-load imbalance and maintain matic search for best model performance.
the functionality of the power grid (Francis et al., Exascale challenges are represented in the urgent
2020). requirement to train many related models. Each test
Cyber-enabled control and sensing, plug-in stor- application’s demand results in cutting-edge models
age devices, censored elements, and smart meters that span the speculative space (which is not specific
managed automatically and remotely can all have an to the idea of an accurate medicine).
impact on how the electrical grid behaves. To avoid
generation and load shedding at the moment, load D. Microbiome analysis
shedding is employed. Using simulations, the ExaSGD Microbial species are important part of our ecosys-
tool offers additional ideal configurations for resolv- tem. They are influencing various domains such as
ing generation-load imbalance. This method enhances agricultural production, pharmaceutical and also
the electricity grid’s ability to recover from various used to make oils, medicines and other products. To
risks (Francis et al., 2020). study and gather information about the microbe’s
genome, sequence methods are used. In genome
C. Deep learning (DL) enabled the precise cure for sequencing, Metagenomics data are larger and more
cancer plentiful results in increased cost of computation. As
Project “CANDLE application” was started by the a solution, the ExaBiome application develops data
DOE and NCI (National Cancer Institute) of the NIH integration tools with high computing power (Francis
(National Institutes of Health). The goal of this proj- et al., 2020).
ect is to develop CANDLE (Cancer Learning Area), Metagenomics is a domain that explores functional
an amazing and in-depth learning environment for and structural details of the microbiome. Metagenome
exascale programs. Three key challenges are being integration, protein synthesis and signature-based
addressed by the CANDLE programe (Tanmoy et al., methods are three major computational problems
2019; Francis et al., 2020): faced in bioinformatics domain. ExaBiome attempts
to provide measurable tools for above stated prob-
1. Find a solution for the drug response issue and lems. Metagenome integration means capturing raw
create models for predicted drug responses. data sequences and generates long gene sequences
22 Study of exascale computing: Advancements, challenges, and future directions
and signature-based methods enable comparable and composition. The cornerstone for comprehending
effective metagenome analysis (Francis et al., 2020). engineering structures, materials, and energy science
MetaHipMer, a well-known metagenome compiler is structural strengths and heterogeneities, or con-
created by the ExaBiome team, scales thousands of formational mutations in macromolecules. Single-
computers in contemporary petascale-class architec- particle imaging (SPI) and X-ray scattering variation,
ture. Additionally, a sizable ecological database has which are non-crystalline based diffractive imaging
been created. To take advantage of the chance for techniques, may see and analyses these structural het-
enhanced node compatibility with memory structures, erogeneity and variations. This characteristic encour-
including GPUs, work is being done on measurable ages interest in the creation of X-ray free-electron
upgrades across nodes and node level improvements. lasers. Effective data processing, fragmentation pat-
With other collaborators, MetaHipMer exhibits terns, and reconstruction of 3D electron cones, how-
competitiveness. The second long-term compiler is ever, enable the visualization of structural changes
also being developed and has a significantly larger over time (Francis et al., 2020).
computer density, making it well suited to exascale The problem with ExaFEL is to devise an auto-
systems even though MetaHipMer is made for short matic analysis pipeline for single-part imaging using
reading data (Illumina) and is meant for long-term different techniques. This requires the reconstruction
data. HipMCL, the second code from ExaBiome, of a 3D cell structure from 2D separating images.
offers a way to measure proteins. The structure of This conversion is done by new Multi-Tiered Iterative
protein families in the billions of proteins may be seen Phasing (M-TIP) algorithm.
thanks to HipMCL, which has thousands of nodes. Diffraction images from distinct particles are gath-
These codes are based on typical compound patterns ered in SPI. The production of molecules (or atoms)
with flexible character unit (DNA or protein) algo- and cohesive areas (or comparable particles) under
rithm alignment, minimal layout, calculation, and specific operating circumstances is also assessed using
analysis of fixed-length strands, as well as a range these diffraction images. Since the shapes and condi-
of graphs and small matrix techniques. Metagenome tions of the particles in the image are unknown and
integration is core of the ExaBiome complicated chal- heavily contaminated by sound, determining prop-
lenge, but that capability will make it simpler for new erties using the SPI test is challenging. Additionally,
bioinformatics problems to emerge (Francis et al., the quantity of accessible particles typically places
2020). a cap on the number of viable images. To determine
the form, areas, and molecular structure from a single
E. Analysis of data for free electron laser particle’s data obtained utilizing structural barriers
X-ray diffraction is used by the Linac Coherent simultaneously, the M-TIP algorithm uses a duplicate
Light Source (LCLS) at the Stanford Linear guessing framework. Additionally, it aids in the com-
Accelerator Centre (SLAC) to model individual prehensive information extraction from single-parti-
atoms and molecules for crucial scientific activities. cle diffraction.
The representation of molecular structure revealed A quick response is necessary to direct the test,
by X-ray fragmentation in close to real time will ensure that enough data is gathered, and modify
need for previously unheard-of computer compres- the sample concentration to obtain a single particle
sion scales and bandwidth data techniques. Data rate. Together, exascale computing power and HPC
detector measurements in light sources have sub- processes can handle the analysis of the expanding
stantially increased; after LCLS-II-HE development data explosion. As a result, researchers will be able to
is complete, LCLS will grow its data by three orders analyses data quickly, respond quickly to test-quality
in magnitude by 2025. The ExaFEL programme data, and simultaneously decide on a three-dimen-
uses exascale computation to accelerate the process sional sample design.
of reconstructing molecular structures from X-ray
diffraction data from weeks to minutes (Francis et F. Autonomous car
al., 2020). Self-driving vehicle will generate and use a variety
Users of LCLS demand an integrated approach to of data to analyze various parameters such as loca-
data processing and scientific interpretation which tion, road condition, and passenger safety. To man-
calls for in-depth computer analysis. Exascale pro- age all the data, you need HPC (Levent Gurel et al.,
cessing capacity will be needed to meet demand for 2018).
real-time analysis of the data explosion which will The car is equipped with sensors, embedded com-
take about 10 minutes (Francis et al., 2020). puters, cameras, high-precision GPS and satellite,
Because of its high repetition rate and brightness, wireless network, 5G connectors to connect to the
LCLS can map individual molecules’ inherent fluc- internet. Autonomous car will exchange data with the
tuation in relation to flexibility and ascertain their management and control system and will sync with
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 23
a large database that continuously provides real-time astronomy, materials research, and computational
information such as weather, traffic conditions, emer- biology (Francis et al., 2020).
gency alerts, etc.
Autonomous car will generate a large amount of B. Accelerated innovation
data and will send more than four terabytes of data EC enables engineers and scientists to swiftly and
per hour to the cloud. Exascale high performance efficiently build, optimize, and test new products and
computing and Big data are therefore capable of deliv- technologies. It enables rapid innovation in fields
ering the computing power required to use predictive including aerospace, automobile design, energy sys-
decision support systems to evaluate large amounts tems, and material research by allowing for the study
of data. of a broad design space. EC aids in the identification
of optimal designs, resulting in improved products
VI. Benefits of EC and solutions, by modeling and analyzing compli-
cated systems.
The speed of EC is 50 to 100 times faster than latest
supercomputer. Therefore, this kind of HPC applica- C. Advances in data analytics and AI
tion helps to simulate large scale application, ML and EC enables the processing and analysis of enormous
AI, etc. (Matthew et al., 2020; Maxwell et al., 2021). datasets in real-time, opening up new opportunities in
It is fast, and cost effective. As a result, intelligent data analytics and AI. It makes possible for DL and
storage capacity, computing power can be applied machine learning models to be more accurate and
in industries like health care, chemical, National effective, which advances fields like genomics, person-
Security, reducing pollution, and many more (Francis alized medicine, social network analysis, autonomous
et al., 2020). EC helps to minimize health issues, and systems, and recommendation systems (Tanmoy et al.,
proves the better quality of life by optimizing the 2019; Francis et al., 2020). EC facilitates the extrac-
transportation facilities. In short, EC has a number of tion of useful insights from enormous amounts of
advantages that could revolutionize fields including data, fostering innovation and decision-making.
engineering, society, and scientific study is shown in
Figure 3.3. Some advantages of exascale computing D. Cross-disciplinary collaboration
are: EC fosters cross-disciplinary cooperation among
scholars. Exascale systems’ computational capacity
A. Scientific discovery and resources can be used by scientists, engineers, and
EC enables scientists and researchers to run simula- subject-matter specialists to tackle challenging issues
tions and models at a scale and resolution that have that call for interdisciplinary solutions (R. Arya et
never been possible before. This may result in fresh al., 2021). Through information exchange and inte-
scientific understandings, discoveries, and a better grated problem-solving, this partnership may result
comprehension of intricate processes. Exascale simu- in advances in areas like fusion energy, drug devel-
lations can facilitate discoveries and speed up scien- opment, urban design, and computational social
tific development in areas including climate modeling, sciences.
Figure 3.3 Benefits of exascale computing
24 Study of exascale computing: Advancements, challenges, and future directions
E. Precision and realism et al., 2015; Mahendra et al., 2020; Matthew et al.,
EC allows for simulations and modeling with a level of 2020) are shown in Figure 3.4. These challenges are
accuracy and realism never before possible. Exascale as discussed in the following sections.
simulations deliver more precise results by including
complex interconnections and finer-grained details. A. Technical challenges
This improves decision-making processes, which Exascale system has identified four key challenges:
helps in better forecasts, and encourages the creation increased number of faults, power requirement mini-
of trustworthy and durable systems and technologies. mization, memory management and parallelism at
node level. These challenges are directly related to
F. Economic and social impact exascale OS/R (operating system and runtime soft-
EC holds the promise of fostering both societal and ware) layer. Hardware complexity, resources chal-
economic improvement. By quickening the pace of lenges within OS, programming model, design issues
product development cycles, enhancing efficiency, and are few more to handle.
cutting costs, it encourages innovation and supports
industries. By offering strong tools for modeling, i) Resilience
analysis, and optimization, EC also helps to address As the numbers of components are increasing
major issues like climate change, healthcare, and sus- on chip, the numbers of faults are also increases.
tainable energy. These faults cannot be protected by other error
detection and correction technique. Timely prop-
G. Advances in computation agation fault notification across large network in
EC promotes improvements in computational meth- limited bandwidth scenario is very difficult.
ods and algorithms. To efficiently utilize the pro- ii) Power management
cessing capacity of exascale computers, researchers It is one of the critical challenges of exascale
investigate novel algorithms, optimization techniques, system. It requires 20–30 MW to run any appli-
and parallel programming paradigms. Beyond exas- cation. Resources can be change at any time to
cale computing, these developments help other com- adopt power requirement.
puter platforms and allow for further development in iii) Memory hierarchy
HPC. New memory technology emphasizes on reduc-
ing the power cost while data are transferring be-
VII. Challenges in EC tween different nodes. In case of exascale system,
the OS provide more support to runtime and ap-
Exascale are facing different technical and social chal- plication management and as the complexity re-
lenges (John et al., 2011; Pete et al., 2012; Judicael duces the OS overheads.
Figure 3.4 Challenges of exascale computing
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 25
iv) Parallelism ating and runtime systems have been designed to
Exascale system performs the calculation of 1018 impose strict barriers between nodes.
FLOPS. In order to achieve these calculations, • The node operating and runtime systems for an
application performs billions of calculation with exascale system will need to be right-sized in or-
in a second. This situation is significant challenge der to meet the needs of the application while
for developers. Performance cannot be increased minimizing overheads. Legacy operating and run-
through additional clock scaling but additional time systems do not emphasize restructuring to
parallelism is required in order to support next match the needs of an application.
generation of systems. But OS again faces dif-
ferent challenges like efficient and scalable syn- B. Business and social challenges
chronization, scheduling, scalable resource man- In spite of having technical excellence, exascale sys-
agement, global consistency, coordination, and tem is facing different challenges in business like lack
control. of transparency from vendors, sustainability and por-
v) Hardware-related challenges tability, preservation of existing code base and so on.
The hardware resources are heterogeneous in
nature. It includes multiple types of memory VIII. Future and research aspects of EC
and different processing element. Different type
EC has the ability to significantly advance technologi-
of component may have different performance
cal innovation, scientific discoveries, and societal con-
characteristics though they have capabilities to
cerns. The following are some crucial elements of EC’s
perform same function. Therefore, allocation of
future and research potential (Tanmoy et al., 2019;
resources becomes complicated to perform the
Francis et al., 2020; Maxwell et al., 2021; Yuhui Don
calculation. Handler establishment process for
et al., 2022). The market growth of EC is represented
hardware event is more difficult in order to sup-
in the table 3.2.
port responsiveness to faults, application moni-
toring system, and energy management and so on.
vi) OS/R structural challenges A. Simulation and modeling
The new operating system for exascale system is EC will make it possible for scientists and research-
facing different challenges like misalignment of ers to run simulations and models at previously
requirements, user-space resource management unheard-of scales and resolutions. This encompasses
and parallel OS services. disciplines like computational biology, astrophysics,
a. Misalignment of requirements: materials science, and quantum mechanics, among
The interference of OS should be minimized others. New scientific insights and discoveries will be
while at the same time OS should provide neces- made as a result of the ability to mimic and examine
sary support to all other application. complicated phenomena in greater detail.
b. User-space resource management
Generally OS directly manages and controls B. Data analytics and AI
all resources to different application software. EC will revolutionize these fields by making it pos-
However different programming models and ap- sible to handle and analyses enormous datasets in real
plication requires different resources results in time. Applications in fields such as genetics, person-
inefficiency. In the future application software alized medicine, social network analysis, intelligent
and runtime will require increased control over cities, and autonomous systems are included in this.
resources like core, memory, power and so on. Exascale computing and AI techniques have the poten-
c. Parallel OS services tial to revolutionize industries and spur innovation.
OS performs parallel processing; effective sup-
port and development for this interface is diffi- C. Multi-disciplinary research collaboration
cult. EC will promote cross-disciplinary research coopera-
vii) Legacy OS/R issues tion. EC systems will enable scientists, engineers, and
• The node operating and runtime systems for an subject matter experts to solve complicated issues
exascale system will need to be highly parallel, that call for interdisciplinary solutions. This partner-
with minimal synchronization. Legacy operating ship may result in innovations in industries like fusion
and runtime systems tend to be monolithic, fre- energy, medication development, materials design,
quently assuming mutual exclusion for large por- and urban planning.
tions of the code.
• The node operating and runtime systems for an D. Machine learning and DL
exascale system will need to support tight interac- Exascale computing will make it possible to train
tion across sets of nodes (enclaves). Legacy oper- and use deep learning and machine learning models
26 Study of exascale computing: Advancements, challenges, and future directions
Table 3.2 Represents the market growth of EC
Criteria Details
Reference year 2020
Forecast period 2021–2022
Revenue forecast in year 2028 USD 50.3 billion
Growth rate CAGR of 6.3% for the year 2021–2028
Regions covered North America, Europe, South America, Asia Pacific, Middle East and Africa
Profiles of significant players Advanced micro devices (US), Intel (US), HPE (US), IBM (US) , Lenovo (China),
Nvidia’s (Japan), NEC Corporation
Portion covered Through computation, devices, type, deployment, size, price, organization and server
that are more sophisticated and complicated. This IX. Market analysis of EC
will open up new opportunities in fields includ-
Compound annual growth of EC is going to 6.3%
ing speech and image recognition, natural language
throughout the course of the forecast and it is expected
processing, robotics, autonomous cars, and recom-
that market growth will reach USD 50.3 billion by
mendation engines. Researchers will investigate new
2028. This growth is driven by the increasing demand
architectures and algorithms to take use of exascale
for HPC across industries such as healthcare, finance,
capabilities for more precise and effective machine
energy, weather forecasting, and scientific research.
learning.
EC is being actively embraced by numerous sectors
to solve challenging computational issues and gain a
E. Computational fluid dynamics
competitive edge. For the instance, it provides sophis-
Engineers will be able to model and optimize fluid
ticated simulations for drug discovery, genomics, and
flow in unprecedented detail thanks to exascale com-
personalized treatment in the healthcare industry. It
puting’s enormous impact on computational fluid
supports high-frequency trading, risk modeling, and
dynamics (CFD) simulations. This has uses in envi-
portfolio optimization in the financial sector. EC is also
ronmental engineering, energy systems, automotive
used by energy corporations for seismic imaging, res-
design, and aerospace. Higher resolution and more
ervoir modeling, and energy production optimization.
accurate simulation and analysis of complicated flow
EC is strategically important, and governments around
dynamics can result in better designs and more effec-
the world are actively promoting its development. To
tive systems.
speed up exascale computing research and deployment,
numerous nations, including the United States, China,
F. Quantum computing
Japan, and European nations, have started national ini-
EC has the potential to be extremely important for
tiatives and funding programmes. These programmes
the growth and development of quantum computing.
seek to promote governmental, academic, and com-
Exascale systems can be a great resource for expe-
mercial cooperation in order to progress technology
diting quantum research and applications because
and preserve competitiveness. Several companies and
they can provide the enormous processing capacity
organizations are leading the exascale computing such
that quantum simulators and quantum algorithms
as Hewlett Packard Enterprise, IBM, Intel, NVIDIA,
demand. This includes creating quantum-enabled
AMD, and Cray. Universities, research organizations,
algorithms for application in real-world situations,
and national laboratories all contribute significantly to
optimizing quantum algorithms, and simulating
the development of exascale computer systems.
quantum systems.
G. Hardware and software innovation X. Conclusion
Ongoing research and development of new hardware EC is the new frontier of HPC technique. It has capa-
architectures, memory technologies, interconnects, bility to achieve performance of ExaFLOPS in terms
and software frameworks will be necessary for exas- of power and cost constraint. High computational
cale computing in the future. To fully utilize the capa- capability is able to tackle various challenges such
bilities of exascale systems, research will concentrate as scientific, medical, various social aspects and engi-
on enhancing energy efficiency, fault tolerance, scal- neering. It includes various research areas such as sys-
ability, and programmability. tem architecture, software and programming models,
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 27
performance optimization, energy efficiency, resilience Gürel, Levent (2018). Towards Exascale Computing for Au-
and fault tolerance, Big data analytics, and applica- tonomous Driving. In 2018 International Workshop
tion-specific research. To fully utilize the capabilities of on Computing, Electromagnetics, and Machine Intel-
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4 Production of electricity from urine
Abhijeet Saxena1,a, Mamatha Sandhu2, S. N. Panda3 and
Kailash Panda4
1
Utkal University, Odisha, India
2,3
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
4
Laxmi Narayan College, Odisha, India
Abstract
The research work explores the possibility of utilizing urine, the most abundant waste on earth as an unconventional, yet,
plausible alternative to generate electricity. A groundbreaking two-phase method has been introduced that utilizes a urea
electrolytic cell to convert urine into electricity. In the initial phase, urea-rich water is broken down to extract Hydrogen,
which serves as the primary input for electricity generation in the subsequent phase. Our paper comprehensively examines
the technology employed in the urine powered generator, elucidates the intricacies of the process, and assesses the overall
efficiency of the integrated system, positioning it as a promising advancement for the future. Furthermore, a comparative
analysis is conducted against existing energy sources, shedding light on the environmental, economic, and technological
advantages of our approach.
Keywords: Clean energy, hydrogen economy, PEM fuel cell, electrolysis, urine, waste-to-energy, unconventional energy sources
I. Introduction most abundant waste (T. O. Ajiboye et al., 2022) on
earth, for generating electricity. The process compris-
“To Evolve is to Sustain.” This world, and everything
ing of two feasible phases converts the input into
within, is evolving at a considerable pace. With every
the desired output. Here, presented concisely, are the
passing minute, we are becoming more and more
methods used along with the schematic diagrams to
equipped for the future which patently, is uncertain
help comprehend well. We shall also showcase the
through researches, inventions and ideas. However,
efficiency of our final input/output integrated system
over the same horizontal space, Homo sapiens have
along with possible comparisons. It shall, besides,
been responsible for aggravating own surround-
cover detailed reactions occurring in the processes to
ings to such great extents that many of our natural
help to understand the working of the system thor-
resources that once were abundantly present are on
oughly. In the end, while concluding, we assign a new
the verge of dying out. The world has a coherent
identity entirely to urine, projecting it as a cheap-yet-
identity lagged in replacing those nearing extinction
not-so-cheap waste. At the end of the discussion, it’s
resources with something more meaningful that can
seen that how this new area of the invention will be
compensate their presence once they are gone. For the
characteristic of the time when power will be cheaper
future generation, we must reserve to make the pro-
and available to every household in the cleanest pos-
cess eventually a prosperous one instead of despair
sible way.
one. If we imagine the world without resources, for
a country like India where most of the power (elec-
tricity) around 57% is sourced by coal, sooner or II. Technology
later, will eventually run out, time has come for us to The technology to generate electricity from urine con-
think about alternate sources (Sataksig et al., 2017). sists of two major steps: Step 1 – Extraction of hydro-
Questions seem to be piling up with time, seeking the gen from urea contained in urine. Step 2 – Generation
right answer. The way forward is to acknowledge the of electricity from hydrogen. The technologies used
problems and work collectively to find remedies to are as follows: Electrolytic cell – The working prin-
each problem. This research aims to attempt and pro- ciple of this cell is no different from any other cell of
pose a solution to one of the many existing problems. the same kind. However, the electrolytic cell for the
Suggestions and analysis indicate, the urgent need to desired purpose needs to be engineered such that it
find clean energy sources before it becomes an acute is efficient and feasible to produce on a mass scale.
issue (Bhashyam et al., 2020). Alternate source to Proton-Exchange Membrane (PEM) (hydrogen) fuel
generate electricity is the problem that needs to be cell – PEM fuel cell is an electro-chemical cell that
prioritized. This research is about using urine, the
asabhijeetsaxena@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 29
takes hydrogen as input, reacts with the oxygen in the Equation (1) defines the oxidation of urea at the
air to generate electricity. anode of the electrolytic cell. Equation (2) defines
the oxidation of Ni(OH)2 to NiOOH and the current
III. Proposed methodology produced during the electrolysis process. Equation (4)
demonstrates that a remarkably low potential of less
This section details the complete process into 2 phases; than 1.23 V is required for the electrolysis of water,
the extraction of hydrogen from urine (S. Yeasmin et and theoretically 70% hydrogen (Amanda K. et al.,
al., 2022) and its conversion into electricity. Phase 1 2015) is obtained. This implies that during the nitrate
– Urine is abundantly available. The prime element remediation of wastewater, nitrogen is generated from
of urine is urea, from which hydrogen [H], carbon the anode while hydrogen, a valuable constituent for
[C], nitrogen [N] and oxygen [O] can be extracted. the imminent hydrogen economy (Kar et al., 2022),
Regardless of technological advancements, there is is liberated at the cathode. In simple words, pure
still no technology that can convert urea to hydro- hydrogen (H2) can be collected at the cathode while at
gen. This proposed process could sustain not only anode the nitrogen can be collected along with traces
hydrogen resources but also do the de-nitrification of of oxygen as well as hydrogen (S. A. Grigoriev et al.,
urea-abundant water which is generally discharged 2006). Phase 2 – Owing to the flammable property
into rivers. The proposed system block diagram is as of hydrogen, the gas extracted in phase 1 need to be
shown in Figure 4.1. The electrolytic cell designed (T stored in a cylinder with safety valves on the inlet and
Gera et al., 2021) would use the proposed electro- outlet tubes for not allowing its reverse flow as dis-
chemical process (Kumar et al., 2018) for extracting cussed in (Langmi et al., 2022). The hydrogen from
hydrogen from urea (Amanda K. et al., 2015; Jinqi Li. the outlet tube of the cylinder is released into the PEM
et al., 2022) as shown in Figure 4.2. fuel cell as seen in Figure 4.3. In the PEM fuel cell,
Using above-described electrolytic cell along with the hydrogen reacts with the oxygen from the air to
inexpensive transition metal nickel, the electro-chem- release energy while forming water. Detailed working
ical oxidation of human urine, is represented in the of the PEM cell is as mentioned below (Tolga Taner et
following four equations: al., 2018), where the hydrogen molecule gets oxidized
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4) Figure 4.2 Electrolytic cell
Figure 4.1 Block diagram of the proposed system
30 Production of electricity from urine
Figure 4.3 PEM fuel cell
and loses two electrons, as it passes through the mem- relatively little heat, and without producing any light.
brane. Thus, two ions of hydrogen are generated as Due to these characteristics, the reaction is not clas-
oxidation half-reaction at the anode as represented in sified as combustion. In PEM fuel cell as discussed
the Equation (5). in Yun Wang et al. (2022), considering the energy-
producing step only, i.e., by omitting other parts of
(5) the energy picture, then, electricity produced by it is
more environmentally friendly, than that produced by
The hydrogen ions H+, combines with oxygen (O2) coal-fired or nuclear power plant. The process does
while passing through the proton exchange mem- not emit any greenhouse gas or pollutants, or radioac-
brane, producing two electrons of water as reduc- tive waste. With hydrogen as the fuel in PEM fuel cell,
tion half-reaction at the cathode as represented in the the only chemical product released is water. The water
Equation (6). released by the fuel cell can be an added benefit for
the astronauts in the space station/shuttle who oth-
erwise must rely on moisture/water from respiration,
(6)
sweat and urine (Nehir Atasay et al., 2023), For per
mole of water formed, the overall reaction releases
The overall cell equation, as is with the gal-
286 kJ of energy. However, rather than being liber-
vanic cells, is given as total amount of half-reaction
ated in the form of heat, 40–60% of this energy is
equations:
converted to electric energy by the fuel cell. The con-
version proportion is much higher compared to 20%
(7) or less usable in case of internal combustion engine
for generating electricity from fossil fuels (Singla et
Two electrons (2e−) with two Hydrogen atoms al., 2021). The electricity produced from the phase
(2H+) thus cancel as represented in Equation (8): 2 of the entire system can be stored in a battery for
further use as per the requirements (as depicted in
(8) Figure 4.4).
The electrons flowing from the anode to the cath- IV. Comparison of results analysis
ode of a fuel cell move through an external circuit
to do work which is the whole point of the device. Table 4.1 shows the comparison of energy consump-
Thus, in a fuel cell, a movement of electron occurs tion between electrolysis (Panigrahy et al., 2022) of
from H2 to O2. This flow occurs with no flame, with water and urea, using Ni anodes, under lab conditions,
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 31
Figure 4.4 Schematic representation of the proposed system
Table 4.1 Comparison of electrolysis Table 4.2 Comparison of efficiency of PEM fuel cell
Electrolysis Energy (Wh/g) H2 cost (INR/kg) Efficiency of PEM Wattage (in KWh) H2 (in kg)
fuel cell (in %)
Urea 37.5 187.5
Water 53.6 268.0 100 33.33 1
60 20 1
60 1 0.05
based on cost of energy @ INR 5 per kWh. The com- follows: Urine is 95% water implies that 1 l of urine
parison is on two parameters: (a) Wattage per gram contains 0.95 l water. Further, 1 l of water weighs
of hydrogen (b) Cost of producing 1 kg of hydrogen. 1 kg implies 950 ml of water would weigh 950 g.
Illustration of unit economics of the system – For During electrolysis, 2 moles of water liberate 2 moles
evaluation of the energy unit (in terms of units of of hydrogen and 1 mole of oxygen. The molar mass
electricity consumed) economics of the system, i.e., of water being 18.015 g implies that 950 g of water
amount of hydrogen needed to produce electricity (J. is equivalent to 52.73 moles of water. Thus, 52.73
Singh et al., 2019) and subsequently, checking urine moles of hydrogen would be produced from 950 g
and energy required for the production of hydrogen of water (or 1 l of urine). Since, mass = molar mass *
(quantity that will produce 1 kWh of electricity). number of moles, and molar mass of hydrogen is 2.02
The total quantity of hydrogen to produce 1 kWh of g (approx.), the mass (of 52.73 moles of hydrogen) =
electricity is estimated in following two steps: One 52.73 * 2.02 = 106.5 g (rounded to the nearest tenth).
kg of hydrogen carries 33.33 kWh of energy and the Thus, 1 l of urine produces 106.5 g of hydrogen.
efficiency of the PEM cell is 60%. As discussed by Therefore, 50 g of hydrogen, consequently, would
O. Bilgin et al. (2015), many procedures are imple- require 0.470 l or 470 ml of urine, (say nearly half-
mented in hydrogen calculations. a-liter). Hence, to conclude, in order to get 1 KWh of
Hence, to generate 1 KWh of electricity, we energy as the output from the system, we need 1.875
need 0.05 kg or 50 g of hydrogen gas as shown in kWh and 450 ml of urine as input. The efficiency of
Table 4.2. The quantity of hydrogen is 50 g. Energy the system is 53.33%, which is higher than other
and urine required for producing 50 g of hydrogen, sources of power generation. Besides, 1 kg of hydro-
referring to the information in Table 4.1, we see that gen when used in fuel cell could drive vehicles up to
37.5 kWh of energy is required for the production 97–100 km (Oldenbroek et al., 2020). For a vehicle
of 1 kg of hydrogen. Hence, to generate hydrogen of running petrol or diesel, to cover the same distance,
50 g, it would need 1.8 kWh of input energy. The considering an ideal mileage 22 km/l, would consume
quantity of urine to produce 50 g of hydrogen is as around 4–4.5 l fossil fuel, This @ INR 72/l would cost
32 Production of electricity from urine
about INR 288–324. This would be INR100 more this landscape is a constraint that requires dem-
than the price for 1 kg of hydrogen. Hence, compared onstrating clear advantages.
to other sources of energy or of hydrogen itself, this • Energy return on investment (EROI): Evaluat-
PEM fuel cell process (I. Schimidhalter et al., 2021; ing the energy return on investment, considering
K. Ondrejicka et al., 2022) is economical and is made all energy inputs and outputs, is a constraint in
feasible on mass scale. When supplemented with determining the practicality and sustainability of
other renewable sources of energy (A. U. Rehman the urine-to-electricity system. A positive EROI is
et al., 2017; M. Sandhu et al., 2022; Rehman et necessary for long-term viability.
al., 2022), the system could become self-sustaining,
thereby decrease the dependency on paid sources of VI. Conclusion
electricity. Such system would save a considerable
amount of money. The article demonstrated the concept of producing
electricity from urine. Few comparisons theoreti-
cally prove the process to be not only plausible but
V. Challenges, pitfalls and constraints
economical too. With further research for making
Challenges this process commercially feasible, it would create a
• Technological feasibility: Implementing the pro- significant impact on the present and future demand
posed urine-to-electricity process efficiently and and supply scenarios of energy, paving ways for new
cost-effectively on a large scale is a complex chal- advancements in the field of energy and automobile. In
lenge, as laboratory conditions may differ signifi- a country like India where the majority of the popula-
cantly from real-world applications. tion face the perils of vehicle pollution, where most of
• Safety concerns: Handling and storing flammable the group housings and industrial setups use fossil fuel
hydrogen gas safely is a crucial challenge. Ad- electricity backups, this development has the potential
equate safety measures, such as pressure relief of providing a clean-energy and also counter the men-
valves and leak detection systems, must be in ace of human wastes. Sooner or later, mankind will
place to mitigate potential risks. approach times in near future, when the fossil fuels
• Economic viability: While the paper suggests eco- of the world would get exhausted thereby demand-
nomic feasibility, the true cost-effectiveness of ing a new source of energy for domestic, industrial
the process depends on factors like infrastructure and transportation uses. This proposed development
costs, energy efficiency, and market dynamics. A could be a proactive step in that direction. Last but
comprehensive economic analysis is essential to not least, we look forward to contributing something
address this challenge. very useful out of something considered useless. After
all, there is no such thing as waste in this ecosystem.
Pitfalls
• Long-term durability: Ensuring that the electro- References
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5 Deep learning-based finger vein recognition and security:
A review
Manpreet Kaura, Amandeep Verma and Puneet Jai Kaur
Information Technology, UIET, Punjab University, Chandigarh, India
Abstract
The recognition system implies development that passes through the various stages. The finger vein recognition (FVR) is the
lead over the other biological modalities like finger print, face iris, etc., this paper reviews the worked done in the area of
FVR. The pre-processing is needed to enhance the images for better results. The feature extraction module provides the col-
lection of the best features in the finger vein images, which is used for template generation. The template-based schemes are
in fact the best and most appropriate for security purpose because it only preserved the scrambled information rather than
the original features of the human beings. According to this review the convolutional neural network (CNN)-based models
are best for FVR but still there have been some challenges faced by it so those would be improved in the experimental work
of this review.
Keywords: FVR, CNN, template, security, datasets
I. Introduction these modalities are captured in the visible light. It
has the unique characteristic pattern available on the
With the digitization in every field, the biometric
outer skin so that, it is easy for the intruders to forge
identification and authentication after the password-
and duplicate or collect the patterns from the sensor
based security mechanism, is the one of the most
surface with the help of silicon (Sarkar and Singh,
widely used techniques for the human authentication
2020). In the information technology field, there is
on the digital system. The various biometric modali-
need to maintain the balance among the security, reli-
ties are used to recognize the human beings based
ability and cost of the digital systems. While using the
on the physiological and behavioral characteristics
iris biometric, becomes a higher capability sensor is
(Shaheed et al., 2021) such as fingerprint (Jacob et
needed to capture the inner part of the human eye
al., 2021), face (Malik et al., 2018), hand (Park and
(Linsangan et al., 2019, Agarwal and Jalal, 2021).
Kim, 2013), iris (Czajka, Bowyer, and Flynn, 2019),
This becomes a very costly and time-consuming pro-
signature (Tanwar, Obaidat, and Tyagi, 2019), finger
cess. So, there is need to maintain the quality of every
vein (Z. Liu et al., 2010), walking pattern (Casale,
aspect related to the digital system development. The
Pujol, and Radeva, 2012), brain waves (Campisi et
comparison is shown in the Table 5.1.
al., 2014), etc. The biometric technology has gained
the popularity in recent years due to unique feature
of every human being, even a twin has the different II. Finger vein recognition
biological patterns. The traditional identification and The biometric recognition is divided into two catego-
authentication methods are token- and password- ries: (a) Extrinsic – This is based on the visibility of
based and have the various security risks while trans- the biological information. In this the information is
ferring the information over communication channels easily available to the capturing devices that include
or store the data on the server, the information related faces, fingerprints, iris etc. (b) Intrinsic – This is less
to the human assets in digital form is always at major easily visible to the capturing devices than the extrin-
risks of being leaked out. With the development of sic. The special devices are used to collect the inner
the biological system, the risk of the loss of the digi- patterns of the vessels like palm vein, finger vein, etc.
tal information has gradually increased in the recent The recognition is the process of identifying some-
years. But there is dire need to maintain the security thing, which is available in the database through the
of the biological information of an individual it is of capturing devices. This information had previously
great importance because if the system recognizes been stored (Jain and Kumar, 2012).
an individual with his/her fingerprint then there are The first FVR system was introduced by the Japanese
only ten options to identify his/her at the terminals. scientist for medical purpose in 2002 ([Link]
Various security risks are from all physiological [Link]/articles). After that, the Japan-based company
modalities, namely fingerprint, face, hand, because Hitachi had manufactured the devices the FVR for the
manpreet.09bhagat@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 35
Table 5.1 Comparison of different biometric modalities
Modality Data type Devices Contact Cost Security
Face Images Camera N-Contact Low Normal
Finger Print Images Optical Sensors Contact Low Good
Finger Vein Images NIR Sensors N-Contact Low Superior
Iris Images Special Camera N-Contact High Normal
Signature Images Electronic Tablet& Pad N-Contact Low Normal
layers of network which is able to provide the higher
accuracy during the recognition process. Deep learn-
ing is a successor of machine learning which includes
multiple layers with learning algorithms. This allows
the deep learning method to learn hierarchical feature
from the data. Therefore, deep learning has substi-
tuted the conventional feature extraction approach in
several areas involving speech, computer vision, and
natural language processing (Yin, Zhang, and Liu,
2021). The pre-trained models provide better accu-
Figure 5.1 (a) NIR sensor, (b) Finger vein pattern racy than the conventional methods so the researchers
use these deep learning models in the biometric areas.
The researchers have brought deep learning in to the
purpose of identification and authentication. This is biometric field, Due to its strong capability with fea-
much more popular in Japan because it preserves very ture representation. The new network models and the
private information of the person which is different in pre-trained models are developed/tested on different
every human being (Uhl, 2020). datasets.
From the perspectives of security, finger vein is The deep learning methods were applied the finger
far better than all other physiological modalities veins to recognize the finger vein. But it did not pro-
(Shaheed, 2018) (Table 5.1). The FVR rely the vascu- vide good results because the system was trained and
lar pattern which is situated inside the skin. Due to the tested over the non-publicly available datasets (Radzi
inside pattern, the forgery of the blood vessels is more and Bakhteri, 2016; R. Arya et. al., 2021). While the
difficult than of other which is the unique in every features were extracted from the raw images, some
human being. The NIR sensors are used to capture information gets lost due to various factors. So the
the inner information related to the vessels of human author improved the robustness by applying the fully
body. This is a big benefit of using the finger vein as an connected CNN model to recover the lost pattern
identification and authentication because the vessel of the finger vein and to achieve the good verifica-
pattern can be collected only when the finger is under tion performance (Zoph and Le, 2017). The CNN
NIR lights and only detected while the blood flows in models are complex and not a light weight as other
the human body. So the risk of the duplicity is mini- techniques. The researchers have developed the light
mal as compared to other modalities (Hong, Lee, and weight models for vein recognition (Hong, Lee, and
Park, 2017; Al-khafaji and Al-tamimi, 2022). Figure Park, 2017). The traditional methods of image seg-
5.1 (a) has shown the finger under NIR sensor and mentation have been combined with the CNN model
collect the information of finger vein. Figure 5.1 (b) to improve the recognition performance. The labels
has shown the extracted feature of finger vein for fur- for the vein pixel information were automatically
ther process. The collected good features are sent to assigned by the system. The CNN model was trained
the template generation module for provides the good and tested to predict the pixel information for the
security to the finger vein information. Then, the vein finger vein. The special module of CNN was devel-
formation is verified for genuine users. oped to find out the missing pixels in the segmented
images (IEEE and IEEE, 2017). CNN and supervised
discrete hashing finger vein identification process has
III. Literature survey of finger vein
proposed to overcome the problem, which decrease
Vein pattern recognition based on deep learning the template size up to 250 bytes and also surges the
The deep learning models are based on the large data- matching speed (P. Sharma et al., 2018). Outmoded
set processing. The tasks are hidden in number of finger vein identification methods can be cracked by
36 Deep learning-based finger vein recognition and security: A review
hackers because the template used by the scheme is of sparse because all the training samples are based
in the form of plain data (Qin and El-yacoubi, 2017). on dictionary matrix. Thus, need was felt to optimize
The author proposed the FVR-DLRP to secure revo- the selection of dictionary data to improve the system
cable and to do efficient finger vein template genera- performance (Fang et al., 2022). Finger vein recog-
tion. Most of the traditional finger vein recognition nition was done with the use of oval PDCNN, this
systems have a shading and misalignment of finger was the advanced version of the PDKs. It provided the
vein problem. Need to pay the much more effort best performance, the first ten layers were from the
and time for extracting the features from the images MobileNet and all other layers from the SqueezeNet
which is a complicated and complex process in deep network could be compressed the network to achieve
CNN (Y. Liu et al., 2018). To improve these problems the higher performance (Li et al., 2023).
the researchers had proposed a robust CNN model The CNN models have improved the recognition
which had the error rate of 0.396 it was collected on performance for FVR. But this advancement has
a good quality dataset (Hong, Lee, and Park, 2017). needed to improve the feature extraction module and
All the publicly available datasets for finger vein have defense against security attacks, and the CNN models
the small images collection. are not lightweights.
Although, the CNN model used for the finger vein,
achieved higher accuracy yet it face the problem Security of FVR system
related to the training process (W. Liu et al., 2017). In the present time, the security of each system is at
The CNN model is successfully applied for the fin- major risk of losing the information and digital assets
ger vein identification process (Simonyan, 2019). The which are protected using the several security mecha-
light weight convolutional neural network (CNN) nisms. Certain things are to be kept in mind before
model was proposed to improve the small training choosing the bio-information in any application to
dataset problem by using the similarity measure net- enhance the security. First of all, it should be clear
work (Qin and El-yacoubi, 2018). The dense net was that, all the phases of technologies which are to be
proposed for finger vein recognition (FVR). This was used in the application must be safe in terms of data
used it remove the noise in the images and the two privacy and protection. Although biometric technol-
or more images were combined for recognition sys- ogy yet it faces various security attacks is considered
tem and also used for feature extraction. The system to be a secure system of real-world market.
has huge computational cost (Song, Kim, and Park,
2019). Although the all-available methods were tested Template protection for finger vein
on publicly available datasets but still these systems The template protection is the process of generating
had failed in the practical uses. Depth based separate the precise or related information from the images by
CNN model was developed to overcome this prob- feature extraction process (Kumar, 2019). This is the
lem. The system is simple but it still has weakness of unique precise information associated with the differ-
recognizing the less defined features of the images ent human beings. The template scheme is divided into
(Tang et al., 2019). The CNN-CO was based on the two categories: (a) Bio-cryptosystem (Kaur, Kumar,
local descriptor for pre-training the ImageNet model. and Singh, 2023). This combines the best feature of
Practically this system was best out of all the con- both the worlds i.e., cryptographic keying methods
ventional systems (Y. U. Lu, 2019). Finger vein-based and biometric schemes and (b) cancellable templates
authentication model was proposed by developing the (Manisha, 2020). In this field, the biometric template
lightweight Siamese network. When images were col- of a person is distorted in such a manner that the
lected the feature information got lost. The GCNet original data is not available to the intruder but still
and multi-scale feature was used during the process to identity recognition can be performed. The template
solve the faced problem. The system has been tested generation in the CNN models for higher accuracy for
over three publicly available datasets but the need FVR can be performed (Yin, Zhang, and Liu, 2021).
was felt to improve the feature extraction module by The template generation is shown in Figure 5.2.
changing the width and cardinality of the CNN net- The security to the templates of finger vein to provide
work (Fang, Ma, and Li, 2023). The parameters for
training and testing the network for data happen to
be complex due to the complex hidden structure of
the neural network. Although the result was 99.98%
but we need a light weight model for FVR (Wang and
Shi, 2022). The double-weighted group sparse rep-
resentation classification was developed to solve the
FVR. It had the lower accuracy than the other mod-
els and also took a long time to solve the coefficient Figure 5.2 Template generation
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 37
the password based key derivation function has been state of the art does address various issues related to
used to derive the key named FVR-DLRP. To provide the finger vein pattern recognition for artificial neural
the information still remains even though the pass- network. The question arises as who can suggest good
word is cracked. But this system has lower accuracy matching for prob and gallery images for recognition
in terms of FAR rate, which leads to FAR attack and process and has also been advised to prepare and
it even has lower GAR rate (Y. Liu et al., 2018). generate the light weight model for finger vein (Yin,
Deep CNN with hard mining finger verification Zhang, and Liu, 2021).
scheme was proposed which achieved better perfor-
mance than achieved through commercial finger vein Security attacks
verification systems. This method also accelerates the On the other side, the restricted system is responsible
complete training process. The huge template size for security attacks. The attackers generate fake bio-
requires enormous amount of storage space (Huang metric template and modify it at different levels, the
et al., 2017). The Gabor filter was used, built a fin- finger vein faces various security attacks related prob-
ger vein authentication system based on the light- lems, from time-to-time various security methods and
weight CNN and supervised discrete hashing so as their patches for breaches (Tome and Vanoni, 2014)
to improve the finger vein images. Despite all these are introduced to amend the system.
steps, this method has decreased the template size Transferable deep convolutional network was
and surges the performance of finger vein verification. proposed to handle the presentation attack. The
The connection between training time and recogni- researcher has modified the system by adding seven
tion outcome was not thoroughly measured (Xie and layers to the existing Alex-Net to overcome the over
Kumar, 2019). The fusion based system was devel- fitting problem. The artifacts for the finger vein were
oped for fingerprint and the finger vein biological generated by using two different printers. The modi-
datasets. The feature level fusion was applied to this fied system is able to handle the PAD for finger vein.
system. The system has the higher matching perfor- The transferable deep learning neural network for the
mance and security of the data (Yang et al., 2018). finger vein has still to face video presentation attack
The BDD-based FVR system was based on the deep (Raghavendra et al., 2017). Another mechanism for
CNN. The system was combined with ML-ELM to security of the data template was developed but it is
form a FVR system that provides the protected pri- still facing security breaches during different process
vacy, and also provides the security to the template. like storing the template and matching the templates
In case of tempering by the intruders the template for finger vein. The FVR with the template-based pro-
performs the undoing operation independently. Then tection is able to handle the presentation attack but
the new template version is generated by user specific still has the problem related to the adversarial attack
keys (Yang et al., 2019). The weighted least squares (Ren et al., 2021). The survey provided by the Yimin
regression has been used to improve the template gen- Yin et al. (Yin, Zhang, and Liu, 2021), had suggested
eration. It minimizes the verification errors but this and elaborated all the security breaches in finger vein
was based on an assumption, but the template has CNN methods. The system has developed to handle
the very little distance in the intra-class for the same the impersonation attack and check the system for
image data (Qin, 2019). The cancelable biometric- authentication with minimum enrolment time. The
based scheme for CIRF, and proposed a low-rank MC-CLAHE method is used to process the images
approximation-based cancelable indexing scheme of finger vein prior to the CNN training process but
which was based on CIRF was introduced to solve the the system is only providing security to the database
problem of excessive computational overhead. Low- (Safie, Zarina, and Khalid, 2023). Various templates-
rank approximation of biometric images was used based CNN models are developed. It has been pro-
to speed up the calculation of CIRF and also used vided the moderate defense against security attacks.
the minimum spanning tree representation for low- But the security problem still remains exist in the
rank matrices in the Fourier domain. The researcher template based FVR systems. Table 5.3 has shown the
proved the reliability of the projected method in pro- most recently articles related to the CNN, Template
tecting related biological information (Murakami et and security of FVR.
al., 2019). The template protection scheme has been
proposed to align the images. The IoM hash is used to IV. Datasets
realize the required privacy and security for the FVR
(Kirchgasser et al., 2020). The security is provided Various datasets (Y. Lu et al., 2013) are always freely
to the template to solve the issue of the presentation available to the researchers to train and test the pre-
attack by CNN model but templates still faces adver- trained models for the CNN. The models learn the
sarial sample attack and does not have light weight features from the images in the dataset to train the sys-
feature extraction module (Ren et al., 2021). The tem, then the system based on this training recognizes
38 Deep learning-based finger vein recognition and security: A review
the person on the basis of pre-stored trained data of CIR
that person. The datasets are the most essential part The CIR is the parameter to measure the false color
of the biometric recognition system development. The photograph called color infrared that shows the
most commonly used datasets for the finger vein have reflected electromagnetic wave form an object. It is
been listed in the Table 5.2. used to check the security flaws in the biometric sys-
tems (Ren et al., 2021).
V. Parameters of performance measurement
VI. Analysis and discussion
The performance of any system directly depends on
its error rate, which occurs at various levels of the In this survey of biometric system, we have been
system development. The error rate is calculated for found out that, the FVR system is best over the other
each activity during the whole process. The accuracy biometric modalities (Table 5.1). The survey has pro-
of the system, mainly depends on the performance: vided related to the CNN models and template-based
capturing a quality image, short time interval between security and attacks.
the enrolment and verification phase, robustness of
the recognition system, and the environmental factors • Most of the researchers has directly apply the
are temperature, humidity, illumination conditions of CNN pre-trained models for the FVR, no chang-
the sensor surface (Unar, Chaw, and Abbasi, 2014). es did make to the CNN models, due to this the
To evaluate the performance of the biometric system, extracted features from the vein images have the
all criteria have been defined in the standard way in poor information for human recognition. while
the series of ISO/IEC 19795 (Draft et al., 2006). The recognize the person, the system has denied for
accuracy has been defined in terms of error rate as: the same user who is enrolled earlier, which is
the greatest issue related to the feature extraction
Confusion matrix module. So, need to provide the best feature ex-
This is the calculated formula in the Table form for traction method by altering the pre trained net-
the classification algorithm. In this the actual classes work models. Some adjustments should be made
for training have been defined at the y-axis of the table for better results.
and the predicted classes have been defined at the • One of another issue related to the feature extrac-
x-axis of the table. When any one to train the CNN tion module is the mismatching of the gallery and
model for two classes, the 2×2 confusion matrix is the probe images. This problem is addressed by
generated. From this matrix, the other values can be only few researchers according to the FVR survey
calculated (Muthusamy and Rakkimuthu, 2022). A in this review. The image has stored at the time of
confusion matrix for analysis of result is shown in identification is not matches with the image while
Figure 5.3. The FAR and FRR are defined as: recognition. So those need to apply the feature ex-
traction module effectively to solve this problem.
• Most of the FVR solutions are based on the pre-
trained models which has template protection
for biological information. But it is still facing
the various issues related to the accuracy and se-
curity. The CNN-based template generation has
Table 5.2 Datasets for the finger vein.
Datasets No. of images No. of related to each person Resolution
FV-USM 5904 4 (both M, I) 640×480
HKPU 6264 2 (left M, R) 513×256
IDIAP 440 4 665×250
MMCBNU-6000 6000 6 (both M, I, R) 640×480
SCUT 10800 6 (both M, I, R) 640×480
SDUMLA-HMT 3816 6 (both M, I, R) 320×240
THU-FVFDT1, 2 440, 2440 1 (left I) for each 200×100 for both
UTFV 1440 6 (both M, I, R) 672×380
M=Middle finger, I=Index finger, R=Ring finger
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 39
vides the security only to the database which is
stored on the server.
• The pre-trained model of CNN is complex in na-
ture and difficult to modify. Most of the research-
ers addressed the issue related to the models that
are not light weight, in the terms of parameters,
filters and functionality. This is the interesting re-
search area of AI for biometric recognition.
• The quality of images becomes degraded, due to
the posture of the image while capturing, illumi-
Figure 5.3 Confusion matrix
nation of the light from the sensors (NIR). Only
the few researchers have performed the experi-
ment on the FV-USM dataset. It has the low-qual-
been provided by the few researchers, but it yet ity images which are suitable to build the more
has flaws, this is the major research area in FVR. robust system. The researcher had performed the
• When the attack of the adversarial sample is ig- experimental work on this dataset but system still
nored, the system produces the incorrect recogni- faces the security attack, when the samples (ad-
tion. Ren et al. (2021) has provided the cancel- versarial) are ignored.
able template-based protection to the FVR with • Although, the all-available CNN based FVR has
CNN. This system has solved the issue related to the higher accuracy but most of the systems is still
the presentation attacks. But some of the CNN facing the issues related to the security, template
based FVR has still faces the video presentation generation, FAR, GAR and accuracy of recogni-
attack problem. Some of the researchers has pro- tion.
Table 5.3 Recent articles related to the CNN and template security of FVR
Method Datasets Performance Improvements/ Journal Ref.
parameters need to improve
Deep CNN DS1, DS2 & DS3 EER - DS1=0.42%, Improvement IEEE International (Huang et
DS2= 1.41% & DS3= of vein pattern Conference al., 2017)
2.14% matching on Identity,
Security and
Behavior Analysis
(IEEE-2017)
Deep learning FV_NET64 GAR=91.2% Enhancement the Soft Computing (Y. Liu et
& random FAR=0.3% revocability of the (Springer-2018) al., 2018)
projection template
EP-DFT FVC2002 DB2, EER=0.45% Enhancement of Pattern Recognition (Yang et al.,
FVC2004 DB2, non-revocability of (Elesvier-2018) 2018)
FV-HMTD templates
CNN and Two session EER=0.0887 Reduced the Pattern (Xie and
supervised databases template size Recognition Letters Kumar,
discrete hashing (Elesvier-2019) 2019)
BDD-ML-ELM SDUMLA, CIR=93.09%, 98.70%, New non invertible IEEE Transactions (Yang et al.,
MMCBNU_6000 98.61%, respectively templates for on Industrial 2019)
& UTFVP (datasets) finger vein Informatics
(IEEE-2019)
Weighted HKPU & FV-USM EER=1.28, 1.43, Improvement in MDPI (Qin, 2019)
least square respectively (datasets) enrolment template (Information-2019)
regression for finger vein
Correlation- N Genuine template Fast and secure Pattern (Murakami
invariant identification=164.7 biometric Recognition Letters et al., 2019)
random identification 7 (Elesvier-2019)
filtering No leakage of
information of the
template
40 Deep learning-based finger vein recognition and security: A review
Method Datasets Performance Improvements/ Journal Ref.
parameters need to improve
Self-attention FV-USM, Recall is best over Need to improve Infrared Physic (Fang, Ma,
mechanism MMCBNU_6000, SDUMLA= 0.9944 the feature and Technology and Li,
(SAC) Siamese SDUMLA-HMT F1 Score is best over extraction module (Elsevier Dec-2020) 2023)
network FV_USM=0.9925 by changing
EER is best over the width and
MMCBNU_6000= cardinality of the
0.0012 network models
RSA for SDMLA, Scheme A is best over The feature Knowledge Based (Ren et al.,
template MMCBNU_6000, HKPU=99.03% extraction method System (Elsevier 2021)
protection HKPU, FV-USM and is not lightweight May-2021)
using CNN Scheme B is best over and the system is
FV_USM=99.18% not able to handle
the adversarial
sample attack and
presentation attack
Survey on SDUMLA-HMT, Performance summary Need to generate the Computer Vision (Yin,
ANN for FV-USM, HKPU, of all CNN methods light weight models, and Pattern Zhang, and
finger vein MMCBNU_6000, for finger vein solve the problem Recognition Liu, 2021)
UTFVP, THU- of mismatching (Springer
FVFDT, SCUT, of gallery and Aug-2022)
IDIAP prob image,
dynamic finger vein
extraction
Double PolyU [], FV-USM, The system has best The sparse International (Fang et al.,
weighted SDUML-HMT performance over coefficient takes the Journal of Machine 2022)
group sparse FV_USM=97.0-95.88- long time, so that Learning and
representation 88.72% over three need to improve it Cybernetics
classification different variants of and improve the (Springer
models accuracy of the May-2022)
system
Multimodal CASIA-WebFace, 99.98% Model should be Sensors (MDPI (Wang and
approach SDUMLA-FV, lightweight Aug-2022) Shi, 2022)
based on CNN FV-USM
(RESNET,
AlexNet,
VGG-19)
MC-CLAHE FV-USM AUC=0.78–0.91 Security only International (Safie,
(CNN- provided to the Journal of Online Zarina,
AlexNet) database and Biomedical and Khalid,
Engineering (iJOE 2023)
2023)
N=Data not available.
VII. Conclusion related issues. Most commonly used datasets have
been explored for FVR. At the end the analysis and
Finger vein recognition methods have been explored discussion has been provided based on the articles
in the present review based on the deep learning added in this review. In future, the system will
methods for template generation which provides develop in such a way for which the feature extrac-
more security than other traditional methods for tion module would be appropriate for template
biometric information. The template generation generation and the system would not face the issue
directly depends on the feature extraction module. related to the security attacks. Deep learning models
So, there is need to improve the feature extraction will be used for it.
module and apply it effectively to the template
generation module. The feature extraction related
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6 Development of an analytical model of drain current
for junctionless GAA MOSFET including source/drain
resistance
Amrita Kumari1,a, Jhuma Saha2, Ashish Saini1 and Amit Kumar1
1
Quantum School of Technology, Quantum University, Roorkee, India
2
Indian Institute of Technology, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
Abstract
Fabrication of devices in deca nanometer regime suffers from several limitations as the devices are being scaled so that the
speed and transistor density can be increased. This has led to a series of innovative techniques by the industry as well as aca-
demia. Depletion regions formed in association with the p-n junctions is one of the restrictive factors in scaling short channel
devices in case of junction-based (JB) metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs). This has led to several
short channel effects (SCEs). Recently, novel MOSFET structures have been developed that are devoid of p-n junctions and
have also been successfully fabricated. These devices are named “junctionless transistors (JLTs)”. MOSFETs employing
gate-all-around (GAA) architecture have been reported as an ultimate structure in silicon integrated circuits (ICs). In this
paper, we have developed an analytical drain current model for short channel GAA JLT, including source (S)/drain (D) series
resistance, which is also one of the important parameters when devices with short channel are fabricated. We have obtained
the potential distribution profile using Poisson’s equation. It was then used for obtaining the model for drain current. The
validation of the model has been obtained with both the simulation as well as experimental results. We have further analyzed
the effect of S/D resistance on the drain current for different device parameters.
Keywords: GAA, junctionless, short channel
I. Introduction effectively controls the electrostatic potential inside
the channel is effectively under the control of the gate.
Limitations imposed on the fabrication techniques of
Incorporating GAA in JL devices can further enhance
devices as they are scaled in the nanometer regime,
the device characteristics (Colinge et al., 2010; Duarte
in accord with Moore’s law, led to the innovation of
et al., 2011; Yu, 2014). The current research therefore
alternative device structures. One of the challenging
focuses on the GAA JLTs.
factors that need to be overcome in short channel (SC)
Numerous reports exist in literature on modeling
junction-based (JB) devices is the fabrication of sharp
of drain current of long channel GAA JLT (Duarte et
and abrupt junction between the channel and source/
al., 2011; Yu, 2014). However, the modeling of short
drain (S/D) region. A lot of short channel effects
channel devices has been reported by only few of
(SCEs) are associated with creation of these junctions.
them (Hu et al., 2014; Jiang et al., 2014; Sehra et al.,
Such challenges led to the evolution of junctionless
2020; Raut and Nanda, 2022; Smaani et al., 2022). In
(JL) architecture in which the concentration of dop-
this paper, we have developed a drain current model
ants is uniform all over the S/D and channel region
of short channel GAA JLT, which is a recent area of
(Colinge et al., 2010). As a result, no exorbitant high-
research (Chaujar et al., 2023; Kumar et al., 2023;
speed annealing techniques are required. This lessens
Kumari et al., 2023; Smaani et al., 2023). We have
the demand on fabrication processes and the thermal
incorporated S/D series resistance in our model. The
budget (Colinge, 2007; Colinge et al., 2010). This
model is based on the previous compact model of
permits one to fabricate SC devices. Simple architec-
junction-based GAA MOSFETs (Tsormpatzoglou et
ture (no p-n junction), no concentration gradient, low
al., 2009). The S/D series resistance is a vital element
leakage and improved short channel characteristics
in modeling of SC devices as in such devices; the series
are some of the advantages of junctionless transistors
resistance becomes a considerable portion of the total
(JLTs).
resistance and hence needs to be considered in the
Compared to other multi-gate architectures,
device modeling. The validation of the model has been
Metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors
obtained with both the experimental as well as simu-
(MOSFETs) with Gate-all-around (GAA) struc-
lation data. The effect of changing series resistance on
ture provide better immunity to SCEs, as the gate
drain current characteristics has also been obtained.
a
[Link]@[Link]
44 Development of an analytical model of drain current for junctionless GAA MOSFET
II. Theoretical details voltage (VFB) of the device, a complete neutral chan-
nel is created and we reach flat band condition. The
GAA structures offer superior short-channel charac-
conduction and valence bands become flat and now
teristics owing to the excellent control the gate offers
we can say that the device is turned ON. An accumu-
over the channel in such structures. Due to the absence
lation layer is created at the surface on further increas-
of junctions in JLTs, there is no requirement of doping
ing the gate voltage and the negative charge carriers
concentration gradient and hence the problems asso-
get accumulated resulting in the flow of surface cur-
ciated with the junctions are eliminated. Such devices
rent along with the bulk current. Figure 6.2 depicts
are also reported to deliver improved driving current
the energy-band diagram of GAA JLT in different
and sub-threshold properties when combined with
regions of operation along with the device schematic.
GAA architecture. Figure 6.1 depicts the cross-section
For an n-type semiconductor, in the cylindrical
of such JL GAA MOSFET.
coordinate, the Poisson’s equation can be written as
Device physics
JLTs are characterized as devices that are strongly and
(1)
evenly doped throughout. This means the type of the
dopants and their concentration is same all over the
junction. For n-type devices, p+ polysilicon is used as
where, φ signifies the potential,
the gate material and n+ polysilicon is used for p-type
r represents the radial direction,
devices. This results in a difference of approximately
V is the applied voltage,
1 eV in the work function which causes the channel
Nd represents the concentration of dopant throughout
to deplete. To bring the channel out of depletion, gate
the source, drain and channel,
bias must be applied. The working principle of GAA
VT is thermal voltage, and
JLT is as follows.
εSi is the permittivity of Si.
When no gate voltage (VG) is applied, the channel
Neglecting depletion charge density and considering
is fully depleted and a negligible amount of current
only the mobile carrier’s density, the above equation
flows through the region between the S and D. In such
can be simplified (Trevisoli et al., 2012) as
a situation, the transistor is said to be in OFF con-
dition. This is the sub-threshold region of operation.
The valence band is completely filled while the con- (2)
duction band is empty. When the voltage applied at
the gate equals the device’s threshold voltage (VTH),
bulk current starts flowing along a thin neutral path,
which is a non-depleted region formed near the center
of the channel. The path gets widened on increasing
the gate voltage. This increases the current flowing
through it. This has been reflected in the energy band
diagram where it can be seen that the concentration of
positive charges in the valence band is reduced. When
the applied voltage at the gate is same as the flat-band
Figure 6.1 Cross-section of cylindrical gate-all-around
MOSFET Figure 6.2 GAA JLT in different regions of operation
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 45
Boundary conditions applied for the GAA MOSFET
can be expressed as (Jimenez et al., 2004)
(3)
The change due to shortening of channel is reflected
in the threshold voltage as ΔVTH, that can be expressed
as (Tsormpatzoglou et al., 2009)
(4)
where VTH,L and VTH,S are the long channel (Duarte et
al., 2011) and short channel (Chiang, 2012) threshold
voltages of GAA JLT, respectively.
The expression for drain current taking into
account the drift-diffusion model is given by
(5)
In the above equation, qi = Qi(V)/(4εsikT/qtsi), char-
acterizes the normalized sheet charge density, Qi sig-
nifies the inversion charge density, and V varies from
source to drain voltage.
On integrating the above equation, the drain cur-
rent expression attained is as follows:
(6)
The expression for mobility can be represented as
(Gaubert et al., 2010)
(7)
where, α accounts for the Coulomb scattering, θ1
represents the scattering due to phonons and θ2 rep-
resents the scattering due to surface roughness respec-
tively. VGS represents the gate to source voltage, µ0 is
the low field mobility. Further, we have used a factor
FCLM (Tsormpatzoglou et al., 2009) to consider the
effect of channel length modulation. FCLM can be
expressed as
(8)
where, the exponents A = 0.9 – (λ0/L) and B = 0.8(1+
(λ0/L)).
(9)
46 Development of an analytical model of drain current for junctionless GAA MOSFET
Figure 6.4 Drain current validation with the reported
data (a) Singh et al., (2011); (b) Moon et al., (2013).
(Parameters used: (a) L = 160 nm; ND = 6.7 × 1018 cm-3;
(b) L = 150 nm; Width of NW = 18 nm)
Figure 6.5 Drain current model validation with the ex-
Figure 6.3 Flowchart showing the calculation of IDS perimental data (Choi et al., 2011). (Parameters used:
L = 50 nm, EOT = 13 nm and ND = 2×1019 cm-3)
as experimental data. The verification has been done
for channel lengths that range from 20 nm to 160 nm. result (Choi et al., 2011). The gate length, doping
In our computations, Vsc and Qsc have the range from concentration and effective oxide thickness (EOT)
0.2 to 1.3. The validation with experimental data was taken to be 50 nm, 2×1019 cm-3 and 13 nm,
(Singh et al., 2011) and (Moon et al., 2013) has been respectively.
depicted in Figure 6.4 (a) and (b). In this paper, the extracted value of RSD = 15 KΩ
We have incorporated the effect of source-drain has been used for the computation of drain current.
series resistance (RSD) to validate the model accuracy The results obtained are in line with the experimental
with the experimental data. The source-drain series values with deviation from the reported one below
resistances used in the calculations were extracted 5%.
utilizing (Kim et al., 2013). The figure shows that the Simulation results have also been used to validate
model is in accord with the experimental records with the model.
deviation below 5%. The drain current characteristics of GAA JLT are
Figure 6.5 illustrates the graph of drain current with presented in Figure 6.6 (a) and (b). The current values
VDS with device parameters taken from experimental for different drain voltages having 20 nm and 30 nm
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 47
Figure 6.8 Variation of the drain current with different
drain voltages with and without S/D resistance (Param-
eters used: L = 50 nm, ND = 2×1019 cm-3, EOT = 13 nm,
Rsd = 15 kΩ)
Figure 6.6 Model validation with the reported data (a)
Hu et al. (2014); (b) Wang et al. (2014)
Figure 6.9 Drain current variation with gate overdrive
voltage with and without S/D resistance (Parameters
used: L = 50 nm, ND = 2×1019 cm-3, EOT = 13 nm,
RSD = 15 kΩ)
that the drain current decreases on inclusion of RSD,
due to the reduction in terminal voltages.
Figure 6.7 Comparison of simulated (Lou et al., 2012) The drain current variation with gate overdrive
and output characteristics of the model voltage (VGT = VGS – VTH) for different values of
S/D resistance has also been plotted and depicted in
Figure 6.9.
channel length, respectively have been depicted. As
shown in the figure, good accuracy of the proposed V. Conclusion
model has been obtained with the reported simulation
data (Hu et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2014). We have proposed a model of drain current for short
We have obtained one more graph for drain current channel JL GAA NW n- MOSFET. We have incor-
(Figure 6.7) to show the model validation with the porated S/D series resistance in our work. The vali-
simulated data (Lou et al., 2012). The channel length, dation has been obtained with experimental and
concentration of dopant and oxide thickness is taken simulated data. We have also presented algorithm, for
to be 40 nm, 2×1019 cm-3 and 2 nm, respectively. A the computation of the drain current which is based
good agreement of the calculated results has been on multi-iterative technique. These iterations are nec-
obtained with the simulated one, that further sup- essary because upon including S/D series resistance,
ports the accuracy of the model. the drain current transforms into the transcendental
equation, resulting in a number of coupled equations
involving the mobility, threshold voltage, and other
IV. Results and discussion
variables. The effect of RSD on the drain current has
Figure 6.8 depicts the change in drain current with also been investigated. The proposed model may be
and without incorporating RSD for different drain helpful to the research community in predicting the
voltages. It can be comprehended, from the figure, performance parameters of the devices and circuits
48 Development of an analytical model of drain current for junctionless GAA MOSFET
before going into final fabrication. This may save parameters of nanoscale strained silicon MOSFET-
time as well as resources. We have not taken quantum based CMOS inverters. Microelec. J., 55, 8–18.
mechanical effects into account which becomes sig- Subindu, K., Kumari, A., and Das, M. K. (2017). Model-
nificant in ultra scaled devices. ing gate-all-around Si/SiGe MOSFETs and circuits for
digital applications. J. Comput. Elec., 16, 47–60.
Amrita, K., Saini, A., Kumar, A., Kumar, V., and Kumar,
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7 Crop recommendation using machine learning
Paramveer Kaura and Brahmaleen Kaur Sidhu
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India
Abstract
Agriculture serves as the cornerstone of India’s economic expansion, constituting the primary income source for a significant
proportion of its populace, encompassing both those directly engaged in agricultural activities and those who depend on it
indirectly for their livelihoods. Therefore, it is essential for farmers to make the correct option possible when cultivating any
crop so that the farmer can make maximum profit from the agriculture field. To make the agriculture sector profitable, one
of the technologies that may be used in this age of rapid technological improvement is known as machine learning (ML). In
this research paper, various ML algorithms, such as logistic regression (LR), decision trees (DT), LightGBM, and random
forest (RF), have been utilized to analyze a dataset. The primary objective is to predict the most suitable crop based on soil
attributes such as (nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium) NPK content, humidity, temperature, soil pH level, and rainfall. Out of
this random forest and LightGBM comes with great accuracy whereas decision tree and logistic regression have less accuracy.
In addition, ML algorithms will likely find applications in a variety of agricultural subfields in the near future, including the
diagnosis of plant diseases, the selection of soil types, and the forecasting of retail pricing.
Keywords: Machine learning, crop recommendation, decision tree, random forest, logistic regression, LightGBM
I. Introduction solved by using the advanced technologies to improve
the agriculture sector. The farmer cannot predict the
The importance of agriculture to the Indian economy
weather but the technology can predict the climate
and to human life cannot be ignored. It serves as one
like rainfall, humidity and temperature based on past
of the main professions that are necessary for human
data and help famers in real manner.
existence. India’s population relies heavily on income
Precision agriculture (PA) is a method of farm man-
from agriculture and related industries. Around 82%
agement that takes into account the specific condi-
of farmers are classified as small and marginal, under-
tions of particular fields and crops via the collection,
scoring the central importance of agriculture as the
organization, and analysis of data (António Monteiro,
main source of income for 70% of rural households
2021). It is observed that in recent years precision
(Chavva, n.d.). The financial health of the agricultural
agriculture technologies have helped the farmers as
sector is tightly intertwined with the success of every
well as the environment by suggesting the required
harvest, which, in turn, is influenced by a wide range
amount of fertilizers, pesticides and water for crops.
of variables, including weather patterns, soil qual-
Farmers have got more profit by these technologies in
ity, fertilizer use, and market prices. Due to climate
terms of money also.
change it has become difficult for farmers to choose
In the realm of computer technology, the most
appropriate crop for particular season. Price of crops
recent advancements encompass block chain, inter-
given by the government to farmers also the effective
net of things (IoT), deep learning, machine learning
factor to grow any crop. According to National Crime
(ML) and cloud computing, which are useful for solv-
Records Bureau (NCRB) statistics, the farmer suicides
ing difficult problems in various fields like health,
rate has remained high between 2014 and 2020. In
biochemistry, agriculture, cybercrime, robotics, bank-
2014, 56 farmers have committed suicide, and by
ing, meteorology, medicine and robotics (Vishal
2020, the number has risen to 5,500 (Affarirs, n.d.).
Meshram, 2021). However in this paper, the focus is
The choice of crop to be sown depends on avail-
only on ML in agriculture. ML algorithms (Sharma et
ability of resources like soil, water, seed, manure, fer-
al., 2018) which are support vector machines, Naïve
tilizer and market profit. However, climate conditions
Bayes, neural network, decision tree (DT), K-Nearest
and soil properties are consider as natural parameters
Neighbor, XG-boost (e-Xtreme Gradient Boosting),
for the success of any crop grown by farmer. Due to
multi-variate linear regression, linear regression (LR),
variations in soil, water, and air quality throughout
chi-square automatic interaction detection (CHAID)
the year, it is difficult to predict how best to use dif-
and sliding window non-linear regression are helpful
ferent types of fertilizer and what crop to be grown.
at various stages of crop grown cycle and provides
The rate of agricultural output is falling continuously
maximum accuracy. In this proposed system out of
in this situation (Pande et al., 2021). The issues can be
a
paramveer1067@[Link]
50 Crop recommendation using machine learning
this four, ML models are deployed to make accurate farmers’ crop management issues like crop selection,
crop recommendations. yield, and profit. Researchers employ decision trees,
Naive Byes, SVM, LR, RF, and Xgboost. Pradeepa
II. Related work Bandara et al. developed a crop recommendation sys-
tem for Sri Lanka (Bandara et al., 2020). The study
Pudumalar et al. (2016) addressed precision agricul- provides a theoretical as well as a conceptual plat-
ture. This study proposes an ensemble model with form for a recommendation system using Arduino
majority voting technique utilizing RT, Naïve Bayes, microcontrollers, ML approaches such as Naive
CHAID, and K-nearest neighbor (KNN) as learn- Bayes (multi-nomial) and SVM and unsupervised ML
ers to effectively and correctly suggest a crop for algorithms that are K-Means Clustering and Natural
site-specific parameters. The study (Kanaga Suba Language Processing (NLP) (sentiment analysis).
Raja et al., 2017) analyses historical data to predict Avinash Kumar et al. (2019) addressed crop selection
a farmer’s crop output and price. Sliding window and disease issues. SVMs classification model, deci-
non-linear regression predicts agricultural output sion tree model, and logistic regression model were
depending on rainfall, temperature, market prices, used to create this recommendation system.
land area, and crop yield. Zeel Doshi et al. (2018)
developed a soil dataset-based crop recommendation
III. Objectives
system for only four crops. The ensemble model uses
random forest (RF), Naive Bayes, and linear support The aim of the proposed work is to implement ML
vector machines base learners. The majority voting algorithms for developing crop recommendation sys-
technique is employed in the combination approach tem and it is based on chemical properties of soil and
because it is the most accurate. The author uses Big weather condition and to evaluate the proposed system.
Data analytics and ML to create an AgroConsultant,
an system that assists Indian farmers choose the best IV. Background techniques
crop based on sowing season, farm location, soil
properties, and environmental factors like tempera- A. Logistic regression
ture and rainfall (Doshi et al., 2018). Rainfall predic- It is a ML algorithm primarily applied to classifica-
tor, another approach created by academics, predicts tion problems, operates on the foundation of predic-
annual precipitation. The system uses DT, KNN, RF, tive analysis rooted in probability (Rymarczyk et al.,
and neural networks. 2019). Notably, the LR model adopts a more intricate
Shilpa Mangesh Pande et al. (2021) provide farm- cost function than linear regression. This cost func-
ers a simple yield projection tool. Farmers utilize a tion, often referred to as the “Sigmoid function” or
smartphone app to connect to the internet. GPS “logistic function,” replaces the linear function. Due
locates users. Enter location and soil type. ML sys- to the fundamental premise of logistic regression, the
tems can identify the most profitable crops and pre- output range of the cost function is inherently con-
dict agricultural yields for user-selected crops. SVM, fined to the interval [0, 1]. This constraint stems from
RF, MLR, ANN, and KNN are used to predict agri- the nature of logistic regression, where it inherently
cultural production. The research (A et al., 2021) models the probability of an event occurring, ren-
suggests a way to assist farmers pick crops by con- dering linear functions unsuitable for capturing its
sidering planting time, soil qualities including type of nuances and characteristics.
soil, pH value, and nutrient content, meteorological
aspects like rainfall, temperature, and state location. B. Decision tree
The suggested system has been developed using linear When it comes to representing models for use in
regression as well as neural network. Another study data classification, decision trees are among the most
(Gosai et al., 2021) forecasts the best crop based on popular approaches (Jijo and Abdulazeez, 2021). DT
N, P, K, pH of soil, humidity, temperature, and rain- stand as versatile assets in numerous domains, span-
fall. Decision trees, SVM, Nave Bayes, Support vec- ning machine learning, image processing, and pattern
tor machine, LR, RF, and XGBoost were utilized to recognition. Their core role revolves around the task
develop suggested system, and the maximum accu- of classification and, as a result, they find wide appli-
racy was of XGBoost. Distribution analysis, majority cation as classifiers within the field of data mining.
voting, correlation analysis and ensembling are used These decision trees are architecturally composed of
to create 22 crop recommendations (Kulkarni et al., interconnected nodes and branches, each node rep-
2018). A three-level technique solves crop recommen- resenting a collection of attributes within discrete
dations. Chhikara et al. (2022) propose a ML-based classification categories. Each branch within the tree
crop recommender system that can accurately fore- signifies a potential value associated with the respec-
cast the yield of 22 different crop types, addressing tive node. Decision trees earn considerable favor for
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 51
their proficiency in swiftly and accurately managing
large datasets.
C. Random forest
In the field of ML, random forest, a supervised learn-
ing technique, has demonstrated considerable success.
It’s versatile and can handle various tasks like classifi-
cation and prediction. What sets random forest apart
is that it operates like a team of decision trees collabo-
rating to solve problems. Rather than rely on a one
decision tree, it combines the results of many trees,
each trained on different parts of the data. This coop-
erative approach enhances accuracy. Essentially, the
more trees in this “forest,” the better the performance,
and it’s less prone to errors (Dabiri et al., 2022; Gera
et al., 2021).
D. LightGBM
Tree-based learning algorithms are at the foundation
of LightGBM, a gradient boosting framework (Tang
et al., 2020). It has the many benefits because of its
decentralized and efficient design such as increased
efficiency and accelerated training time. It uses less
memory and allows for multi-GPU and distributed
learning. LightGBM has ability to process large Figure 7.1 Flow chart of proposed methodology
amount of data as well as gives enhanced precision.
Table 7.1 Feature description
V. Methodology
The proposed methodology has been shown in the Attribute Attribute description
Figure 7.1 to implement an accurate crop recommen-
Nitrogen Proportion of nitrogen amount in soil
dation system. The detailed process of developing rec-
Phosphorus Ratio of phosphorus content in soil
ommender system has been provided which includes
various stages data collection, data pre-processing, Potassium Ratio of potassium amount in soil
model development and training and testing. Rainfall Rainfall (mm)
In the first stage dataset used for proposed approach Humidity Relative humidity (%)
was retrieved from Github repository [Link] pH level Soil’s pH value
com/gabbygab1233/Crop-Recommender/blob/ main/
Temperature Temperature (degree celsius)
Crop_recommendation.csv. The dataset is combina-
tion of rainfall, climate and fertilizers dataset which
is collected from Indian data available for agriculture
sector. Table 7.1 shows the description of features Table 7.2 Accuracy of algorithms
that has been used. It has 8 features and 2200 records.
The preparation of the collected raw data to make Algorithm/classifier Predicted accuracy
it appropriate for use in building the ML model is the
LightGBM 0.99
next step. This is the initial and most crucial step in
Decision tree 0.98
the creation of an ML model. The data that is avail-
able on different sources is not clean always. Data Random forest 0.99
must be cleaned and formatted before any action can Logistic regression 0.95
be performed on it. Pre-processing the data is neces-
sary for this purpose.
crop recommendation system, including LR, DT, RF,
VI. Results
and LightGBM. The accuracy of mentioned algo-
Table 7.2 displays the performance of machine learn- rithms has been assessed using evaluation parameters
ing approaches employed in the development of a such as precision, recall, F1-score, and support.
52 Crop recommendation using machine learning
Precision is imperative to explore innovative solutions. In
It indicates the percentage of accurate predictions this research paper, a crop recommendation system
executed by the model. It specifically assesses the clas- powered by ML technologies is introduced. The sys-
sifier’s capacity to correctly discern instances as either tem is designed to help farmers in making accurate
positive or negative. The precision parameter is deter- decision when choosing the crop varieties based on
mined by dividing the accurately predicted positive the intricate interplay of soil attributes and weather
counts by the sum of all predictions, encompassing conditions.
both correct and incorrect classifications.
VIII. Conclusion
The research paper introduces a crop recommenda-
tion system designed for farmers to make optimal crop
Recall
choices through predictive analytics. This system takes
It denotes the percentage of positive cases success-
into account critical parameters, such as soil charac-
fully identified by the model. It quantifies a classifier’s
teristics (NPK content, pH, and humidity), along with
ability to effectively locate all instances that belong to
meteorological factors (temperature and rainfall). To
the designated target class. The recall metric is com-
develop this system, ML approaches, including LR,
puted by dividing the count of correct predictions for
DT, RF along with LightGBM, are employed. This
the target class by the total number of predictions
algorithms have been applied on collected dataset.
made, encompassing both accurate and inaccurate
Dataset was normally distributed with negligible out-
classifications.
liers and this is analyzed after pre-processing steps.
LightGBM and RF exhibit the highest accuracy among
various algorithms. Looking forward, enhancing the
system’s performance is achievable through the con-
F1-score tinuous updating of datasets, ensuring its alignment
It signifies the proportion of positive predictions that with evolving agricultural conditions. Moreover, the
are accurate. This metric is computed from the combi- system’s scope can be expanded to include crop dis-
nation of both precision and recall, and it falls within ease detection which can assist farmers in maximizing
a range from 1.0 – indicating the best performance benefits in the agriculture sector.
to 0.0 – representing the worst. Given that F1-scores
encompass both precision and recall in their compu-
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8 Environment and sustainability development: A ChatGPT
perspective
Priyanka Bhaskar1 and Neha Seth2,a
1
Assitant Professor, School of Commerce and Management, Central University of Rajasthan, Kishangarh, Ajmer, India
2
Associate Professor, Symbiosis Institute of Business Management, Noida Symbiosis International (Deemed Univer-
sity), Pune, India
Abstract
Artificial Intelligence (AI) and sustainability are two sides of same coin. AI is a reliable ally in the fight for sustainability,
leading us to a brighter future. AI illuminates renewable energy, resource management, and eco-friendly decision-making by
analyzing large datasets. However, the energy usage and carbon footprint of AI models and AI sustainability are increasingly
under review. This research paper examines the environmental implications of AI models, focusing on ChatGPT, and empha-
sizes the necessity for sustainable AI development. Recent studies show that AI model creation and use significantly impact
the global carbon footprint due to energy, water, and carbon emissions. With its massive computational needs, ChatGPT con-
tributes to environmental issues. To tackle this dilemma, sustainable AI development must be promoted. Model compression,
quantization, and knowledge distillation improve AI energy efficiency. The use of renewable energy and the establishment
and enforcement of AI model energy efficiency requirements are equally crucial. ChatGPT and comparable models can be
environmentally friendly by using sustainable AI development methods. In this line, the objective of the present study is to
analyze the impact of the use of AI tools, specifically ChatGPT, on sustainability and environmental protection by analyzing
existing reports and studies on the environmental impact of artificial intelligence models.
Academicians, developers, politicians, institutions and organizations must work together to create rules and frameworks
for energy-efficient AI algorithms, renewable energy use, and responsible deployment. This study article concludes that AI
models’ energy usage and carbon footprint must be understood and reduced. By promoting sustainable practices, the AI
community may encourage a more environmentally sensitive and responsible approach to AI development, leading to a
greener future that meets global sustainability goals.
Keywords: Artificial intelligence, AI-language models, ChatGPT, environmental impact, carbon footprint, water footprint,
greenhouse gas emissions, energy consumption, sustainability, mitigation strategies
I. Introduction tons that each human emits annually. Similarly, it also
produces a considerable water footprint, mostly due
It cannot be denied that artificial intelligence (AI) is
to the training process, which uses a lot of energy and
already transforming the world and will continue to
turns it into heat, necessitating surprisingly sufficient
do so. Even while AI has the potential to be bene-
freshwater to keep equipment cool and sustain tem-
ficial, society may suffer due to it. ChatGPT, a siz-
peratures (Patterson, 2022).
able language model created by Open AI, is one such
Therefore, the objective of the present study is to
prominent AI model which has gained widespread
analyze the impact of the use of AI tools, specifically
application. The worldwide market size for AI is
ChatGPT, on sustainability and environmental pro-
US$ 2,00,000 million in 2023 and it is expected to
tection by analyzing existing reports and studies on
grow by almost 9 times to reach US$ 1,85,000 by
the environmental impact of artificial intelligence
2030 ([Link]). Due to its outstanding Natural
models.
Language Processing (NLP) abilities, ChatGPT has
The content collected for this study is secondary
drawn much attention and, without a doubt, made
in nature and was gathered from different sources,
everyone’s life simpler. But ChatGPT has a price,
such as digital articles, papers, research papers from
just as anything worthwhile has a price. The energy
reputed journals, government websites, [Link],
required for building and training this AI system
etc. This paper will outline a comprehensive overview
results in substantial negative environmental costs,
of the present state of knowledge in this field so far.
such as generating a substantial carbon and water
The effects of artificial intelligence are explored on
footprint that are frequently disregarded.
the environment, with special reference to ChatGPT.
According to data and calculations, ChatGPT gen-
The study also investigates environmental problems
erates 8.4 metric tons of carbon dioxide per year to
and continues to increase the energy efficiency of AI
run the data centers, more than double the 4 metric
neha_seth01@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 55
models by addressing such challenges. Suggestions for significantly impacts business sustainability. Ray
the adoption of sustainable practices and the usage of (2023) asked ChatGPT how it will play a significant
renewable energy sources in all fields are part of the role in agricultural science and technology in future
study. This article addresses the environmental effect and got responses which may lead to the sustainable
of ChatGPT and offers suggestions for sustainable AI development of the farming sector.
development, but it also has certain restrictions and After refereeing a number of research papers and
opens up avenues for future exploration. articles published on ChatGPT and its application in
The study highlights the need to take into account various fields, it was found that individually many
the ecological implications of AI systems and the papers talk about the application of ChatGPT in vari-
demand for sustainable practices in creating and ous areas for sustainable development and extend-
implementing them. The last part includes the conclu- ing similar work, in this study, authors are trying to
sion and future prospects of the study. analyze the impact of the use of AI tools, specifically
ChatGPT, on sustainability and environmental pro-
II. Review of literature tection by analyzing existing reports and studies on
the environmental impact of artificial intelligence
In the contemporaneous literature available in the models.
field of information technology, numerous studies are
available that provide information about the chatbots,
III. ChatGPT and potential areas of concern
language models and IT platforms. This section pres-
ents the evolvement of research based on ChatGPT Kain (2023) stated that ChatGPT is an advanced
and its relation to sustainable development. language model developed by OpenAI and released
Zhu et al. (2023) raised concerns about environ- in November 2022. The acronym “ChatGPT” com-
mental issues due to the introduction of another natu- bines the terms “Chat”, which refers to the chatbot
ral language processing model, ChatGPT. They have functionality of the framework, and “GPT” stands for
used ten real-world examples to study the impact of “Generative Pre-trained Transformer” and it is a type
ChatGPT and its impact on the environment. Another of Large Language Model (LLM). ChatGPT is based
study by Khowaja et al. (2023) focused on an aspect on the core GPT models from OpenAI, GPT-3.5 and
of large language models which were ignored, includ- GPT-4, which provide conversational interaction
ing sustainability, privacy, digital divide and ethics (Lund et al., 2023).
(SPADE) and based on primary data and visualization, To generate intelligent and captivating text-based
they suggested that not only ChatGPT other models replies to user input, the latest AI conversation tool
should also undergo SPADE analysis. George (2023) takes advantage of the most recent advancements in
raised the issue of water consumption by ChatGPT. It machine learning as well as natural language process-
was found that the water consumption by AI models ing (NLP) (Bhaskar, 2022).
is relatively less than in other industries but it is still OpenAI launched in November 2022, ChatGPT
a matter of concern, and it should be further reduced revolutionized how people interact globally by pro-
by taking appropriate measures like improving energy ducing replies to common writing jobs in seconds.
efficiency, utilizing renewable energy sources, opti- Despite the fact that ChatGPT’s “outputs may be
mizing algorithms and implementing strategies to inaccurate, untruthful, and otherwise misleading at
conserve water. times”, as stated in its FAQs, the model’s speed and
Biswas (2023) integrated with ChatGPT to get adaptability make it widely applicable for simple
responses on the effect of ChatGPT on global warm- writing tasks, including cover letters, and many more
ing and analyzed the replies received. Biswas con- uncountable things.
cluded that ChatGPT can be used in various ways to ChatGPT does not directly impact the environ-
aid climate research, including model “parameteriza- ment because it is an AI language model. However,
tion, data analysis and interpretation, scenario gen- the infrastructure and data centers needed to support
eration, and model evaluation”. Sohail et al. (2023) ChatGPT, as well as the technology that enables it, may
reviewed 100 Scopus papers on ChatGPT and found have an impact on the environment. Such as training
that ChatGPT has applications in various fields like and operating complex language models like GPT-3
healthcare, marketing and financial services, software require a substantial amount of computer power,
engineering, academic and scientific writing, research which is why ChatGPT uses a lot of energy. If the
and education, environmental science, and natural energy required to power data centers and computer
language processing and its potential to address real- infrastructure comes from non-renewable sources, it
world problems. Vrontis et al. (2023) analyzed the may cause carbon emissions and environmental dam-
role of ChatGPT and skilled employees in business age (Teubner, 2023). Also, the energy needed to run
sustainability and found that leadership motivation AI models results in the emission of carbon dioxide
56 Environment and sustainability development: A ChatGPT perspective
and other greenhouse gases, which fuel global warm- ChatGPT’s 1 million users sent one request each day,
ing. The carbon footprint of ChatGPT and other AI ChatGPT would get the same number of requests per
systems depends on factors such as the energy source, day as BLOOM did at that time. At least based on the
cooling requirements, and hardware efficiency (An et volume of discussion about ChatGPT in traditional
al., 2023; Khattar et al., 2020). and social media platforms, ChatGPT handles far
ChatGPT needs a lot of processing and storage more daily requests than similar services. Although
power, which is often provided by big data centers. there is a great deal of ambiguity around this estimate
Massive amounts of water are used to cool these data since it is founded on some dubious presumptions,
centers, which leads to a water footprint. Apart from compared to in-depth analyses of BLOOM’s carbon
that, they also need various other materials like metals footprint, a comparable linguistic model, it seems
and minerals to build and maintain them (Qin, 2023). plausible.
As AI technology develops quickly and becomes obso- Figure 8.1 ([Link]) shows the energy con-
lete, it may cause an increase in e-waste as outmoded sumed by AI models during training is significant, with
gear is discarded. E-waste poses environmental risks both GPT-3, the first version of the current edition of
due to improper disposal, as it often contains hazard- OpenAI’s popular ChatGPT, and Gopher requiring
ous and toxic elements (Khan, 2023). well over a thousand-megawatt hours of electricity.
Because this is solely for the training model, the over-
IV. ChatGPT’s: Creating carbon footprint all energy consumption of GPT-3 and other LLMs is
expected to be substantially greater. GPT-3, the great-
The phrase “carbon footprint” denotes the total est energy user, consumed nearly the equivalent of
quantity of “carbon dioxide (CO2)” pollutants gener- 200 Germans in 2022. While not enormous, it repre-
ated by a particular person or a company (such as a sents a significant usage of energy.
nation, business, building, etc.). Both immediate emis- While it is undeniable that training LLMs requires
sions from the energy generation that drives consumer a significant amount of energy, the energy sav-
products and services and further emissions from the ings are anticipated to be significant. Any AI model
burning of fossil fuels for industry, transportation, that improves operations by a fraction of a second
and heating make up this total. Additionally, meth- might save hours of shipping, liters of gasoline, or
ane, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) hundreds of computations. Each consumes energy,
emissions are frequently taken into consideration and the total amount of energy saved by an LLM
when discussing a carbon footprint idea (An et al., may considerably outpace its energy cost. Mobile
2023; Euronews, 2023). phone carriers are an excellent example, with one-
Kain (2023) stated that the carbon footprint of third expecting AI to lower power usage by 10 per
creating ChatGPT isn’t public information, but if cent to 15 per cent. Given how much of the world
understood correctly, it is based on a GPT-3 variation. relies on mobile phones, this would be a significant
Estimates show that training GPT-3 consumed 1,287 energy saver. The CO2 emissions from training LLMs
MWh and generated 552 tons of CO2. are also significant, with GPT-3 emitting over 500
Mclean’s (2023) research paper stated that it is tons of CO2. This, too, might be drastically altered
most certainly considerably greater than that of GPT- depending on the sorts of energy generation that
3. The energy expenditures would increase if it had to cause the emissions. Most data center operators,
be rebuilt frequently in order to refresh its knowledge. for example, would want to have nuclear energy, a
The amount of carbon dioxide that ChatGPT is esti-
mated to produce annually is 8.4 tons, which is more
than twice as much as the annual emissions of a single
person. i.e., 4 tons.
ChatGPT’s daily emissions of 23.04 kg of CO2 per
day would add up to 414.72 kg CO2 during the course
of 18 days and on the contrary, Big Science Large
Open-science Open-access Multilingual Language
Model (BLOOM) (Luccioni, 2022) released 360
kg of CO2 during the course of 18 days. The differ-
ence between the two emission estimates can be due
to many things, including the varying carbon inten-
sities of the electricity (Jiafu, 2023) generated by Figure 8.1 Power usage for training large language
BLOOM and ChatGPT. It’s also crucial to remember models (LLMs) based on AI in 2023 (in megawatt
that BLOOM handled 230,768 requests in total over hours)
18 days, or 12,820 on average every day. If 1.2% of Source: Statista
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 57
notably low-emission energy generator, play a big well over a thousand-megawatt hours of electricity.
role. Because this is solely for the training model, the over-
Figure 8.2 ([Link]) shows how the develop- all energy consumption of GPT-3 and other large lan-
ing world is making the most aggressive efforts to guage models (LLMs) is expected to be substantially
reduce emissions from AI models used in organiza- greater.
tions. This covers enormous regions in India, Africa, Figure 8.4 ([Link]) shows CO2 emissions
Latin America, and the Middle East, including a siz- from AI are significant compared to the average
able chunk of the planet and most of its inhabitants. human emission in 2022. GPT-3 training, not includ-
The proportion of organizations tackling emissions in ing the model that is now operating, produced more
those regions is approximately double that of North than a hundred individuals in a year. Training Gopher
America. North American and European organiza- was the equivalent of seventeen Americans’ emissions.
tions are taking fewer steps, which might be due to While the figure may appear considerable, it must be
the fact that the energy utilized to power this technol- seen from the perspective of potential emission reduc-
ogy on those continents is often greener than in the tions through more efficient business strategies.
developing world. It is observed from Figure 8.5 ([Link]) that
Figure 8.3 ([Link]) shows the energy con- the power consumption while training AI-based LLM
sumed by AI models during training is significant, with
both GPT-3, the first version of the current edition of
OpenAI’s popular ChatGPT, and Gopher requiring
Figure 8.2 Global share of organizations taking steps
to reduce carbon emissions from AI use in 2022
Figure 8.4 Machine learning (ML) platform emissions
Source: *Includes Hong Kong and Taiwan **Includes India,
Latin America, Middle East, North Africa, and Sub-Saharan in tons of CO2 equivalent in 2022
Africa. Source: Statista
Figure 8.3 Emissions when training AI-based large lan- Figure 8.5 Power consumption when training AI based
guage models (LLMs) in 2022 (in CO2 equivalent tons) large language models (LLMs)
58 Environment and sustainability development: A ChatGPT perspective
bottle, making the overall water footprint for infer-
ence significant given its billions of users. Therefore,
the water footprint of chat GPT and other AI systems
has no doubt become an increasingly significant envi-
ronmental issue as the use of AI continues to grow
(Mclean, 2023).
According to Yadav (2023), the water footprint of
AI refers to the quantity of water used to generate
electricity and provide cooling for data centers that
run AI models. The water footprint has two compo-
nents: direct water consumption and indirect water
consumption.
AI’s water footprint uses a lot of fresh water, which
Figure 8.6 Global share of organizations taking action adds to the problem of water shortage. sourced from
in reducing carbon emissions from their AI use in 2022
natural sources, such as lakes and rivers for manu-
facturing and processing of hardware and semicon-
is maximum in the case of ChatGPT as compared to ductors, as well as for cooling AI infrastructure. So,
Goopher, BLOOM and OPT. this makes the world’s water shortage problem worse.
Figure 8.6 ([Link]) demonstrates the global Furthermore, water shortage disproportionately
share of organizations taking action to reduce carbon affects vulnerable groups whose survival depends
emissions from their AI use during 2022, the data is on scarce water resources. By allocating water away
displayed according to region. From the figure, it is from regions that need it the most, the water require-
visible that contribution from developing markets ments of AI can worsen already existing inequalities
is highest in taking actions, followed by Asia-Pacific (Alam, 2022; Nova, 2023).
region and Greater China (including Taiwan and Large-scale water withdrawals from rivers and
Hong Kong) and Europe, while North America con- streams can alter natural water flows and lower the
tributes the least. quantity of water available for other purposes, includ-
ing agriculture and drinking water (Srivastava et al.,
2022). This may result in decreased water quality, a
V. ChatGPT: Water footprint and environment
fall in aquatic habitats, and biodiversity loss.
Van (2021) stated in his research paper that the The cooling of data centers generates large amounts
amount of freshwater (David, 2023) utilized to train of wastewater, which can contain a range of pollut-
AI models is referred to as their “water footprint” and ants. If this effluent isn’t correctly handled, it may
run these models. This encompasses both the water have an adverse effect on the environment, causing
necessary to produce electricity and cool the servers local water sources to become
utilized by AI models and the water used to create the Due to the high energy requirements for data center
hardware parts of these models. Although AI models cooling, the energy consumption of AI systems is inti-
use very little water directly, the indirect water con- mately related to the water they use. When fossil fuels
sumption related to their development and upkeep are used to provide this energy, greenhouse gas emis-
can be substantial. sions may be produced, which contributes to climate
Researchers at the University of California, Riverside change (Sharma, 2019). In addition, the manufacturing
have identified the water footprint of AI models, and shipping of the hardware for AI systems consumes
namely ChatGPT-3 and 4. According to the study, energy which increases greenhouse gas emissions.
Microsoft utilized over 700,000 gallons of fresh water Apart from its long-term sustainability should also
for GPT-3 training in its data centers, the same amount be taken into account. If the water footprint problem
of water required to make 370 BMW automobiles is not solved, the growing AI sector can put further
or 320 Tesla cars. This is mostly due to the training stress on the water supply. Since both the growth of
procedure, during which large amounts of energy are AI and the availability of water depend on water, it is
lost and converted into heat, requiring an astonishing essential to address the water footprint.
quantity of freshwater to regulate temperatures and
cool down equipment (Mclean, 2023; Yadav, 2023). VI. Environmental impacts of ChatGPT and it’s
Furthermore, when ChatGPT is utilized for feasibility
activities like replying to queries or producing text,
Additionally, the model consumes a lot of water to Kain (2023) stated that from the consumers’ perspec-
make its inferences. The amount of water used in a tive, it is obvious that there is very little space for
basic chat of 20–50 answers is similar to a 500 ml action in terms of minimizing environmental effects;
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 59
nevertheless, providers have a number of options for Figure 8.7 ([Link]) shows that when AI tools
reducing their digital footprint. were employed, organizations in 2022 were primarily
Table 8.1 represents the steps that are effective in concerned with reducing their physical influence on
reducing the environmental impact of Chat GPT: the environment. This is most likely owing to such
These steps are effective in reducing the environ- enhanced efficiency simply translating to improved
mental impact of ChatGPT. However, their effective- corporate growth and expenses. Organizations priori-
ness depends on the specific circumstances of the data tize ethical product sourcing since it may sometimes
center where ChatGPT is located. Some solutions result in direct cost increases to manufacturing and
may be more feasible than others based on the loca- supply lines.
tion of the data center, the type of hardware used, and
other factors.
For example, optimizing the location of a data
center may not be feasible in all cases. Data centers
may be located in areas with limited access to cooler
climates or water sources. In these cases, alternative
cooling methods or improving energy efficiency may
be more feasible solutions (Mclean, 2023).
1. Improving the organizations environmental im-
pact (e.g., improving energy efficiency, optimiz-
ing transportation)
2. Evaluating sustainability efforts (e.g., bench-
marking)
3. Improving the organization’s governance (e.g.,
regulatory compliance, risk management)
4. Improving the organization’s social impact (e.g., Figure 8.7 Types of sustainability activities in which
sourcing ethical products). respondents’ organizations using AI in 2022
Table 8.1 Effective steps for reducing environmental impact of ChatGPT
Choose required information The cost of training a model may be greatly decreased by utilizing just the necessary
data or by successfully adapting current models for a new purpose, making AI more
viable
Invest in green energy In order to decrease CO2 emissions, efforts are needed to increase the use of renewable
energy sources in data centers. Therefore, it is advisable and essential to rely on cloud
service providers to make sure that electricity is delivered from renewable energy
Reduce unnecessary Unnecessary computations should be reduced in order to lower the overall workload of
computations ChatGPT. By improving the model’s data processing methods and algorithms, this can
be accomplished. Less energy and water will be needed to power ChatGPT by reducing
the amount of computing that is not required
Monitoring and analyzing It’s crucial to routinely track and evaluate ChatGPT’s water usage. Data center
water consumption operators may use this to streamline their processes and find places where water usage
can be decreased
Advocate for greater The creation and maintenance of measurements and standards for assessing the energy
transparency efficiency of creating and implementing ML models is one approach to resolving this
problem (Henderson et al., 2020)
Optimize data center location Locate and promote areas with the potential to host greater amounts of renewable
energy and data centers with reduced carbon footprints
Prolonging life of AI models Increasing the longevity of AI technology and infrastructure through upkeep,
maintenance, and updates can cut down on the production of electronic waste. To
minimize environmental impact, it is also crucial to recycle and properly dispose of old
AI technology
Encourage environmental Environmental awareness is critical because it will help promote responsible AI
awareness industry practices that will open the door for “greener” AI. One tactic for doing this is
to emphasize the limitations of language models and to lessen the excitement around
novel, eye-catching AI systems like ChatGPT. We may actively support new lines of
inquiry that do not simply rely on creating more complicated ones (Zhu, 2023)
60 Environment and sustainability development: A ChatGPT perspective
VII. Conclusion a future in which AI innovations like ChatGPT con-
tribute to a sustainable and environmentally friendly
In conclusion, our study has highlighted the impor-
society by putting the suggestions made in this study
tance of sustainability in AI development and shed
into practice.
light on ChatGPT’s negative environmental effects.
Unquestionably, ChatGPT’s ability to transform sev-
eral sectors and enhance people’s lives is one of its VIII. Recommendations and suggestions
strongest assets. However, the massive amounts of It is drawn from the reports by McKinsey & Co.
computing power needed to develop and maintain and extracted from [Link] that organizations,
ChatGPT have negative environmental effects. nowadays, are trying to improve their environmental
The findings of this research highlight the exces- impact, organization governance, and social impact
sive energy consumption associated with training and while evaluating sustainability efforts. This study
running ChatGPT models. The carbon footprint gen- addresses the environmental effect of ChatGPT and
erated by these processes raises concerns about the offers suggestions for sustainable AI development, but
contribution of AI development to climate change and it also has certain restrictions and opens up avenues
environmental degradation. Moreover, the extensive for future exploration.
data requirements for training ChatGPT raise ethical Some limitations of this study involve the lack of
questions regarding privacy, data collection, and the primary data in this study. As this study relies solely
potential exploitation of personal information. on secondary data, it may be limited by the avail-
To address these issues, the paper proposes several ability and quality of the existing studies and reports.
recommendations for sustainable AI development. Therefore, more comprehensive and accurate empiri-
In the first place, there is a requirement for greater cal data on the environmental impact of AI models
accountability and openness within the AI community. like ChatGPT is necessary to validate the findings and
When training and using AI models like ChatGPT, recommendations.
developers and organizations should be transparent Due to differences in methodologies, reporting
about the energy used and carbon emissions pro- standards, or particular purposes of the research
duced. This transparency will enable researchers, examined, secondary data sources may show biases
policymakers, and the public to make informed deci- or inconsistencies. These restrictions may impact the
sions and encourage the adoption of energy-efficient generalizability and overall reliability of the findings.
practices. Secondary data sources could lack precise contextual
The research also promotes the creation and appli- information regarding the AI models under analysis,
cation of renewable energy sources for the purpose of such as geographical differences, data center locations
powering AI infrastructure. The environmental effect or particular hardware configurations. This restric-
of AI systems may be considerably reduced by switch- tion may affect the findings’ accuracy and suitability
ing from fossil fuels to clean energy. To facilitate this for use in practical situations.
shift, cooperation between energy suppliers, politi-
cians, and AI developers is essential.
The study also stresses the significance of optimiz- IX. Future prospect of the study
ing AI models to lower computing demands without Future research could build upon the existing study by
sacrificing performance. AI systems may reduce their addressing the limitations and exploring the primary
energy consumption and environmental impact using data. In order to strengthen the research, future stud-
methods like model compression, knowledge distilla- ies should take into account primary data collection
tion, and effective algorithms. techniques, such as direct measurements, experiments,
Finally, the study emphasizes the need for contin- interviews and surveys. This strategy would give more
ued AI research and innovation. The development of accurate and thorough details on the energy usage,
sustainable AI solutions can be aided by encouraging carbon footprint, and overall environmental effects
multidisciplinary partnerships between environmen- of AI models. Conducting a holistic assessment of
tal scientists and professionals in artificial intelligence. the environmental impact of AI systems, considering
These initiatives may result in the developing strong, all stages of their lifecycle, including manufacturing,
effective, and environmentally responsible AI models. operation, and disposal, to understand the complete
In conclusion, while ChatGPT and similar AI sustainability picture. While the study emphasized
models hold immense potential, their environmen- ChatGPT’s environmental effect, comparing that
tal impact cannot be ignored. To secure a peaceful impact to that of other AI models or to more con-
coexistence between technological progress and the ventional human procedures can offer a wider per-
preservation of our planet, sustainability in AI devel- spective. Comparative research between various AI
opment is crucial. We can create the conditions for architectures or environmental impact testing of AI
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 61
models against human performance would provide nov. J., 1(2), 97–104. doi: [Link]
important insights into the relative sustainability of zenodo.7855594.
AI development. Collaborative working with busi- Jiafu, A. N., Wenzhi, D. I. N. G., and Chen, L. I. N. (2023).
ness stakeholders, AI developers, and environmen- Correspondence: ChatGPT: Tackle the growing car-
bon footprint of generative AI. Nature, 615(7953),
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586. doi:[Link]
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2.
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and norms. Mehreen, K. and Chaudhry, M. N. (2023). Artificial intel-
As time goes on carrying out longitudinal studies ligence and the future of impact assessment. Available
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iv.2305.03123.
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9 GAI in healthcare system: Transforming research in
medicine and care for patients
Mahesh A.1,a, Angelin Rosy M.2, Vinodh Kumar M.3, Deepika P.4,
Sakthidevi I.5 and Sathish C.6
1,4
Sri Sairam College of Engineering, Karnataka, India
2,6
Er. Perumal Manimekalai College of Engineering, Tamilnadu, India
3
P.S.V College of Engineering and Technology, Tamilnadu, India
5
Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Tamilnadu, India
Abstract
GAI also known as generative artificial intelligence, represents a category of artificial intelligence (AI) that possesses the
capability to produce novel content, encompassing images, written text, and music. Although it remains in its emerging
phases of advancement, this technology holds the promise of revolutionizing numerous sectors, ranging from healthcare and
finance to entertainment. The subject of GAI is rapidly developing and holds the capacity to transform the field of health-
care. The adoption of GAI technology has revolutionized the healthcare industry, transforming the way patients are treated
and medical research is conducted. This article explores the many potential applications of GAI in healthcare, including its
ability to improve diagnostic accuracy, optimize treatment, accelerate drug discovery, and enhance medical image analysis.
GAI, as demonstrated by advanced neural network algorithms like variational autoencoders (VAEs) and generative adver-
sarial networks (GANs) enables healthcare practitioners, medical analyst, technologist and scientists to generate realistic
and high-fidelity medical data. Using this technology, medical professionals can improve diagnosis accuracy by combining
varied information about patients, allowing for more robust and individualized treatment strategies. Furthermore, GAI aids
in the generation of realistic medical images, allowing medical practitioners to better grasp and interpret difficult illnesses.
In the field of drug exploration, GAI speeds up the process for determining possible compounds and molecules, saving time
and money over traditional methods. It investigates how GAI encourages interaction among human experts and artificially
intelligent machines, allowing medical practitioners to make better decisions. This complementary partnership takes use of
the capacity of artificial intelligence to analyze large datasets, detect trends, and recommend viable treatment paths, while
human knowledge provides the context-sensitive knowledge required for informed decision-making. Ethical concerns and
obstacles related with the application of GAI to medical procedures are also addressed, with an emphasis on the importance
of responsible application, data protection, and transparency. The healthcare sector aspires ready to bring in a new era of
distinctive effective and cost-effective treatment for patients and research in medicine by adopting the revolutionary potential
of GAI and managing its ethical consequences.
Keywords: Generative artificial intelligence, healthcare, generative adversarial networks, variational autoencoders, ethical
I. Introduction and implications for ethics. Employing an extensive
dataset for machine learning (ML) model training can
In recent years, generative artificial intelligence (GAI)
result in the emergence of a robust GAI system. The
has been gaining significant traction. It is not unex-
model acquires the data’s patterns and framework,
pected that healthcare and GAI are becoming increas-
and it can subsequently be used to produce new
ingly popular. Artificial intelligence (AI) has swiftly
data with comparable features. There are numerous
altered several industries, including the medical field. In
approaches to building a GAI system, but in the fol-
healthcare, one subset of AI which is GAI has emerged
lowing sections some of those that are most common
as an immersive changer (Mondal et al., 2023).
are discussed.
Generative artificial intelligence machines are capa-
ble of producing latest information, images, or even
whole instances of art. The use of this technology a. Generative adversarial networks (GANs)
has enormous potential in healthcare for improving A sort of neural network in which two models com-
diagnostics, drug discovery, patient care, and medical pete against after other. The generator and discrimi-
research. This article investigates the possible applica- nator are two neural networks that compete against
tions and positive aspects of creative AI in healthcare, each other to generate and identify real and fake data.
as well as, the problems related to implementation The two models interact with each other, and the
a
sathishinfy@[Link]
64 GAI in healthcare system: Transforming research in medicine and care for patients
generator improves over time at producing data that in the upcoming years thanks to the ongoing develop-
is accurate. ment of this technology (Singh et al., 2019; Jovanović
et al., 2022; Samant et al., 2022).
b. Variational autoencoders (VAEs)
VAEs are a type of neural network that can compress II. Evolution of GAI
data into a smaller, hidden space, and then decom-
press it back to the original data. The latent space is a The advent of GAI signifies resulted in substantial
space with fewer dimensions that captures the data’s advances in ML and AI. In the following sections,
basic characteristics. After learning to represent data a timeline of how generative AI has progressed is
in the space known as the latent space, the VAE can discussed.
be used to produce new data by sampling points from
the latent space and decoding these again into the a. Beginning principles (1950–1990s)
data that was originally collected space. During the early years of AI research, the underlying
principles of GAI were established. In domains such
c. Recurrent neural networks (RNNs) as natural language processing and music creation,
RNNs are a type of neural network system that is researchers investigated rule-based systems and sym-
capable of processing sequential data. As a result, bolic representations to generate content.
they are well-suited for generating text, music, and
other sorts of data with a periodic order. b. The rebirth of neural networks in the 2000s
The various approaches needed to build a GAI sys- The “deep learning revolution,” or the resurrection of
tem will vary depending on the application. GANs, artificial neural networks, was critical in the creation
for instance, are frequently used to produce images, of generative artificial intelligence. Neural networks
but VAEs are frequently used to generate text. The with deep learning revealed the ability to learn data
following are some of the steps involved in developing hierarchies, allowing for the development of higher-
a GAI system: level and more intricate outputs (Davies et al., 2021).
i. Data collection: The initial step involves gather- c. Variational autoencoders (VAEs) (2013)
ing an extensive array of data pertinent to the VAEs pioneered a probabilistic approach to genera-
intended application. For instance, if the goal is tive modeling. To construct a latent space represen-
to create cat photographs, the initial task entails tation of data, they incorporated aspects from both
amassing a dataset comprising images of cats. generative and recognition models. VAEs enabled
ii. Dataset pre-processing: Before the data can be seamless interpolation and manipulation of latent
employed for model training, it might necessitate space data points.
pre-processing. This step could encompass tasks
such as data cleansing, noise reduction, and nor- d. Generative adversarial networks (GANs) (2014)
malization. GANs, suggested by Ian Goodfellow and colleagues,
iii. Algorithm choice: Multiple models exist for con- represented a significant development in generative
structing a GAI system. The selection of an ap- AI. GANs are made up of the discriminator and gen-
propriate model hinges on the specific applica- erator, two distinct neural networks that compete
tion and the quantity of available data. with one another in a manner akin to a game. While
iv. Model training: The algorithm is subjected to a the discriminator seeks to distinguish between genu-
training process using a dataset. The duration of ine and produced data, the generation process aims to
this process can vary based on the dataset’s size provide data that is as realistic as possible.
and the desired precision of the model, some-
times spanning a considerable timeframe. e. Visualizing the future era (2014–current)
v. Generate fresh data: Following the completion During this period, GAN gained prominence due
of model training, it becomes feasible to employ to their ability to create high-resolution images that
the model for generating novel data. The ap- closely resemble authentic photographs. Renowned
proach employed in this process is contingent on GAN architectures like deep convolutional GAN
the specific framework being used and dictates (DCGAN), StyleGAN, and BigGAN elevated the
the manner in which the new data is crafted. caliber and diversity of the generated images to new
heights (Guo et al., 2022).
While GAI systems are currently in their nascent
stages of research, they hold immense potential to f. Text and language making (2015–current)
revolutionize various industries we may anticipate Progress in the realm of natural language process-
seeing more cutting-edge and significant uses of GAI ing and deep learning has yielded the creation of text
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 65
and language generative frameworks. Innovations produce offensive content, or reproduce biases exist-
like long- short- term memory (LSTM) networks and ing in training data sparked debate over ethical imple-
transformers have empowered the generation of logi- mentation and mitigating techniques.
cally connected and contextually fitting textual con-
tent (Sathish et al., 2023). j. Ongoing exploration and advancement (current and
beyond)
g. Music and audio production (2016–current) Researchers are working on ways to improve the
Generative algorithms have been used to compose quality of generated content by making it more
music and synthesize audio. Melodies, harmonies, realistic, diverse, and controllable. Hybrid models
and even full music recordings have been generated that combine different GAI techniques are being
using recurrent neural networks along with differ- developed to improve the performance of models.
ent sequence-to-sequence algorithms. WaveGAN and Creative applications of GAI are being explored
other approaches have also showed promise in pro- in areas such as art, music, and video games.
ducing realistic signals for audio. Interdisciplinary collaborations between researchers
from different fields are helping to advance the state
h. Applications in healthcare and science (2010–cur- of GAI research.
rent) Advances in deep learning architectures, computa-
GAI has been used in healthcare since 2010s for a tional power, and the availability of massive datasets
variety of purposes, including image interpretation, have driven the development of GAI. As technologi-
drug development, and personalized medicine. GANs cal advancements continue, AI with generative capa-
and VAEs have found use in creating artificial medical bilities has the potential to impact a wide range of
images to improve diagnostic accuracy and expand persistence, from entertainment and art to health-
small datasets (Figure 9.1) (Rebecca Perkins et al., care and scientific research in this system (Cai et al.,
2022). 2019).
i. Concerns about ethics and racism (2010–current) III. Construction
Concerns regarding ethical issues and biases arose as
AI that generates gained prominence. The potential Designing and training a neural network architecture
for AI-generated content to propagate disinformation, to produce data that corresponds to the dataset being
Figure 9.1 Overview of GAI
66 GAI in healthcare system: Transforming research in medicine and care for patients
studied is the first step in building a generative AI sys- Autoregressive algorithms generate information
tem. In the following sections, the stages below out- throughout a sequential manner, projecting the next
line the general technique for developing a generative component based on prior components.
artificial intelligence system.
d. Functions of loss
a. Select a generative approach GANs – The generator and discriminator networks
Variational autoencoders, GANs, and autoregressive are adversarial trained. The discriminator strives to
models such as transformers are examples of genera- accurately classify both real and generated data, while
tive models that can be used. As per an individual the generator aims to diminish the discriminator’s
wish, he/she can choose the model that best fits the ability to distinguish genuine from generated data.
data which has to be developed (Figure 9.2). VAEs – To guarantee space of latent information is
well-structured, the model is trained using a combina-
b. Collection of data and pre-processing tion of reconstruction loss (how well the generated data
A wide and representative dataset of the type of data matches the original input) and a regularization term.
(as per wish) is compiled to generate (e.g., photo- Autoregressive models optimize the expected prob-
graphs, document, audio, etc.) (Hajarolasvadi et al., ability distribution over the next element using nega-
2019). tive log-likelihood loss.
The data is pre-processed to ensure that it remains
consistent and in the correct format for the mathemat- e. System training
ical framework of choice. This could include scaling The representation’s parameters are prepared infor-
photos, standardizing the values of pixels, represent- mally. The model is feed with real data (for GANs,
ing text, and so on. this is the discriminator’s input; for VAEs, this is the
input for encoding and reconstruction). Fake data
c. Design of architecture samples are generated and feed to the model.
The design of GANs comprises of a generating net- The loss for both the real and generated data is
work and a discriminator network. The genera- calculated and use back propagation to update the
tor generates samples of data, and a discriminator model’s parameters (Walczak et al., 2018).
attempts to differentiate between genuine and pro-
duced samples. f. The iteration process and refinement
The design for VAEs consists of an encoder net- Continuous training of a computational framework
work, a decoder network, and a latent space in involves multiple rounds of iterative adjustments
between. The encoder converts input data to a lower- to enhance its performance. To avoid over fitting,
dimensional latent space, from which the decoder keep an eye on the model’s results on the validation
produces data. information.
Figure 9.2 Design architecture for GAI
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 67
g. Assessing and further refinement fitting. Nearly 10% of the data is used to gauge the
To analyze the quality and diversity of the gener- effectiveness of the model.
ated samples, domain-specific metrics or judgment
by humans are used. To improve outcomes, tweak c. Pre-processing of data
hyper parameters, model architectural design, as well Pictures are resized to a common resolution. Scale
as training procedures as appropriate (Alam et al., pixel values to a standard range, such as 0 to 1. To
2018). boost dataset diversity, supplement data with rota-
tions, flips, and other transformations.
h. Development / The next generation
Following the training session, the generator’s results d. Selection of appropriate model
can be employed to produce new data samples by A convolutional neural network (CNN) architecture
supplying random deep space points (for VAEs) or is choose that is appropriate for image categorization
randomly generated noise vectors (for GANs). when selecting a model.
i. Concerns about ethics and intolerance e. System training
The generative model is checked that it does not Binary cross-entropy loss is used to train the CNN
unintentionally spread biases from the training using the training set. Implement early halting based
data. This can be accomplished by carefully select- on the validation set’s results. During training, keep
ing training data and employing bias-mitigation an eye on measures like accuracy, precision, recall,
approaches such as data augmentation and adver- and score.
sarial training.
Implement ways for dealing with potential ethical f. Testing
issues, such as the creation of sensitive or inappro- Metrics are calculated such as the area under the ROC
priate content. This can be accomplished by remov- curve (AUC-ROC), accuracy, sensitivity, and specific-
ing sensitive content from the training data via filters, ity to assess how well the training model performed
creating standards for how the model should be used, on the test set.
and educating users about the possible risks of utiliz-
ing generative AI. g. Interpretability
Interpretability approaches like Grad-CAM is used to
j. The deployment see which X-ray regions are influencing the model’s
The trained generative model is used in the applica- decisions.
tions such as content generation, data enhancement,
innovative artwork generation, and others. h. Evaluation of bias
Building a GAI system necessitates a thorough Any bias in the predictions made by the AI model is
understanding of both the selected model and the spe- determined and corrected, especially with regard to
cific domain of application. Furthermore, consistent racial or gender-based variables.
tracking, assessment, and continuous enhancement
are required to get the outcomes that are desired. i. Medical validation
To evaluate the sensitivity, specificity, and usability
IV. Experimental methods of the AI model in clinical settings, one should work
closely with radiologists.
The experimental data methodology described is dis-
cussed in the following sections to create a GAI model j. Deployment of system
to aid radiologists in identifying lung nodules in chest In a safe, healthcare-compliant setting, such as a hos-
X-rays. pital’s picture archiving and communication system
(PACS), the AI model is deployed.
a. Dataset
A dataset of chest X-ray pictures is applied which is k. Monitoring and maintenance
tagged as either “nodule” or “no nodule” with their The model should be continuously monitored for per-
related annotations. formance, and it should be updated when new data
become available.
b. Split of data
The dataset is separated into three groups: About l. Ethical considerations
80% of the data used to train the AI model is in the The use of the AI model complies with ethical stan-
training set. A 10% of the data is used in the valida- dards and privacy laws are ensured, particularly with
tion set to adjust the hyper parameters and avoid over regard to patient data.
68 GAI in healthcare system: Transforming research in medicine and care for patients
Creating generative AI models for healthcare that Chatbots for personalized medical care
are both efficient and secure by adhering to these thor- Medical chatbots can be developed by healthcare
ough material and methodology standards, which will institutions to give patients with tailored medical
also help to improve patient care and outcomes. It is information and suggestions. Babylon healthcare, for
kept in mind that successful development of health- illustration, has created a chatbot that uses GAI to ask
care AI necessitates a multi-disciplinary approach and patients about the symptoms they are experiencing
collaboration with healthcare professionals. and provide individualized medical recommendations.
V. GGAI applications in the healthcare industry Treatment of patients
Personalized treatment plans for patients can be cre-
Drug discovery ated using GAI. To generate a personalized plan,
Because of the time-consuming and costly tradi- the algorithm can assess a patient’s medical history,
tional drug-development approach, many drugs take genetic information, lifestyle choices, and other
decades to produce. Generative AI can speed up the aspects. For example, the program can analyze a
process by creating novel drug compounds that have patient’s tumor DNA and identify the genetic abnor-
the potential to be transformed into new medica- malities that are causing the disease. It can then pro-
tions. To speed the drug discovery process, pharma- vide a customized, precise therapy strategy addressing
ceutical professionals can simply employ GAI. The specific genetic alterations. Additionally, GAI can
software program can produce new compounds sim- assist doctors and healthcare practitioners in predict-
ilar to existing medications by learning from a big ing patient outcomes.
collection of chemical structures and their properties.
Scientists can then put these new compounds to the Imaging in medicine
test in laboratory conditions and assess their poten- Medical imaging, such as MRIs, CT scans, and PET
tial as new medications. Identifying potential drug scans, are important components of patient care
candidates and assessing their efficacy and safety are because they assist quickly spot critical injuries and ill-
critical elements in the time-consuming and costly nesses. Here, GAI can help healthcare practitioners by
drug development process. Generative AI can speed providing faster responses and streamlining the imag-
up the process by discovering potential medication ing process. Furthermore, generative AI algorithms
candidates from a vast collection of substances and can reduce image noise. It can also reduce scan times
their properties. when used with ML. It can detect problems in patient
Another application of AI in drug development scans without the need for intervention from humans.
is the creation of virtual substances. AI algorithms The anticipated result of these increased capabilities is
can generate virtual molecules and investigate them faster patient care, which is a vital touch point when-
in silicon (in a computer simulation rather than a ever time is of the essence.
laboratory). As a result, the time and money spent
on researching new medications is dramatically Medical investigation and research
reduced. Scientists can utilize generative AI to cre- Scientists can employ GAI to accelerate medical
ate novel compounds in order to find new medica- research. A massive dataset of scientific literature can
tions. The program can learn from a large database be utilized to train the methodology which can subse-
of chemical structures and attributes. It can then quently uncover patterns relevant to certain research
design novel chemicals that are suited to a specific fields. This can help academics generate new research
target. topics and perspectives.
Disease diagnosis Individualized treatment plans
Generative AI has the potential to transform disease By analyzing the massive amounts of patient data and
diagnosis by examining extensive collections of medi- providing treatment recommendations based on that
cal images to detect patterns associated with particular data, GAI can construct tailored plans for treatment.
conditions. For instance, dermatologists can employ
generative AI to diagnose skin cancer by scrutinizing Simulation in medicine
a vast dataset of skin images. AI can recognize indica- Healthcare workers can use GAI to create medical
tive patterns, thereby assisting healthcare profession- simulation to aid with practical knowledge.
als in rendering more precise and timely diagnoses.
Furthermore, generative AI can be applied to analyze Documentation of clinical trials
various other forms of medical imagery, including CT Medical documentation is accomplished by record-
scans, X-rays, and MRIs, to diagnose a diverse array ing and summarizing physician–patient consulta-
of diseases (Wang et al., 2018). tions. This immediately consolidates paperwork by
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 69
Figure 9.3 Decision support system for patients
capturing data, producing electronic health records, personalized patient care. However, the challenges
and reducing complex medical terminology for and ethical considerations inherent in integrating
patient comprehension (Figure 9.3). generative AI within healthcare must be thoroughly
deliberated upon. With ongoing exploration in addi-
VI. Challenges generative AI in healthcare tion improvement, potential for generative artifi-
cial intelligence to reshape healthcare and amplify
Although AI that regenerates has enormous potential patient well-being in the coming years remains
in healthcare, several problems must be overcome. substantial.
• Interpretation and trust: The created content can
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10 Fuzzy L-R analysis of queue network with priority
Aarti Saini1,a, Deepak Gupta2, A. K. Tripathi3 and Vandana Saini4
Maharishi Markandeshwar Engineering College (Deemed to be University) Mullana, Haryana, India
1,2,3
1
Govt College for Women, Shahzadpur (Ambala), Haryana, India
4
Govt College, Naraingarh (Ambala), Haryana, India
Abstract
This paper is the fuzzy analysis of a queue network model with the assumptions of pre-emptive priority discipline on biserial
subsystems and general arrival is on parallel subsystems. It is presupposed that service time and the interval between two
succeeding arrivals follow the Poisson distribution. Both arrivals and service costs are fuzzy in nature. Performance of the
purposed model evaluated by using L-R fuzzy numbers. L-R method is more flexible and simplest method for fuzzy analysis
as compared to other existing methods. Fuzzy triangular number and all classical formulae used to calculate fuzzy queue
characteristics. A numerical calculation well illustrated the results.
Keywords: Fuzzy number, priority, parallel channels, biserial server, L-R method
I. Introduction analyzed fuzzy queue models with DSW algorithm
and n-policy queues in finite, infinite capacity. Ritha
Mathematical analysis of waiting lines in queuing
and Josephine (2017) evaluated priority queue model
theory is an important aspect because it provides a
by fuzzy L-R method, L-R technique was applied by
way to shorten queue lengths and waiting time. In the
Mukeba et al. (2015, 2016) to measure performance
present networking systems, queuing models are very
of queues and single server retrial queues in uncer-
useful to improve the efficiency of any service organi-
tainty, The L-R technique was used by Saini and
zations. Sometimes in queuing model, customers are
Gupta, and A. K. Tripathi (2022) to study feedback
served on priority base. An efficient priority queues
and the varied behavior of servers in a probabilistic
have great significance in providing quality of service
and fuzzy environment.
to different class of customers. Priority queue applica-
In the present paper, using L-R triangular fuzzy
tions can be found in communication networks, hos-
integers and fuzzy arithmetic operations, we are
pitals, service industries, banks, inventory controls,
attempting to analyze the performance indicators
transportations, check-in-counters at airports, etc. In
of the purposed priority queue model in a fuzzy
literature most of the work was on analysis of prior-
environment.
ity queues. But in priority queuing model, input data
is uncertain to remove this uncertainty fuzzy logics
have been used. II. Definitions
Most of the researchers like Prade (1980), Li Fuzzy set
and Lee (1988, 1989), Kao et al. (1999), T. P. Singh If the result of the membership function for a function
et al. (2010, 2015, 2016), Devaraj and Jayalakshmi defined on the universal set X is either
(2012), Gupta D. and Sharma S. (2011, 2013, 2015), or where x is modal value of the
B. Kalpana et al. (2021) extensively studied fuzzy function is said to be fuzzy.
queue characteristics by α-cut Zadeh extension prin-
ciple. Kao et al., developed membership function for Fuzzy triangular number
fuzzy queue characteristics with the use of parametric A number is a fuzzy triangular number
linear programming. B. Kalpana et al. (2018) applied and membership function is defined as
non-linear programming in fuzzy on non-preemptive
priority queues. Selvakumaria and Revathi (2021)
used new ranking method with triangular and trap-
ezoidal numbers to measure the effectiveness of the
non-preemptive priority queue model. Ritha and
Robert (2009), Ritha and Menon (2011), Ning Y.
et al. (2009), Wang et al. (2010), Srinivasan (2013)
a
aartisaini195@[Link]
72 Fuzzy L-R analysis of queue network with priority
Fuzzy L-R number Notations
A number is fuzzy L-R ⇔ three real = fuzzy low and high priority arriving customers,
number m1, f1, h1 > 0 as well as two continuous, posi- i = 1,2 & j = L, H
tive and decreasing functions L and R, from R to [0,1] = fuzzy Priority input rate, i = 1,2 & j = L, H
exist, such that = fuzzy general arrivals, i = 1,2
L (0) = 1, L (1) = 0, L (x) > 0, limx→∞ L(x) = 0 = fuzzy cost of service for low and high priority
R (0) = 1, R (1) = 0, R (x) > 0, limx→∞ R(x) = 0 visitors, i = 1,2 & j = L, H
´
= fuzzy service rate at parallel subsystems
= fuzzy probabilities from i’th server to j’th server
= fuzzy queue length of the system
III. Stochastic mathematical modeling
The proposed model consists of biserial and parallel
A fuzzy number is represented in L-R form as its
severs C1 and C2 both linked to server C3. The sub-
L-R representation is of the form
systems C11 and C12 are in bi-series relation and C21
where m1, f1, g1 are used as modal value, left and right
and C22 are parallel at server C1 and C2 respectively.
spread of , respectively.
Both type of customers with Poisson Mean arrivals
Supp ( ) = (m1 - f1, m1 + g1)
arrived at subsystems C11, C12,
C21 and C22 for availing services with probable con-
L-R fuzzy arithmetic
ditions α12 + α15 = 1, α21 + α25 = 1, α35 = 1, α45 =
Let us consider two L-R fuzzy number
1, where priority is taken only at entry level biserial
& and define L-R fuzzy arithmetic
subsystems C11 and C12. After, that customer move for
operations on them as
next phase service at C3 and finally leave the system
(Figure 10.1).
Let us, define a probability function
(t) at any time t for the
arrivals m1L, m1H, m2L, m2H, m2, m3, from outside in
the system. The model’s continuous solution is derived
from the solutions of differential equations by using
GF and PGF solution methodology as
To solve the above equation, by applying L’ hos- = 1. And find the utilization factors at different servers
pital rule with conditions | Z1|=| Z2|=| Z3|=| in stochastic environment
Z4|=|Z5|=|Z6|=|Z7|=1 and H(Z1, Z2, Z3, Z4, Z5, Z6, Z7)
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 73
Table 10.1 Crisp values
m1L = 2 λ1L = 2 µ1L = 9 α12 = 0.4
m1H = 4 λ1H = 4 µ1H = 16 α15 = 0.6
m2L = 3 λ2L = 3 µ2L = 12 α21 = 0.3
m2H = 5 λ2H = 5 µ2H = 15 α25 = 0.7
m2 = 3 λ′1 = 4 µ′1 = 10 α35 = 0.6
m3 = 4 λ′2 = 3 µ′2 = 13 α45 = 0.8
µ3 = 27
Figure 10.1 Priority queue network model
Time- independent solution of the proposed model is
that
Fuzzified model
With the conditions exist if γ1, γ2, γ3, γ4, γ5, γ6, γ7 ≤ 1
Let us represent approximate crisp parameters
IV. Numerical illustration in the form of fuzzy numbers as
For particular crisp values, we get then
Using Table 10.1, utilization factor and queue from stochastic environment results, the fuzzy utiliza-
length is tion factor and queue characteristics can be written as
74 Fuzzy L-R analysis of queue network with priority
VII. Results
Fuzzy lengths of queues • Utilization of first server by high priority cus-
tomers lies between 0.1504 and 0.8271. Utiliza-
tion factor and partial queue length’s maximum
allowed values are 0.3906 and 0.6410. Utiliza-
tion of first server by low priority customers lies
between 0.2061 and 1.5529. The partial queue
lengths and Utilization factor maximum allowed
Average waiting time
values are 1.6738 and 0.6260.
• Utilization of second server by high priority
customers lies between 0.1772 and 0.8717.
Utilization factor and partial queue length’s
maximum allowed values are 0.4167 and
VI. Numerical illustration 0.7144. Utilization of second server by low
Table 10.3 is the fuzzy L-R representations of fuzzy priority customers lies between 0.2695 and
triangular numbers from Table 10.2. 1.6776. Utilization factor and partial queue
Using these numerical values, we get L-R represen- length’s maximum allowed values are 0.7045
tations of traffic intensity at servers are, and 2.3841.
• Utilization of third server lies between 0.2679
and 1.2498. Utilization factor and partial queue
length’s maximum allowed values are 0.5555 and
1.2497.
Table 10.3 L-R Fuzzy Values
Arrival times Service costs Probabilities
Modal values of are 0.3906, = (2,1,1) = (14,1,1) = (0.4,0.2,0.2)
0.4167, 0.5555, 0.4, 0.913, 0.6260, 0.7045 and for = (4,2,2) = (16,2,2) = (0.6,0.2,0.2)
are 0.6410, 0.7144, 1.2497, = (3,1,1) = (15,1,1) = (0.3,0.1,0.1)
0.6, 3.4984, 1.6738, 2.3841, respectively.
= (5,2,2) = (18,2,2) = (0.7,0.1,0.1)
= (4,1,1) = (12,2,2) = (0.6,0.2,0.2)
= (3,2,2) = (15,2,2) = (0.5,0.2,0.2)
= (27,1,1)
Table 10.2 Fuzzy particular values
Customers in queue Arrival times Service costs Probabilities
m1L = 2 = (1,2,3) = (13,14,15) = (0.2,0.4,0.6)
m1H = 4 = (2,4,6) = (14,16,18) = (0.4,0.6,0.8)
m2L = 3 = (2,3,4) = (14,15,16) = (0.2,0.3,0.4)
m2H = 5 = (3,5,7) = (16,18,20) = (0.6,0.7,0.8)
m2 = 3 = (3,4,5) = (10,12,14) = (0.4,0.6,0.8)
m3 = 4 = (1,3,5) = (13,15,17) = (.3,.5,.7)
= (26,27,28)
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 75
• Utilization of fourth server lies between .084 and Mittal, Meenu, T. P. Singh, and Deepak Gupta. (2015).
1.2821. Utilization factor and the length of par- Threshold effect on a fuzzy queue model with batch
tial queue maximum potential values are 0.4 and arrival. Arya Bhatta Journal of Mathematics and In-
0.6. formatics. 7(1), 109–118.
Singh, T. P., Mittal, M., and Gupta, D. (2016). Modelling of
• Utilization of fifth server lies between 0.2153
a bulk queue system in triangular fuzzy numbers using
and 1.4258. Utilization factor and partial queue
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11 Blood bank mobile application of IoT-based android
studio for COVID-19
Basetty Mallikarjuna1, Sandeep Bhatia2,a, Neha Goel3, and
Bharat Bhushan Naib4
1
Department of Information Technology, Institute of Aeronautical Engineering, Dundigal-500043, Tamil Nadu, India
2,4
School of Computing Science and Engineering, Galgotias University Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
3
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering, RKGIT, Ghaziabad, India
Abstract
It is impossible to manufacture the blood, as it can be given by the donors. Blood bank retrieval information can be given
through the android studio application, but there is not much work on the integrated environment like IoT sensor connected
with android studio application development. This paper provides the IoT healthcare sensors connected to the android
studio mobile application development blood donors and blood receivers. The mobile application is most useful in an
emergency during the COVID-19 pandemic. This observational study gives the web-based application development and also
android-studio mobile application development for blood bank information retrieval system. The results are carried out in a
real-time environment and updated features of the blood bank mobile application.
Keywords: Internet of things, COVID-19, blood bank, mobile application, android studio
I. Introduction okkadunnadu becomes popular with this concept.
Many the people required the blood of different types
In past years, finding a blood donor or a specific blood
as shown in Table 11.1 (Fahim et al., 2016).
group in an emergency is very difficult as sometimes
The 4 common types of blood groups such as A, B,
may be due to the rare blood group or maybe the
AB, and O, which was invented by Karl Landsteiner
blood group is not available, this problem is increas-
in 1901, on his birthday celebrated as “World Blood
ing day by day. Blood bank application development
Donors Day”. India celebrated “National Blood
through android application with the IoT sensors is
Donations Day” on 1st October (Fahim et al., 2016).
the best solution in the COVID-19 pandemic (Bassam
If a person starts to donate blood at age of 18 every
et al., 2021). Through the blood bank, application
90 days until he reached 60, he/she would have 30
users can easily save their time and effort (Kayode et
gallons of blood and save 600 lives approximately
al., 2019). In the COVID-19 pandemic every two sec-
(Fahim et al., 2016).
onds, some need blood as per the WHO reports (Priya
In this article, develop the blood bank application
et al., 2014).
with IoT healthcare sensors on android studio pro-
People have to stand in a long queue for blood
gramming, that application asks at the time of reg-
requirements and ask the blood in different places.
istration process, donors or receivers’ names, phone
People don’t have money to purchase the blood; it is
numbers, location, and blood group (Altameem et
very difficult to get the blood during the COVID-19
al., 2022). The user login through the credentials
pandemic period (Fahim et al., 2016). In the metro-
and can easily find the receivers or donors’ blood
politan cities, people feel difficult to give or get the
group. The report describes the layout and coding
blood, and also it is problematic for who is coming to
of the application. Blood bank applications can also
give their or donate blood, the perfect mobile appli-
be developed using the Java programming concept
cation is required for donors and receivers in nearby
(Krishna et al., 2019). This project describes the
areas.
application through which users can easily save
There are several types of blood groups, several
time by asking the blood from people in a nearby
hospitals most often blood group type “O”, during
location. Sometimes traffic can cause life. The appli-
the COVID-19 approximately 1 million people are
cation will also reduce the management cost. The
diagnosed every 3–4 hours as per WHO recorded
proposed application provides a real-time, robotic
news (Altameem et al., 2022). The rarest blood group
structure. The following objectives of this study are
was “hh” or Bombay blood group was discovered
as follows:
by Dr. Y. M. Bhende in Bombay 1952. Movies are
sandeepbhatia1711@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 77
Table 11.1 Frequency of occurring in different blood blood information management mobile application
groups (Fahim et al., 2016). which has its mobile search engine used to search for
blood donors and receivers from the registered appli-
S. No Approximate frequency of occurring blood type
cation. This study also provides that registered users
1 O +ve: 1 person might be among 3 persons send a notification to donors and receivers. The pro-
2 A +ve: 1 person might be among 3 persons posed application also has certain disadvantages, it
requires an internet connection and manages particu-
3 O -ve: 1 person might be among 15 persons
lar functions required for a large database.
4 A -ve: 1 person might be among 16 persons In this paper section 2 deals with the related work
5 B +ve: 1 person might be among 12 persons existing to differentiate the proposed methodology,
6 B -ve: 1 person might be among 67 persons section 3 deals with the methodology, section 4 pro-
7 AB +ve: 1 person might be among 29 persons vides the implementation, and section 5 deals with the
8 AB -ve: 1 person might be among 167 persons
conclusion followed by references.
Incident Approximate estimation
usage of blood I. Related work
Most of the research work (Kayode et al., 2019) is on
1 Automobile minor Approximately 45 to 50
android-based mobile blood bank application devel-
accident units of blood
opment and information retrieval procedure. The
2 Heart surgery for a Approximately 6 units of
existing research work (Shah et al., 2022) on android
single patient blood
applications and most of the recent work are relevant
3 Organ Approximately 40 units
to the blood bank management web portal applica-
transplantation for of blood
a single patient tion development but not interconnected with the
IoT sensors. The work existing (Priya et al., 2014) on
optimized blood donor information systems, covers
• It shares the blood donors or blood receivers’ re- all blood donors’ information processing approaches
quests for urgent blood in the community of the but not integrated environment on mobile healthcare
city as per the location and can find donors in the application environment. In healthcare, World Health
current city. Organization and Health care Medical Information
• It is required to find the blood at an emergency System (HMS) said, people needed for convenient
time and a shortage of time. mobile blood bank application system (Fahim et al.,
• This proposed application provides real-time in- 2016).
formation about the availability of the blood do- The aim of this proposed work related to the inte-
nors’ nearby location. grated environment with IoT with android studio
• Users can easily request the blood or can give it mobile application provides the real-time environ-
by providing the basic details at the time of reg- ment with mobility with GPS connectivity, those who
istration. needed blood in the COVID-19 pandemic as per medi-
cal emergency, to supply the blood as early as possible.
As per the existing system, people always rush The author’s previous work (Altameem et al.,
into the hospital’s long queue in the blood bank in 2022) automated brain tumor detection worked on
hospitals, it is sometimes impossible to find the spe- web-based application development; this work is a
cific blood group in the given time. To overcome this feature enhancement of the previous work, more than
problem, the given observational study and metrol- 38,000 people needed for the blood every day. Blood
ogy provide a better way to save lives. bank android-based IoT application system reduces
the manual activity and which saves the labor cost
• It saves the time of the users who are looking (Krishna et al., 2019) blood bank record-keeping has
for blood in a long queue in hospitals and blood been carried out manually over the past decades using
bank centers. files allocation, the upcoming technologies are most
• To Searching for the blood of a particular person invented in this field using blockchain (Mallikarjuna
can take a long time, in this period can lose their et al., 2021, Singh et al., 2021). The blood donors’
life. and receivers’ data keep securely, for that required
• The proposed application decreases the manage- blockchain technology (Mallikarjuna, 2022), the web-
ment cost. based blood management system with IoT healthcare
endowment provides the smart home automation
The proposed application has a high featured mobile (Khan et al., 2021), the blood donation activity is an
application to update as per the real-time data of the important objective of the society (Mufaqih et al.,
78 Blood bank mobile application of IoT-based android studio for COVID-19
2020). The blood bank management system devel-
oped with the cloud environment (Arifin et al., 2021).
The web-based blood bank management system is
a very important and crucial issue for quick access
of donor’s information, it monitors blood donation
activities and receivers’ information and prediction
are challenging tasks, organization and time manage-
ment and decision-making are upcoming features in
this area (Narang et al., 2019). The blood bank man-
agement system consists of different modules such as
the patient module, donor module, and blood mod-
ule, the responsibility of this approach has the user
connected with the administrator (Pohandulkar et al.,
2018) approach not suitable for the COVID-19 sce-
nario (Reddy et al., 2016).
The proposed approach overcomes the all disadvan- Figure 11.1 The use case diagram of the blood bank
tages of the existing approach (Prasad et al., 2013), the
currently developed application brings the donors and
appropriate receives gathered into one place (Tatale android device, the android studio device the con-
et al., 2020), and also provides donors and receives nection through the internet and establish between
through the chabot application environment. The afore- the android studio device to healthcare sensors. The
mentioned related work (Sastry et al., 2019; Prasad et application is configured to be connected through
al., 2018) reviewed and updated the proposed and pro- the internet and easily programmable to the android
vide quick response during the COVID-19 pandemic. studio device. The android device gathers the data
The current observational study also provides the web- from the sensors, the user registered with his user’s
based and android mobile application for a better and name and password, the android program executes
more effective integrated platform of information man- inside the device and these data can be recorded in
agement of blood bank on IoT-based healthcare sen- the real-time database and generates alerts to the user.
sors with an android studio application environment. The use case diagram of the application is shown in
(Bhatia et al., 2023) focuses 4G to 8G communica- Figure 11.1. The user interacted with the major blood
tion in IoT and its impact in IoT application. Ganai bank application and registered through the login, the
et al. 2022 highlights the security and privacy issues in application interacts with the IoT sensors and man-
IoT devices as they are vulnerable. Bhatia et al. (2023) ages the modules from pop-up reports, client and
focuses on upgradation in IoT communication from server details, manage profiles, message details, client
3G to 7G and IoT reliability in mobile application. details, conference details, etc.
The IoT healthcare technologies simple and efficient
III. Objectives accessible through the measuring and recording of
the real-time data of the user and connected through
This paper is aimed to design mobile application the information android studio programming. The
which is IoT enabled for blood bank. The main objec- low-cost IoT sensors such as Altimeter, ECG, EMG,
tive is to create a mobile application which can be run Actuators, and Microcontrollers, not only provide the
on android device, the android studio device the con- blood information and also give the various medical
nection through the internet and establish between issues. The current user is easily aware of the symp-
the android studio device to healthcare sensors. The toms during the COVID-19 pandemic as shown in
application is configured to be connected through the Figure 11.2.
internet and easily programmable to the android stu- The API interface is made on android studio plus,
dio device. the user has to register to the app by providing some
basic details like his/her name, mobile number, blood
IV. Methodology group and city. The user can log in to the app by using
the credentials. The user can now enter the app after
This methodology deals with the development of successful login and then the user can see the people
blood application with android studio with IoT sen- requesting blood or maybe they are happy to give you
sors integrated mobile healthcare application devel- the blood or become a donor.
opment, this project implemented with the low-cost You can share the details on different apps by using
sensors which are shown in Figure 11.1, the blood the share button. You can easily call the user by the
bank application program which can be run on icon/feature of calling present in the application.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 79
Figure 11.2 The sensors connected to the android
studio
The user can also search for the blood in any city by
clicking on the search button at the top and provid-
ing the details like which blood group the user wants
and in which city and it will show you the details if
anybody was there. The user can also become a donor
so the user can save any life by giving the blood group Figure 11.3 Snapshot of the API of android studio
and people can see who is given the blood in that city.
The activity is divided into several parts like login
activity to increase the security of the application.
Then the main activity tells about the people need-
ing the blood and also the activity where the user can
request the blood or become a donor. So, it’s a very
modern compact and the best application to over-
come a serious problem as shown in Figure 11.4.
One of the significant and important of this obser-
vational study is not alert the blood and also provides
the various healthcare issues of the registered users
during the COVID-19 pandemic.
V. Implementation
To create a simple android application project, to set
up the application for the following steps below:
File -> New -> Select New.
Fill in all the entries shown in the above Figure
11.3. Set the name and location of the project. Select
the language in which you want to code. After fill-
ing all the fields click on finish. Once the project is
Figure 11.4 GUI of new app
successfully created the screen will show as shown in
Figure 11.4.
There are some directories and files in the android pandemic. Here are some examples of how the appli-
project which we should be created before start- cation has been used in the fight against COVID-19:
ing our application as shown in Figure 11.5 and the
description of packages as shown in Table 11.2. • Blood donation and distribution in real-time
• Contactless donation
• Inventory management
VI. Applications of our work
• Emergency response
The android studio-based blood bank mobile appli- • Analysis of data to predict demand.
cation was created utilizing IoT-based technology • Remote health monitoring.
to handle COVID-19 difficulties, and it can have a • Donation of post-recovery blood plasma
variety of uses and advantages in the context of the • Community awareness and involvement
80 Blood bank mobile application of IoT-based android studio for COVID-19
• Connecting to health records
• Partnership between the government and NGOs
Healthcare systems can improve their capacity
to successfully address the issues raised by COVID-
19 by utilizing IoT technology via the Blood Bank
Mobile Application. The program can greatly aid in
managing COVID-19 cases overall, particularly those
requiring blood transfusions, by streamlining blood
donation procedures, ensuring safety standards, and
providing real-time data.
VII. Conclusions and future enhancements
During the COVID-19 pandemic, most people needed
blood. Sometimes emergencies and so crucial that
they can cost a life. There is more demand for blood
donors and blood suppliers. Sometimes it is very dif-
ficult to arrange the blood group to save life or need
in operation during a COVID-19 pandemic. To solve
this type of problem, several types of blood banks
are there and many people become blood donors to
save their life. This observational study describes the
application through which users can easily save their
time by searching for blood donors from particular
Figure 11.5 Package explorer geographical regions. This study reduces the time and
more convenient for the users to save money. And
Table 11.2 Description of package explorer also, this study helps users easily track and contact
the donors near them. And also, its great impact on
[Link]. Folder, File and Description medical authorities. The feature enhancement of this
1 Src
works the infected people to predict analyze blood
type by using machine learning (ML) and deep learn-
This directory mainly contains the Java source
files. There is the main activity file which has
ing algorithms to extract information and analyze the
an activity class that runs when we launch our data and also transmit the data by using blockchain
app using the app icons technology.
2 Gen A key step in improving healthcare services is the
There is a .R file generated by the compiler.
creation of a blood bank mobile application using
This file mentions all the resources of our IoT-based technology on the android studio platform
project. We cannot update or modify this file to address the problems brought on by COVID-19.
3 Bin This program optimizes the whole supply chain by
This folder has the android packages that were
streamlining the donation and distribution of blood
built during the build process. This folder also while also utilizing IoT capabilities to provide real-
contains everything needed to run the app time monitoring, tracking, and control of blood units.
4 Res/drawable This program is extremely helpful in the COVID-19
pandemic environment, when effective healthcare sys-
This directory contains all the drawable object
files tems are essential.
The program makes sure that the inventory of
5 Res/layout
blood units is constantly monitored and any changes
All the designed layout file is contained in this
in supply and demand are swiftly addressed through
folder
the use of IoT devices. The android-based software
6 Res/values
also guarantees widespread accessibility by enabling
Files that contain strings and color definitions users to quickly locate nearby blood banks, book
are kept in this folder
appointments, and receive notifications all through
7 [Link] their smartphones. The application’s capabilities are
All the fundamental characteristics of the app further improved by the incorporation of IoT technol-
are described in this file ogy by enabling remote monitoring of blood storage
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 81
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12 Selection of effective parameters for optimizing software
testing effort estimation
Vikas Chahara and Pradeep Kumar Bhatia
Guru Jambheshwar University of Science & Technology Hisar, India
Abstract
Software testing holds a significant role within the realm of software development. Its purpose is to bolster and elevate the
reliability and quality of software. This encompassing process involves several key steps, including estimating the required
testing effort, assembling an appropriate test team, formulating effective test cases, carrying out software execution using
these test cases, and meticulously analyzing the outcomes derived from these executions. Thus, precise software testing effort
estimation holds high significance and governs the overall cost of the software development. To support accurate estimation
of software testing effort, the paper presents a detailed analysis and categorization of various factors have great impact on
the software testing effort. The analysis shows that the parameters include various elements such as quality, stability, risk,
resources, etc., that have a significant impact on software testing effort. Thus, the paper contributes towards a platform for
extracting the basic information essential for supporting software testing effort estimation for successful project planning
and execution.
Keywords: Software testing effort, parameters, quality, testing resources
I. Introduction and categorization of parameters that govern the high
quality STE estimation.
In the realm of software development, estimating the
effort required for testing is pivotal for project success. A. Software project
This estimation hinges on a multitude of interconnected A software project is a planned and well-organized
parameters that collectively influence the scope, com- effort to create, develop, and deliver a software prod-
plexity, and precision of testing efforts (Trendowicz, uct or system that meets certain requirements and
Münch, and Jeffery, 2011). Understanding these objectives. It involves various stages such as require-
parameters is essential to ensure effective testing, ments analysis, design, coding, testing, deployment,
maintain project timelines, and deliver high-quality and maintenance (Borade and Khalkar, 2013). The
software products. In other words, efficient software software projects can vary in size, complexity, and
testing effort (STE) estimation is pivotal for project scope, ranging from small applications to large-scale
success (Cibir and Ayyildiz, 2022). This process hinges enterprise system designs (Mohammed et al., 2017;
on understanding various influencing factors such as Singh et al., 2020). A structured framework that out-
project size, complexity, and functionality intricacies lines the various stages and processes involved in the
(Bluemke and Malanowska, 2021). In this process, a creation and maintenance of software is known as
clear requirements and meticulous planning alleviate software development life cycle (SDLC) (Satapathy,
uncertainties, while risk assessment pinpoints need- Acharya, and Rath, 2016). It provides a systematic
ing thorough testing. Obviously, the choice of testing approach to managing and controlling the entire soft-
types, levels, and automation has great impact sup- ware project from inception to completion. The SDLC
ported by the expertise of the testing team, effective ensures that the software is developed efficiently, fol-
communication, and suitable testing tools (Badri, lowing high quality standards, and meets the needs of
Toure, and Lamontagne, 2015). Moreover, the proj- the stakeholders (Figure 12.1).
ect’s schedule and quality goals interact with testing In other words, it is understood that the software
efforts to deliver high quality software projects. development encompasses the entire process of creat-
The paper is aimed to provide a detailed analy- ing software applications. Software testing is an inte-
sis, categorization and discussion of the factors and gral part of this process that ensures the software’s
parameters that govern the effective STE estimation. quality and reliability before it is deployed to users.
To achieve this, the paper first discusses the software Both software development and testing are crucial
project, importance of software testing in the software components of a software project which is the orga-
development life cycle, various types of software test- nized effort to create a specific software product with
ing, concept of STE followed by a detailed summary defined goals and requirements.
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Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 83
fort. A skilled and well-staffed testing team can
execute testing tasks more efficiently, reducing
the overall effort required. Conversely, a short-
age of skilled testers can lead to longer testing
periods or a reduction in the comprehensiveness
of testing.
e. Technical debt (TD): Technical debt refers to the
shortcuts or sub-optimal solutions taken during
the development process that might lead to ad-
ditional work in the future. If a software proj-
ect has accumulated significant technical debt,
Figure 12.1 Software testing stage in SDLC
it can increase testing effort. This is because the
presence of technical debt often results in more
complex code, increased likelihood of defects,
and challenges in maintaining and enhancing the
B. Different aspects of testing effort software.
The software testing process, for a software applica- f. Resource availability (RA): The availability of
tion or system involves allocating resources, time and resources, including both human resources and
effort to plan, design, execute and manage the tests. infrastructure, can impact testing effort. A lack
These activities aim to guarantee that the software of necessary tools, testing environments, or
meets quality standards and performs as intended. skilled personnel can lead to increased testing
The extent of the testing effort depends on factors time and effort. On the other hand, having the
such, as the softwares complexity, project require- right resources readily available can streamline
ments and the level of thoroughness needed in test- testing activities and reduce effort.
ing (Kaner et al., 1999). Some of the factors that can
influence software development and testing efforts are
II. Software testing
as follows:
Software testing is an integral part of the software
a. Software complexity (SC): The complexity of a development process discussed in the last section
software system refers to the intricacy and in- and is thus closely related to the software project
terdependency of its components and features. planning and management (Sharma and Kushwaha,
Higher complexity can lead to increased testing 2011). It is the process of evaluating a software prod-
effort as more interactions between components uct or system to identify any discrepancies between
need to be considered, and there’s a higher likeli- the expected behavior and the actual behavior of the
hood of defects due to the intricacies involved. software.
Complex software systems often require more
thorough testing to ensure all possible scenarios A. Software testing life cycle (STLC)
are covered. The software testing life cycle (STLC) is a systemic
b. Software quality (SQ): The desired level of soft- procedure that defines the different phases and tasks
ware quality directly impacts testing effort. If encompassing the testing of software applications
the project requires a high level of quality, more to guarantee their quality, dependability, and opera-
comprehensive testing, including various testing tional capabilities. It establishes an organized method
types (functional, performance, security, etc.), for strategizing, creating, implementing, and docu-
is needed. Striving for higher software quality menting the testing procedures. Acting as a blueprint,
generally leads to increased testing activities and the STLC directs testing teams through the complete
consequently higher testing effort. testing journey, commencing from the initial assess-
c. Schedule pressure (SP): Project timelines and ment of requirements and culminating in the ultimate
deadlines can significantly influence testing ef- deployment. The main goal of software testing is to
fort. When there’s pressure to meet tight sched- ensure that the software meets its intended require-
ules, testing might be rushed or streamlined, po- ments, functions correctly, are reliable and robust
tentially leading to inadequate testing coverage. (Rajamanickam, 2016). Software testing is typically
On the other hand, sufficient time for testing al- categorized into several types, including:
lows for more thorough and meticulous testing
efforts. • Unit testing: Testing individual components or
d. Work force drivers (WFD): The availability and units of code in isolation to ensure their correct-
expertise of the workforce can impact testing ef- ness
84 Selection of effective parameters for optimizing software testing effort estimation
• Integration testing: Testing the interactions be- 1) Background factors
tween different components or modules to ensure • Project requirements: Understanding the soft-
they work together as expected ware’s functional and non-functional require-
• System testing: Testing the complete software ments is fundamental. The complexity of the
application to validate its overall functionality requirements can influence the testing approach
against the defined requirements and the depth of testing required.
• User acceptance testing (UAT): Involving end- • Software complexity: The intricacy of the soft-
users to test the software in a real-world environ- ware’s architecture, design, and interactions
ment to ensure it meets their needs and expecta- among components can impact testing efforts.
tions More complex systems may require more exten-
• Regression testing: Repeating tests to ensure that sive testing.
new code changes do not introduce new defects • Project timeline: The available time for testing
or break existing functionality affects the testing strategy. Tight schedules might
• Performance testing: Evaluating the software’s re- necessitate prioritizing testing activities and em-
sponsiveness, scalability, and resource usage un- ploying automation.
der different conditions • Budget and resources: The budget allocated to
• Security testing: Identifying vulnerabilities and testing, along with the availability of skilled tes-
ensuring that the software is secure from poten- ters and testing tools, influences the testing ap-
tial threats proach and scope.
• Compatibility testing: Compatibility testing
checks the software’s compatibility with differ- 2) Selection criteria
ent devices, browsers, operating systems, and net- • Critical functionality: The core functionalities of
work environments the software that directly impact users’ needs are
• Usability testing: Usability testing evaluates the prioritized for testing
software’s user-friendliness and user experience. • Business impact: Features that have a significant
It ensures that the software is intuitive and easy impact on the organization’s business goals, rev-
to use enue generation, or user satisfaction are given
• Localization and internationalization testing: higher testing priority
These tests verify that the software is adapted to • High-risk areas: Components or functionalities
various languages, cultures, and regions that are historically prone to defects, or those in-
• Accessibility testing: Accessibility testing en- volving complex interactions, require thorough
sures that the software is accessible to users testing
with disabilities by adhering to accessibility • Customer feedback: Inputs from users or custom-
standards. ers regarding key areas of concern guide testing
efforts to address real-world issues
Software testing occurs throughout the software • Legal and regulatory requirements: Features that
development life cycle, with different types of test- must comply with legal or industry-specific regu-
ing being relevant at different stages. It is an itera- lations necessitate testing that validates adher-
tive process, where issues identified during testing are ence.
addressed, and the software is retested to ensure the
fixes didn’t introduce new problems. These concepts relates to software measurement,
evaluation, and estimation. They provide tools and
B. Background factors and selection criteria methodologies to assess various aspects of software
In software testing, background factors and selection development, complexity, quality, and effort estima-
criteria play a crucial role in determining the scope, tion. These approaches are utilized to enhance deci-
approach, and methods used for testing software sion-making and planning in software projects as
applications. These factors and criteria help testing discussed below (Thakore and Upadhyay, 2013)
teams make informed decisions about which testing
techniques and strategies to employ. These factors • Function point: Function points (FP) are a stan-
guide testing teams in making informed decisions dardized unit of measurement used to quantify
that align with project goals and end-user expecta- the functionality provided by a software applica-
tions, ultimately ensuring the software’s quality and tion. They measure the software’s size based on
reliability (Suri et al., 2015). Here’s an overview of the user’s interactions with it, regardless of the
background factors and selection criteria in software underlying technology or implementation. Func-
testing: tion points consider inputs, outputs, inquiries, in-
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 85
ternal files, and external interfaces to determine defects, vulnerabilities, and inconsistencies in the
the complexity and size of a software system. software before it’s released to end-users (Sharma and
This metric is often used in software estimation, Kushwaha, 2011; Hidmi and Sakar, 2017; Brar et al.,
project management, and cost analysis. Math- 2022). The effort invested in software testing is influ-
ematically it can be expressed as: enced by several parameters that impact the complex-
ity and scope of the testing process (Bhattacharya,
(1) Srivastava, and Prasad, 2012; Jin and Jin, 2016b). The
relationship between software projects and software
where, β is fixed quotient of the software project, LOC testing can be understood in the following ways:
is total number of lines of codes to execute “n” num-
ber of functions under fρ number of function points. • Quality assurance: Software testing is essential for
ensuring the quality of the software product be-
• Fuzzified OOPS metrics: Object-oriented pro- ing developed within a software project. It helps
gramming systems (OOPS) metrics refer to identify defects, errors, and vulnerabilities in the
measurements used to evaluate the quality and software, allowing developers to address these is-
complexity of object-oriented software. Fuzzi- sues before the software is released to users
fied OOPS metrics involve applying fuzzy logic • Verification and validation: Software testing is
to these metrics to handle imprecise or uncertain a means of verifying that the software is being
data. Fuzzy logic allows for handling vagueness developed correctly (verification) and validating
in software quality attributes by assigning degrees that it meets the user’s needs (validation). It helps
of membership to different categories, providing confirm that the software aligns with the project’s
a more flexible and nuanced understanding of requirements and objectives
software complexity • Risk mitigation: Software projects inherently
• Cosmic function point (CFP)-based factor analy- involve risks, including the risk of defects or er-
sis and selection: Cosmic function points (CFP) rors. Effective testing helps mitigate these risks by
are a variation of traditional function points used catching and addressing issues early in the devel-
to measure the functional size of a software ap- opment process, reducing the chances of critical
plication based on its business functionality. Fac- failures after deployment
tor analysis and selection in the context of CFP • Iterative development: Many modern software
involves identifying and assigning appropriate development methodologies, such as Agile and
complexity factors to account for variations in DevOps, promote iterative and incremental de-
software projects. These factors help in adjust- velopment. Testing is performed throughout these
ing the functional size measurement to reflect the iterations to continuously assess the software’s
software’s unique characteristics progress and maintain its quality
• COCOMO analysis and new OOPS metrics: • Documentation: Software testing generates docu-
COCOMO (constructive cost model) is a soft- mentation about the software’s behavior, test cas-
ware cost estimation model used to predict the es, and results. This documentation is valuable for
effort, cost, and schedule required for software project managers, developers, and stakeholders to
development. It considers various factors like the track progress and make informed decisions
size of the project, development team experience, • Resource allocation: Software projects need to
and complexity. In the context of object-oriented allocate resources, including time and effort, for
programming, COCOMO can be used to esti- testing activities. The scope and depth of testing
mate effort based on new OOPS metrics, which depend on the project’s requirements and priori-
are measurements specific to object-oriented soft- ties
ware. These new metrics might include measures • Feedback loop: Testing provides feedback to the
of class complexity, coupling, cohesion, and other development team about the software’s perfor-
object-oriented design attributes. mance, functionality, and usability. This feedback
loop helps developers improve the software and
enhance user satisfaction
III. Software testing effort
• The discussion shows that the software testing is
Software testing effort refers to the resources, time, a critical aspect of software projects that ensures
and activities required to effectively test a software the quality, reliability, and functionality of the
application or system to ensure its quality, function- software being developed. It supports the overall
ality, and reliability (Nassif et al., 2019; Cibir and success of the project by identifying and address-
Ayyildiz, 2022). It’s an essential phase of the soft- ing issues, mitigating risks, and providing valu-
ware development life cycle that aims to identify able insights for continuous improvement.
86 Selection of effective parameters for optimizing software testing effort estimation
Table 12.1 Comparative analysis of existing studies
Authors Objectives Techniques Key findings Limitations
Badri, M., Toure, F., Predict unit testing Regression analysis Predictive model Limited sample size
and Lamontagne, L. effort levels of classes for testing effort
estimation
Bhattacharya, P., Estimate software test PSO (Particle swarm PSO-based estimation Requires tuning PSO
Srivastava, P. R., and effort optimization) of test effort parameters
Prasad, B.
Bluemke, I. and Review and summarize Survey and review Overview and Lack of original
Malanowska, A. testing effort categorization of research data
estimation techniques
Borade, J. G. and Provide an overview of Review of Overview of software Limited focus on
Khalkar, V. R. effort estimation estimation effort estimation specific estimation
techniques methods techniques
Liao, X. and Naseem, Review COCOMO Review of Overview of Limited focus on
A. models and extensions COCOMO models COCOMO models COCOMO models
and extensions
Satapathy, S. M., Early-stage software Random forest Early-stage effort Limited to use
Acharya, B. P., and effort estimation estimation with use case point-based
Rath, S. K. case points estimation
Sharma, A. and Develop metric suite Requirement Metric suite for early Limited validation of
Kushwaha, D. S. for testing estimation engineering estimation of testing the metric suite
document
Singh, V., Kumar, V., Select influential Fuzzy logic and Parameter selection for Limited to parameter
and Singh, V. B. testing parameters AHP-TOPSIS influencing testing selection
Srivastava, P. R., Estimate test effort Bat algorithm Test effort estimation Limited to bat
Bidwai, A., Khan, A., using bat algorithm based on bat algorithm algorithm
Rathore, K., Sharma,
R., and Yang, X. S.
The comparative analysis of the existing stud- • Risk assessment
ies is given in Table 12.1 to present analysis for the • Testing strategy
findings, techniques and the posed limitations of the • Test environment set-up
research works. The review is used a starting point for • Testing tools and frameworks
presenting a depth analysis of software testing effort • Testing documentation
estimation. • Personnel and skill levels
• Iterations and changes
IV. Factors and parameters governing efficient • Review and collaboration
software testing effort estimation • Data management
• Non-functional testing
The effort estimation process in software testing plays • Project deadlines
a critical role in project planning, resource allocation, • Stakeholder expectations
and budgeting (Liao and Naseem, 2012; Singh, Kumar, • Historical data from the past projects.
and Singh, 2023). An accurate estimation ensures that
testing activities are adequately resourced and aligned Overall, it can be understood that the software test-
with project timeline that involves considering vari- ing effort estimation is a multi-faceted process that
ous factors and parameters that influence the com- considers a range of factors and parameters. Based
plexity and scope of the testing process (Jin and Jin, on the detailed discussion Table 12.2 provides a con-
2016a; Mensah et al., 2016). Some of the key factors cise categorization of various factors and parameters
and parameters that contribute to high quality STE essential for a better understanding of their impact on
estimation. the STE (Figure 12.2).
Analyzing the factors discussed in Table 12.2 helps
• Scope and requirements project managers and testers estimate the testing
• Complexity of the system effort accurately, plan testing activities effectively, and
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 87
Table 12.2 Categorization of factors effecting the software testing effort
S. No. Factors Category/Key parameter Description Remarks
Size/complexity Larger and complex projects need STE is directly proportional to
more rigorous testing which is due size and complexity of software
to increased number of interactions, project
features and issues
Scope Any frequent change in the scope of STE is directly proportional to
project leads to an additional testing frequency in scope change
effort
1 Interfaces Software projects that involve STE is governed by the extent
Quality objectives Project characteristics
interaction with the external systems of interaction with external
need a thorough software testing and systems
may add up to the software testing
effort
Clarity of requirements Ambiguous or unclear requirement STE is inversely proportional
of the software project raises to clarity of requirements
misunderstandings among the developer
and management
2 Quality standards When project aims at higher quality STE is directly proportional
standards such as ISO, CMMI it to quality of standards to be
requires rigorous testing effort achieved
Criticalness Projects dealing with critical functions STE is directly proportional
such as aviation or medical device to critical ness of the software
development require higher testing project
efforts
3 Technology stacks The type of technology employed and STE is governed by the
the focused platform govern the extent technology stack
of testing effort. New or unfamiliar
technology need more testing effort
Architecture
Integration complexity When the systems are integrated with STE is governed by the extent
Software
number of third party components the of integration complexity
system confronts more issues and need
more testing effort
4 Depth of testing When comprehensive software testing STE is directly proportional to
strategies such as regression, usability, depth of testing
security are involved, more testing effort is
required in comparison to the basic testing
Testing strategy
effort
Automation Test automation initially require higher STE gradually decreases with
testing effort, however, eventually, the the passage of time
manual software testing effort gets
reduced with the passage of time
Skilled workforce The skilled testers may reduce the STE is directly proportional to
testing phase that otherwise may get the length of testing phase
prolonged when it lacks in skilled
testers
Time constraints Tight software project schedule limits STE is inversely proportional
the testing window and increases the to time constraint
software testing effort
Test data Availability of diverse test data is STE is inversely proportional
5 essential. The generation of test data to the availability of test data
needs additional effort that increase
the overall testing effort. Here, data
Resource Availability
consistency could be time consuming
process when generated
Financial support Industry regulated software projects STE is inversely proportional
need huge investment. In absence of to financial support
financial support high testing effort
is required to meet the compliance
standards
88 Selection of effective parameters for optimizing software testing effort estimation
S. No. Factors Category/Key parameter Description Remarks
Testing configuration Hard and complex software set-up STE is governed by the
configuration can increase software software set-up environment
testing effort during configuration and configuration
Testing tools Availability of suitable tools such as STE is governed by the
hardware, software network resources suitability of testing tools
Testing infrastructure
for the software testing have a high
6 impact on the testing effort
Testing environment The software testing in different STE is governed by the
environment to justify the software infrastructure performance
performance requires a stable and
reliable infrastructure otherwise the
testing effort get increased or decreases
efficiency of testing
Key characteristics of the early design model include:
• Early design emphasis: This model prioritizes the
design phase and encourages in-depth analysis
and planning before moving into the implemen-
tation phase
• Comprehensive design: Design decisions are
made with careful consideration of the system’s
architecture, component interactions, and overall
structure
• Iterative refinement: While emphasizing early
design, the model acknowledges that design de-
Figure 12.2 Factors governing software testing effort cisions can evolve and improve as development
progresses. Iterative cycles of design refinement
are common
allocate resources efficiently to ensure a successful • Reuse and patterns: The model promotes the use
software testing phase. of design patterns and the reusability of existing
components to expedite development and ensure
A. Early design and reuse model (EDRM) proven design practices
The software development involves both code design- • Efficiency and quality: By addressing design intri-
ing and planning well from the inception of the proj- cacies early, the model aims to minimize potential
ect to the successful delivery. The most crucial part defects, reduce costly rework, and enhance soft-
in this is accurate software testing effort estimation, ware performance and maintainability
as it allows manipulating the existing components • Communication and collaboration: Close collab-
in order to reduce the overall development time. The oration between design, development, and other
models tested via reuse enhances the reliability of the stakeholders is crucial to ensure that design deci-
software project while reducing the defects leading sions align with project goals.
to more reliable prediction of software testing effort
estimation. The effort calculation, based on a standardized algo-
rithmic model, is depicted using the given equation.
1) Early design model
The early design model is a software development (2)
approach that focuses on thorough and thoughtful
design in the initial stages of the software develop- where PM signifies the total effort in months.
ment life cycle. The primary goal of this model is to M = {PERS’ RCPX’ RUSE’ PDIF’ PREX’ FCIL’
establish a strong foundation by making informed SCED} Initial calibration sets A = 2.94, Size in K-LOC,
design decisions early on, which in turn leads to and B between 1.1 and 1.24, based on the project’s
enhanced software quality, reduced rework, and originality, development flexibility, risk management
smoother development progression. strategies, and process maturity.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 89
Multipliers: Developer skill, non-functional needs, the adjustments needed based on factors like ASLOC
platform familiarity, and other factors are reflected in and AT, as explained earlier. The COCOMO II model
multipliers. primarily relies on your estimation of the software
project’s size, measured in thousands of Source Lines
• RCPX – product reliability and complexity; of Code (KSLOC), to calculate the required effort in
• RUSE – the reuse required; terms of Person–Months (PM). In essence, the model’s
• PDIF – platform difficulty; effort estimation heavily depends on your assessment
• PREX – personnel experience; of the project’s scale, as quantified by the size of the
• PERS – personnel capability; codebase.
• SCED – required schedule;
• FCIL – the team support facilities. (5)
2) The reuse model Eaf stands for “Effort Adjustment Factor,” which
The reuse model is an approach in software devel- is derived from the cost drivers. The exponent E in
opment that focuses on leveraging existing software the formula is determined by the five scale drivers.
components, modules, or solutions to enhance effi- Estimation techniques, such as expert judgment, his-
ciency, reduce development time, and improve overall torical data analysis, and specialized software tools,
software quality. It centers on the idea that by reusing can aid in determining the effort required for the
well-tested and proven components, developers can reuse model. In essence, the reuse model’s estimation
avoid reinventing the wheel and instead build upon involves evaluating the integration effort, customiza-
established solutions. The reuse model encourages the tion needs, and associated activities when incorporat-
systematic identification, selection, and integration of ing existing components into a new project.
reusable assets to streamline the development process. With a holistic approach, taking into account the
intricacies of the software, the testing strategy, the
a. Reuse model estimation: team’s capabilities, and the project context, the paper
Estimating effort and resources for the reuse model contributes to provide foundation for the accurate
involves considering factors unique to integrating and testing effort estimation. Regular review and adjust-
adapting reusable components. This estimation model ment of estimates based on evolving project dynamics
uses Equation (3) to estimate the effort. further contribute to improved project planning and
successful software delivery.
(3) V. Conclusion
The paper presents a detailed analysis of various fac-
ASLOC stands for “Actual Source Lines of Code,” tors that are critical for accurate estimation of soft-
which represents the total number of lines of ware testing effort that plays a critical role in project
code that have been created for a software proj- planning and management. The paper delved into
ect. AT refers to the “Proportion of Automatically existing research presented by the research commu-
Generated Code,” indicating the fraction of code that nity in predicting software testing effort estimation.
is generated through automated tools or processes. The paper claims important contribution in laying
ATPROD represents “Engineers’ Productivity in Code down the foundation and preliminary factor analysis
Integration,” signifying how efficiently developers prior to estimating the testing effort for a software
integrate this code. If the estimation process is based project. The multifaceted nature of software projects
solely on manually written code, the estimated Lines necessitates a comprehensive approach to estimation,
of Code (LOC) can be determined using Equation (4). encompassing parameters such as project complexity,
size, requirements volatility, team expertise, and his-
torical data analysis. By considering these parameters,
(4)
organizations can enhance their ability to create more
reliable and realistic testing effort estimates. As the
ESLOC stands for “Estimated Source Lines of Code,” software development landscape continues to evolve,
which refers to the calculated number of lines of code the parameters influencing testing effort estimation
expected in a software project. The costs associated are subject to change with the passage of time and
with modifying reused code, understanding how to advancement of technology. Therefore, a proactive
integrate it, and making decisions about its reuse stance towards continuous improvement and adap-
are considered in determining the adaption adjust- tation is necessary. The collaboration between devel-
ment multiplier. This multiplier takes into account opment and testing teams, ongoing communication,
90 Selection of effective parameters for optimizing software testing effort estimation
and learning from each estimation cycle’s outcomes review. J. Comput., 3(5), 683–693. Available: http://
are crucial for refining the estimation process over [Link].
time. Altogether, a successful software testing effort Mensah, Solomon, Jacky Keung, Kwabena Ebo Bennin, and
estimation demands a harmonious blend of empiri- Michael Franklin Bosu. (2016). Multi-objective opti-
mization for software testing effort estimation. SEKE,
cal analysis, domain expertise, and technological
1–6. doi: 10.18293/SEKE2016-017
advancements. With fine-tuning of the parameters
Brar, P. S., Shah, B., Singh, J., Ali, F., and Kwak, D. (2022).
discussed in this paper, organizations can pave the Using modified technology acceptance model to eval-
way for more accurate STE estimations, leading to uate the adoption of a proposed IoT-based indoor
better resource allocation, project planning, and ulti- disaster management software tool by rescue work-
mately, the delivery of high-quality software systems. ers. Sensors, 22(5), 1866. [Link]
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STE estimation works. mood, S. (2017). Exploring software security ap-
proaches in software development lifecycle: A sys-
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13 Automated detection of conjunctivitis using convolutional
neural network
Rajesh K. Bawa1 and Apeksha Koul2,a
1
Department of Computer Science, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India
2
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India
Abstract
Conjunctivitis, commonly referred to as “pink eye,” is a prevalent and contagious eye condition that affects millions world-
wide. Detecting conjunctivitis early and accurately is vital for timely intervention and effective management. Here, a convo-
lutional neural network (CNN) model has been customized to automate the detection of conjunctivitis using eye images. Our
dataset encompasses a diverse array of eye images, which include both healthy and conjunctivitis-affected cases. To tackle
the challenge of limited data, we employ data augmentation techniques to expand the dataset. After pre-processing and aug-
mentation, we curate a collection of 5135 eye images representing both pink-eye pathology and healthy states. Subsequently,
these augmented images undergo classification using the developed CNN model. During execution, the customized CNN
model obtains an impressive accuracy of 88.80%, with a loss of 0.25, and demonstrates precision, recall, and F1 scores of
0.50. The CNN model holds promise as an automated solution for conjunctivitis detection. Its accuracy and efficiency could
substantially support medical professionals in early diagnoses, facilitating timely treatment and curbing transmission rates.
Keywords: Conjunctivitis, pink eye, deep learning, CNN, augmentation
I. Introduction occasionally blurred vision. In a nutshell, conjunc-
tivitis symptoms can vary and consulting a medical
The current monsoon season has resulted in signifi-
professional for accurate diagnosis and appropriate
cant disruptions across various regions of the coun-
treatment is crucial, especially if the symptoms persist
try. The occurrence of floods in various regions of the
or worsen (Rodrigues, 2019).
country has led to a notable escalation in the suscep-
There are many types of conjunctivitis and gener-
tibility to vector-borne diseases (Targhotra, 2023).
ally they are grouped into four main types, depending
Delhi this year saw its worst recorded flood in the
on their causes (McManes, 2022):
last four decades, with unprecedented water levels in
the Yamuna river that caused water-logging in major Viral conjunctivitis: This is usually caused by a virus
parts of the city. As the Yamuna river surpasses the and is highly contagious. It often accompanies com-
danger mark, a sudden rise of eye diseases such as mon cold symptoms and spreads via direct contact
conjunctivitis is also seen in Delhi, Maharashtra, and with the eye secretions of any infected person.
parts of Gujarat (Rawat, 2023).
Bacterial conjunctivitis: Caused by bacteria, this type
can result in a thick discharge that can cause the eye-
A. Background
lids to stick together. It can also be easily transmitted
Conjunctivitis, also referred to as “pink eye,” is an
through direct contact.
inflammation of the conjunctiva which is a delicate
transparent tissue that coats the inner side of the eye- Allergic conjunctivitis: This is triggered by some al-
lid and envelops the white portion of the eye. The dis- lergens like pollen, dust, or pet dander, this type is not
ease is caused by irritants, allergens, bacteria as well contagious. It typically causes itching, redness, and
as viruses, like coronavirus (Roth, 2022). There are excessive tearing.
various symptoms that can be seen such as redness Irritant conjunctivitis: This is typically a result of be-
in the white part of the eye and inner eyelid which ing exposed to irritants such as chemicals, smoke, or
creates a noticeable pink or reddish appearance. The foreign objects. It’s not contagious and typically re-
eye may feel itchy or experience a burning sensation, solves once the irritant is removed.
prompting frequent rubbing, excessive tearing along
with a clear, white, yellow, or green discharge, can be B. Role of AI for the detection and diagnosis of eye
present which may lead to crust formation on the eye- conjunctivitis
lids, especially upon waking. Swelling of the eyelids The conventional techniques involve clinical
might occur, accompanied by sensitivity to light and approaches which are being conducted by medical
a
apekshakoulo9@[Link]
92 Automated detection of conjunctivitis using convolutional neural network
this purpose. This was done to substantiate the asser-
tion and to attain the targeted accuracy level of 84%.
Likewise, a convolutional neural network (CNN)
model was employed by Erdin and Lalitkumar (2023)
to detect eye diseases. The primary goal of this study
was to classify human eyes into four unique groups:
trachoma, conjunctivitis, cataract, and healthy. The
study’s accuracy percentage was 88.36%. The CNN
model was evaluated and obtained recall of 88.75%,
precision of 89.25%, and F1 score of 88.5%. The
technology exhibited the potential for early diagnosis
Figure 13.1 AI to detect and classify eye disease
of numerous eye illnesses based on the accuracy and
evaluation results.
Verma et al. (2015) focused on the diagnosis and
experts. Various tools such as slit lamp microscope classification of hyperemia, a condition where the
are used by the professionals to carefully observe few white portion of the eye becomes red, using deep
indications such as swelling, redness, and discharge. learning. The paper discussed the subjective and
Although this method worked effectively but it has objective methods of assessing bulbar redness and
a drawback that it introduces the dependence on the highlights the limitations of these methods. Their
experience and interpretation of practitioners (Azari proposed model used deep learning to automatically
and Amir, 2020). This is where artificial intelligence extract features and classify the results, minimizing
(AI) steps in to offer a solution. the dependency on operators for evaluation.
Artificial intelligence (AI) has been as a valuable
tool in the domain of medical diagnostics which
II. Objectives
includes the field of ophthalmology and plays an
important role to detect and diagnose eye condi- Based on the impact of AI techniques in detecting and
tions such as conjunctivitis, as shown in Figure 13.1 diagnosing eye conjunctivitis, the goal of the manu-
(Schmidt-Erfurth et al., 2018). script is to detect and perform binary classification
AI systems have the ability to examine eye pictures between pink eye and healthy eye using modified
or scans with the help of advanced image processing CNN model.
which assist them to identify suspected conjunctivitis The contribution that has been done to conduct the
cases. These algorithms are trained for detecting mild research is as followed:
symptoms such as swelling, redness, and discharge
which allow the models to identify patterns linked 1. Initially, the customized dataset has been cre-
with the disorder (Han, 2022). AI algorithms provide ated which consisted of 265 pink eyes and 130
important insights to medical personnel to establish healthy eyes.
accurate diagnoses by referencing large databases of 2. In the next phase, pre-processing has been
existing cases. This convergence of technology as well performed by resizing the size of images to
as healthcare has the potential to escalate the diag- (224×224) and later is enhanced by using histo-
nosis of conjunctivitis diagnosis, thereby improving gram equalization and unsharp masking.
patient treatment, and potentially reduce the strain on 3. After this, the dataset of images are augmented
medical practitioners (Koul et al., 2023). using three augmentation techniques such as ro-
In fact, the researchers have also contributed in tation, horizontal flipping and vertical flipping
the field of detection and diagnosis of eye conjunc- which results up to 5135 images.
tivitis. Gunay et al. (2015) worked on the diagnosis 4. Following augmentation, an enhanced CNN
of conjunctivitis by analyzing corneal images. The model was meticulously devised. Rigorous eval-
approach entailed the segmentation of the infected uation ensued, encompassing crucial parameters
area within the images to quantify vasculariza- which include precision, F1 score, accuracy, re-
tion and the intensity of redness in pink eyes. Their call, and loss thereby substantiating the model’s
approach successfully detected instances of eye infec- effectiveness in conjunctivitis detection.
tions and accurately identified potentially contagious
patients in 93% of instances. Mukherjee et al. (2021)
III. Methodology
developed a mobile healthcare application (iConDet)
for the purpose of conducting preliminary conjuncti- This section covers the flow to detect and classify the
vitis detection. Deep learning methods were applied pink eye and the healthy eye using proposed CNN
to the conjunctivitis dataset that was compiled for model and the framework is presented in Figure 13.2.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 93
Figure 13.2 Proposed system to detect and classify
pink as well as healthy eye
Figure 13.3 Sample of pink and healthy eyes
Figure 13.5 Resized dimension of images
B. Data pre-processing
The eye data collected are of different sizes which can
hamper the performance of the system, hence their
size have been reduced to (224×224), as shown in
Figure 13.5.
Later, the quality of the resized images have been
enhanced and the process starts with individual histo-
gram equalization on each color channel (blue, green,
and red) to enhance contrast by spreading pixel inten-
Figure 13.4 Number of images in the dataset sity distribution. This enriches visual appeal, making
dark and light areas distinct. Following this, unsharp
masking is applied. A blurred version of the enhanced
A. Dataset image is subtracted from the original, emphasizing
The dataset employed in this research has been care- high-frequency components like edges and details.
fully customized by gathering specific images that These components are then blended back into the
show pink eye from the eye diseases virus dataset vol- image, sharpening it and highlighting features. This
ume 1 (Kaggle, 2020). Moreover, a separate collection blend of techniques enhances contrast and sharpness,
of images depicting healthy eyes has been acquired resulting in an image with heightened visual appeal
from various reputable online sources, as shown in and clear details. The approach is demonstrated by
Figure 13.3. showcasing the original and enhanced images, as
A total of 356 .jiff images illustrating instances of shown in Figure 13.6.
pink eye were amassed for analysis. It is important to
mention that a small subset of these images was con- C. Data augmentation
sidered unsuitable and was manually excluded from It involves applying transformations to the original
the dataset, which ends up with the 265 number of images to diversify the dataset and improve model
images. Furthermore, an independent set of 130 .jpg training. Here, ImageDataGenerator() has been used
images featuring healthy eyes (Singh et al., 2019) was to perform rotation (within a range of -50 to +50
obtained for the purpose of comparison, as shown in degrees), horizontal flipping, and vertical flipping
Figure 13.4. generating 12 augmented images of single image (4
94 Automated detection of conjunctivitis using convolutional neural network
Table 13.1 Layered architecture of proposed CNN model
Layer Output shape Param #
Conv2d (None, 222,222,32) 896
Max_pooling2d (None,111,111,32) 0
Conv2d_1 (None,109,109,64) 18496
Max_pooling2d_1 (None, 54,54,64) 0
Conv2d_2 (none, 52,52,128) 73856
Max_pooling2d_2 (None, 26,26,128) 0
Flatten (None, 86528) 0
Dense (None, 512) 44302848
Figure 13.6 Enhanced eye images Dropout (None,512) 0
Dense_1 (None,1 ) 513
Table 13.1 represents the layered architecture of a
CNN model. Each row corresponds to a layer in the
network, and provides information about the layer
type, output shape, and the number of parameters (or
weights) in each layer.
Convolutional layers: The network starts with
three convolutional layers (`conv2d`, `conv2d_1`,
`conv2d_2`). These layers use 2D convolutions to
Figure 13.7 Augmented images. (a) Healthy eye. (b) extract features from the input data. The number
Pink eye after the layer name (e.g., 32, 64, 128) indicates the
number of filters applied in each layer.
Max pooling layers: Following each convolutional
layer is a max-pooling layer (`max_pooling2d`, `max_
pooling2d_1`, `max_pooling2d_2`). Max pooling
reduces the dimensions of the feature maps, aiding in
Figure 13.8 Architecture of CNN model
retaining important features while reducing compu-
tational load.
Flatten layer: After the convolutional and pooling
layers, there’s a `flatten` layer that reshapes the data
augmented images each simulating different angles from 2D arrays to a 1D vector. This prepares the data
from which the eye might be captured). Hence, in for the subsequent fully connected layers.
total we have 1690 healthy images and 3445 pink
Dense (fully connected) layers: Two fully connected
eye images. This augmented dataset aids learning
layers (`dense`, `dense_1`) follow the flattening layer.
models in learning from a wider range of image
These layers process the flattened data to make final
variations, leading to better generalization and per-
predictions. The number after “Dense” indicates the
formance. Figure 13.7 presents the main augmented
number of neurons in each layer.
images.
Dropout layer: The “dropout” layer is used for regu-
D. CNN larization. It randomly sets a fraction of input units
Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) are a special- to zero during training, reducing the risk of over
ized type of deep learning model designed for process- fitting.
ing visual data like images. They consist of layers that 44396609 total parameters have been generated
automatically learn and extract features from images. which provides the total number of trainable parame-
The core components are convolutional layers, which ters in the network to represent the weights and biases
detect patterns in the input image, and pooling layers, that the model learns during training. These param-
which downsample the data, as shown in Figure 13.8 eters are updated to minimize the loss function during
(Kumar, 2023). training.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 95
Table 13.2 Performance metrics
Metrics Formulae
Accuracy
Loss
Precision
Recall
F1 score
Table 13.3 Hyper-parameters of CNN model
Hyper-parameters Values
Activation ReLu/Sigmoid
Optimizer Adam
Class mode Binary
Figure 13.9 Learning curves of CNN model
Batch_Size 32
Loss Binary cross entropy
Dropout rate 0.5 Table 13.5 Performance summary.
Epochs 10 Model Recall Precision F1 score
CNN 0.50 0.50 0.50
Table 13.4 Evaluation of CNN model
Model Training Testing
Table 13.6 Class-wise performance metrics for eye
Accuracy Loss Accuracy Loss classification.
CNN 0.83 0.35 0.88 0.25 Class Precision Recall F1 Score
Healthy eye 0.33 0.38 0.35
E. Performance metrics Pink eye 0.67 0.64 0.62
In Table 13.2, the metrics provide crucial insights
into the performance of applied learning models and
aid in comprehending the strengths and weaknesses
of models across different aspects of classification Table 13.4 shows that the CNN model achieved
performance (Modi et al., 2021; Kumar et al., 2022; an accuracy of 83% on the training dataset with a
Koul et al., 2023). corresponding loss of 0.35. On the testing dataset,
the model performed even better, with an accuracy
of 88% and a lower loss of 0.25. This indicates that
IV. Results
the CNN model has been able to generalize well from
In this section, the applied CNN model has been the training data to the testing data, demonstrating
evaluated on the basis of various performance metrics its effectiveness in classifying the eye images correctly.
such as accuracy, loss, precision, recall, and F1 score. The performance of the model has been also ana-
The hyper-parameters used to compile the model are lyzed graphically on the basis of their curves as shown
mentioned in Table 13.3: in Figure 13.9.
Table 13.4 provides a summary of the performance Table 13.5 provides a summary of performance
metrics for a trained CNN model on both the training metrics related to precision, recall, and the F1 score
and testing datasets. for a specific model.
96 Automated detection of conjunctivitis using convolutional neural network
Similarly, the model has been also evaluated for consideration. The model’s performance may vary
binary class of the dataset i.e., for healthy eye and with factors like dataset size, diversity, and quality.
pink eye on the basis of precision, recall, and F1 score Over fitting remains a concern, especially if the data-
in Table 13.6. set is small or imbalanced.
V. Discussion VI. Conclusion
Conjunctivitis is a condition that has the potential to The paper highlights the significance of the proposed
affect individuals across all age groups. However, it CNN model for automating the detection of con-
is observed that this phenomenon is more prevalent junctivitis using eye images. The model’s accuracy
among the pediatric population and individuals in of 88.80% and efficiency in distinguishing between
the young adult age group. This can be attributed to healthy and conjunctivitis-affected eyes offer a prom-
the fact that children and young adults often gather ising solution for aiding medical professionals in early
in educational institutions and workplaces, where diagnoses. This advancement in automated detection
they engage in close physical proximity and frequent holds potential to enhance eye health management
bodily contact with one another. The exponential by enabling timely interventions and reducing trans-
proliferation of the contagion is the primary factor mission rates. In future, the work can be extended by
contributing to the nearly two-fold increase in the increasing the dataset and developing an automated
afflicted population within the current calendar year learning model which can perform multi-class clas-
(Hashmi, 2022). sification of different types of conjunctivitis.
According to the available sources, there has been Overall, the paper underscores the valuable role of
a notable increase in conjunctivitis cases, with a rise AI-powered diagnostic tools in improving conjuncti-
of approximately 50–60%. The demographic pri- vitis detection and overall eye health care.
marily impacted by this phenomenon consists pre-
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14 An overview of wireless sensor networks applications,
challenges and security attacks
N. Sharmila Banua, [Link] and [Link]
Sri Ramakrishna College of Arts and Science, SR University, India
Abstract
A wireless sensor network (WSN) is a key technology in the implementation of several applications, including light-duty data
streaming applications and straightforward event/phenomena monitoring systems. The energy-efficiency of wireless sensor
networks is a crucial issue in case of development and implementation. The goal of this effort is to increase the information
processing and routing process of energy efficiency. This research paper’s primary goal is to provide a complete review of
WSN. This article gives a broad overview of the WSN and some of its key features. This study also discusses several WSN
threats, WSN research obstacles, and WSN applications.
Keywords: Wireless sensor network, clustering WSN, mobile sinks in WSN
I. Introduction collected to choose the next course of action. Ahmad
et al. (2020) provides definitions of several context
A wireless sensor network (WSN) is created by the
kinds, such as temporal context, social context, moti-
connecting of various tiny sensor nodes. These net-
vational context, location context, etc.
works are primarily used to gather data on the
In order to meet the requirements outlined in the
environment in which they are implemented. Many
deployment of pervasive computing, WSN have
computer domains, including data transfer, network-
evolved as an appropriate technology for sensing
ing protocols, signal processing, information pro-
events and acquiring data that is typically dispersed
cessing and aggregation, storage, etc., are brought
over numerous sites in a geographic region (Al Qundus
together by WSN (Al Qundus et al., 2022). WSN
et al., 2022). Wireless Sensor Networks are made up
is more adaptable and effective in monitoring the
of cheap, compact, battery-operated computer devices
environment than the large sensors used in earlier
with radio transceivers and sensors that can perceive
times. Also, with no significant infrastructure, fewer
events and interact with one another (Al Qundus et
resources are needed for anything other than environ-
al., 2022). The self-organizing sensor nodes would
ment monitoring.
either pass on the sensed data to a centralized sink
Pervasive computing is the idea that technology
where the data would be analyzed and the presence
should be seamlessly incorporated into every part
of the event inferred, or they would interact with one
of human existence while remaining fully unobtru-
another to cooperatively determine the occurrence of
sive, i.e., without becoming the center of attention.
an event in a dispersed way (Figure 14.1).
Pervasive computing aims to create an intelligent,
A typical WSN is subject to a number of limita-
flexible environment that continuously facilitates
tions. A typical Wireless Sensor Network is subject to
interactions between people and their surround-
a number of limitations (Alghamdi, 2020) , some of
ings by detecting their actions and anticipating their
which are as follows:
needs from their surroundings. This greatly improves
the quality of interaction between people and their
• The WSN is battery-operated, compact in size,
surroundings. It further assumes that this would be
equipped with cheap, low-accuracy sensors
accomplished through the presence of a significant
and short-range radios. They also have limited
number of tiny computing devices with sensing and
computation and memory capacity. As a result,
radio communication capabilities that are widely dis-
these nodes are energy-constrained, have lim-
persed throughout the environment, gathering data
ited processing power, poor sensing precision,
on the environment, gathering data on the actions of
and are vulnerable to hardware and connectiv-
the human subject, and monitoring the interaction
ity issues.
of the human subject with the environment. It also
• Due to problems like channel fading and interfer-
assumes that these computer systems will cooperate
ence, the wireless medium itself is prone to erratic
with one another and be cognizant of the surround-
and unexpected behavior.
ing environment as they evaluate the data they have
[Link]@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 99
sensor nodes to maximize coverage area was pro-
posed. Al-Turjman, (2019) explored deterministic
and random (uniform random) node deployments for
large-scale WSNs, taking into account performance
parameters including coverage, energy use, and mes-
sage transmission time. The developed simple energy
model demonstrated the effectiveness of THT as a
node deployment approach for WSN applications.
Jawad et al. (2017) investigation focused on the
cooperative network’s cluster-based coded collabora-
tion with numerous receiving nodes. In this approach,
each member of the receiving cluster relays its sig-
nal copy to the destination while the sending node
sends a packet to the receiving cluster. The destination
Figure 14.1 Diagram of a typical WSN
node decodes the original information bits using code
combining methods. While using the same amount of
In addition, since every node in a network uses the power, the link layer dependability in a cluster-based
same channel for communication, there is a significant network is significantly increased.
likelihood that information will be lost due to packet Coded operation was developed by T. E. Hunter
loss and network congestion. and A. Nosratinia for transmission between two send-
ing nodes and one receiving node. Only one of the
transmitting nodes sends a data block in each time
II. Related work
slot, which consists of N1 bits from its own coded bits
A distributed system for cooperative MIMO trans- and N2 bits from its partner. The receiver then uses
missions developed by Hsin Yi Shen et al. (Alghamdi, code combining to combine the bits it has received
2020) makes use of space-time block coding and code from the two senders (Elappila et al., 2020). The
combining in the transmitting and receiving groups. coded collaboration for the cluster-based network,
In order to estimate the numerous carrier frequency however, lacked clarity.
offsets (CFO) from received mixed pilot signals, an A distributed space time block coding-based coop-
uncorrelated pilot symbol generation method based erative transmission technique was proposed by
on a pseudo noise sequence with iterative updates has Zhu et al. (2012). The performance was examined
been used. Additionally, the evaluation of the mini- on the presumption that nodes cooperate to decode
mum mean square estimator (MMSE) detector for received packets and that error detection occurs at
receiving STBC (Space Time Block Code) coded data the packet level. An optimization approach has been
under several CFO. The system’s projected BER and used to reduce total energy usage based on the perfor-
overall energy usage are compared to those of com- mance analysis. It is clear that adding more nodes to
parable cooperative designs. The suggested strategy a cluster could not increase energy efficiency due to
dramatically raises BER and energy effectiveness. the additional circuit energy that cooperating nodes
A specific plan that combines STBC with coopera- could need. Additionally, the ideal sensor cluster size
tive code combining. The challenges of transmitter changes based on the needed packet error rate (PER).
and receiver diversity in cooperative MIMO systems Even with rigorous throughput and delay constraints,
are addressed by the use of STBC and code combin- considerable energy savings can still be made com-
ing. STBC are deployed in the sending group to take pared to non-cooperative transmission.
advantage of transmitter diversity once the sending
and receiving groups have been established. To create III. Wireless sensor and actuator networks
receiver diversity, the destination combines the signals (WSAN) evolution
from the nodes in the receiving group using error con-
trol code combining. It has been demonstrated that WSAN have developed through time and now include
the system makes use of MIMO diversity benefits to special nodes called actuator nodes. The job of the
deliver dependable and effective gearbox (Díaz et al., WSN is to acquire data about the environment in
2011). which they are placed. In addition, unique nodes
For grid-based WSNs, (Tian et al., 2008) presented known as “actuator nodes” are added to the net-
mathematical methodology for maximizing net- work. These nodes have the potential to actuate in
work lifespan. When the sensor node’s communica- response to certain control components that affect the
tion radius is equal to or greater than its detecting environment in which the sensor nodes are placed.
radius, a technique for deploying the fewest possible In addition to having more processing and memory
100 An overview of wireless sensor networks applications, challenges and security attacks
provided by the sensor nodes. This means that in
order to prevent a delay in the control action, the
interval between the time an action is sensed by
the node mobility and the time when the action
is executed by the actuators must be as short as
is practical.
• As a result, there is an additional restriction
placed on the network latency time (TNLT)
which is crucial in the context of WSAN. TNLT
must not exceed the desired actuation latency
time of the application. This requirement applies
to the time lag between an event’s detection by a
Figure 14.2 (a) Making centralized decisions design. sensor node and the time the same is noted at the
(b) Distributed determination design sink or actuator.
IV. Attacks on WSN
capacities, stronger communication skills, and the
ability to operate on a controlled element, Actuator WSNs are vulnerable to a range of attacks. Secure and
nodes are not energy-constrained (Singh et al., 2019). dependable data transport from the sensing environ-
The following two network architectures (as depicted ment to the base station is necessary for critical appli-
in Figure 14.2), were introduced with the addition of cations (Chaitra and Sivakumar, 2017).
actuator nodes to the network.
Node capture attack: Attackers insert special equip-
• Making centralized decisions (semi-automated). ment into particular network nodes and gather data
• Distributed determination (automated). on sensor communications and security protocols.
By taking the data from sensor communication, the
The sensor nodes transmit the perceived data to a attacker can obtain the cryptographic information.
centralized sink in the event of a centralized decision- With prior knowledge, the attacker begins taking part
making method, where the choice on the control in network activity and is capable of physically cap-
action to be taken by the many actuators is made in turing nodes.
light of the information acquired. The actuators then Wormhole attack: An evil node will pose as the one
receive this information to be put into action by the closest to the base station in order to gather sensed
actuators. information from its neighbors. The real communica-
In the case of a distributed decision-making strat- tions from the nodes won’t reach the authentic base
egy, the sensor nodes relay the information they have station. The malicious node will ignore the messages
gathered to particular actuators, who then converse from its neighbors, bringing down the entire network.
and work together to decide on the precise control Attacks on network energy use: The attacker inserts
action that should be carried out by each of them. The malicious nodes into the system, and these nodes con-
second strategy is more in line with the real concept stantly broadcast connection requests, forward mes-
of WSN since it emphasizes the problem of coopera- sages, and drain the energy of nearby nodes during
tively deducing an event and responding to it. In non- request processing.
real time, simple control action applications, WSAN
Denial of service (DoS) attacks is frequent in net-
are anticipated to greatly speed up the acceptance
works. DoS attacks prevent the legitimate node from
of wireless data acquisition and control systems.
participating in the network’s predefined operations.
Nevertheless, decisions made for the control of actu-
ating action depend on the information gathered by Attacks using replication: The attacker sets up mali-
the sensor network. New limitations (Farhan et al., cious nodes that have the same ID as the real nodes
2017; Ahmed et al., 2019) have been put onto the and are loaded with hacked cryptographic data.
dependability of the network’s data gathering process Instead than capturing a significant number of nodes,
which is as follows: the deployment of numerous replicas makes it simple
to compromise the whole network.
• The control action must be time coherent with
the conditions of the environment because the WSN is essential to C4ISRT systems, which stand for
actuator node(s) must decide whether to con- Surveillance, Command, Control, Communications,
duct the control action based on an estimation Computation, Intelligence, Reconnaissance, and
or re-construction of the event using information Targeting. A very promising sensing method for
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 101
military C4ISRT is created by sensor networks’ fast Quick replication
exploitation, self-organization, and error accepting With snapshot replication, data is duplicated pre-
characteristics. Sensor nodes are intended as sensor cisely for the given interval. In contrast to other tech-
blotches that are spread around the area to be detected niques, snapshot replication doesn’t fully account for
in the border monitoring application. The sensor data changes. This type of replication is used because
nodes transmit the data to the network entrance via data changes are most likely to happen rarely, such
the sensor blotch. Also, the entrance is in responsibil- when publishers and subscribers finish their first
ity of transmitting that data to the base station. The synchronizations.
base station connects to database clones of the secure
systems that are only accessible to authorized person- Fusion of replication
nel. Finally, several user interfaces are used to display This type of replication is widely used in server-to-
the information to the military workforce. client configurations because it enables both the sub-
scriber and publisher to make dynamic changes to
A. Replication methods the data. Using merge replication, which consolidates
Attack node replication attack: In a node duplication information from several databases into one, makes it
attack, a copy of the recognized vertex that is present more challenging.
into the network tries to contact nearby nodes that
are within its wireless communication range. Even if Incremental replication based on keys
the attacker is unsuccessful in creating a link with a Only data that has changed since the last update is
valid node, it will continually carry out the same pro- transferred using this technique, sometimes referred
cedure throughout the network. to as key-based incremental data collection. Keys can
Attack on access points: Access points are the infor- be viewed as database elements that lead to data rep-
mation aggregation hubs that send data to the sink. lication. Because each update only involves a few row
An advanced technique called access point replication copies, the costs are very low. The drawback is that
allows an attacker to take control of a section of the this replication mode cannot be used to retrieve data
network. Successful access point replication makes it that has been permanently deleted since the key value
simpler for the attacker to capture the network. is also removed along with the record.
It is difficult to locate these replications in WSNs.
Attack on sink replication: Sink replication is a
Several academics have suggested methods for recog-
sophisticated assault against WSNs. Many WSNs
nizing these dangerous assaults.
simply utilize one sink to collect data. After complet-
ing sink replication, the attacker will have complete
control over the network. Even though WSNs have V. Modes of data acquisition
numerous sinks, sink duplication causes more harm. A WSN’s primary objective is to gather information
about the region in which it is located and then com-
B. Different replication methods municate that information to the sink, which may
Fully replicated tables be far away. The events occurring in the deployment
Whole table replication is the phrase used to describe zone are then determined or reconstructed using
the replication of all data. This includes both new and the information obtained. The deployed nodes nor-
updated information that is replicated from the begin- mally scan and capture data regularly but transfer
ning to the end. Costs are frequently greater since this the gathered data to the actuator, based on the tech-
replication technique needs a lot of processing power nique of data acquisition, which may be one of the
and network bandwidth. But, as will be discussed later following(Ahmed et al., 2018) .
in this article, whole table replication can be helpful
for retrieving data that has been hard destroyed as 1. Periodic data acquisition: In this mode, the nodes
well as data that does not have replication keys. will regularly communicate the information they
have acquired to the sink in addition to periodi-
Replication in a transaction cally collecting the information themselves. The
Using this approach, whenever data is modified, rate at which the acquired data is transferred to
and the user database receives updates after com- the sink would typically be significantly higher
plete first copies of the data are being created from than the frequency of data sampling. This is be-
origin to destination by the data replication soft- cause the node typically uses far less energy for
ware. This is a more effective replication technique sensing and computing than for delivering the in-
since fewer rows are copied when data is changed. formation, but there are rare applications where
Transactional replication is widely used in server-to- the contrary has been demonstrated to be true
server configurations. (Elappila et al., 2018).
102 An overview of wireless sensor networks applications, challenges and security attacks
2. Event-based data acquisition: In this mode, the b) Sensing unit
deployed nodes may scan and gather data on a Typically, the sensing device is coupled to one or
regular basis, but they will only send the data more physical sensors. The sort of sensors de-
when a certain predefined event takes place. sired can be included into the node according on
As the nodes won’t transmit frequently in this the application’s requirements.
mode, there is a tendency for the network life c) Communication unit
to be substantially greater than in periodic data This component keeps the WSN connected. It is
acquisition mode. Applications requiring regu- made up of an antenna-related radio transceiver
lar information about the event region, such as integrated circuit (IC). The radio IC’s communi-
habitat monitoring, are not suited for this mode. cation range may be adjusted, and it mostly de-
3. Query-based data acquisition: In this mode, the pends on the requirements of the application.
deployed nodes may periodically look for and
compile data, but they will only formally request The node’s communication range and power use
and transfer the data. This technique, sometimes are tightly correlated. The node’s power consump-
referred to as interest propagation, involves the tion rises in tandem with the communication range
sink initiating a query that spreads across the Rc. The radio IC typically operates in four modes:
network. The data that nodes have access to will transmit, receive, wait and snooze (Sutagundar and
only be delivered to those that satisfy the query’s Manvi, 2013). Wait mode power utilization is lower
requirements. One of the main criteria of this than the transmit and receive modes which both use
mode is that the query must be disseminated to roughly the same amount of energy during operation.
all nodes in the least amount of time and energy. Sleep mode is the least energy-intensive mode when
4. Hybrid data acquisition: It combines the first compared to the others; it uses a tiny fraction of the
three types. One or more of the aforementioned energy that other modes use.
data collecting modes may be employed by vari-
ous parts of the deployed nodes.
Environmental applications for WSN include coal
mining, tsunami, earthquakes, flood detection, gas
leak detection, forecasting of forest fires, cyclones,
water quality, range of rainfall, volcanic eruption,
and more. The network helps in the implementation
of safety procedures to some extent since it provides
early identification and forecasting of all these natu-
ral disasters. The sensor gathers the information, then
it is transferred to the master station over the net.
This aids in both alerting people to the approaching
disaster and implementing precautionary actions. The
monitoring of forest fires, air pollution, coal mining, Figure 14.3 Sensor nodes architecture
gas leaks, and water quality will all benefit from this.
VI. Single node architecture
In a WSN, the architecture of a sensor node is very
simple and it is subdivided into three primary units:
(i) the processing unit; (ii) the communication unit;
and (iii) the sensing unit. A sensor node’s block dia-
gram is shown in Figure 14.3.
a) Processing unit
This part often acts as the sensor node’s heart-
beat. Its internal microcontroller processes the
data that is sent to it. One or more of the mi-
crocontrollers that are most often used in sensor
nodes include the MSP 430, Intel Strong ARM,
and SA-1100. To store the instruction set, a flash
memory is also linked to this device. Figure 14.4 Applications areas of WSN
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 103
VII. Applications areas of WSN VIII. Challenges in WSN
WSNs have many uses now, and their potential appli- The structure of WSN faces a number of difficulties,
cations will expand in the future (Jawad et al., 2017). including topology, design concerns, scalability, net-
These are the few WSN application domains (Figure work longevity, energy utilization, etc. Difficulties,
14.4): network longevity are a crucial factor in the effective
deployment of WSN. Even though all other issues
(a) Habitat observation: As part of the Great Duck have been resolved with no appreciable lifetime
Island project (Ali et al., 2017), (Haseeb et al., enhancement, it is worthless for a WSN application
2020) nodes are placed across the island to (Jayarajanneditors, n.d.;, Jaiswal and Anand, 2020;
track petrel activities. The tiny sensor nodes that Haseeb et al., 2020).This work focuses in particular
were dispersed over the island captured data on on optimizing the clustering architecture in WSNs to
changes in the nest’s pressure, humidity, and tem- lengthen the network lifetime. The main goal of the
perature. Based on the aforementioned variables, clustering algorithms suggested for WSN is to lower
petrel activity may be reliably observed without the network’s energy consumption during each cycle
doing any environmental harm. Large connected of data collecting. Yet, it is discovered in reality that a
sensors would not allow for the same type of ex- round’s total energy reduction alone will not lengthen
perimenting. the network lifetime (Preeth et al., 2018; Shukla and
(b) Precision agriculture: Lack of understanding of Tripathi, 2020). In order to extend the duration of
the correct soil composition is the main prob- WSN, energy balancing is a crucial component along
lem in agriculture (Weng and Lai, 2013; Yu et with energy minimization. While though energy bal-
al., 2013; Al-Turjman, 2019). Water logging is ance and reduction appear to be the same, they are
caused by an overabundance of water in many actually two completely unique facets of the same
agricultural areas, which has a significant im- issue, namely network lifespan. As a result, the opti-
pact on the production. With the appropriate mum clustering method for WSNs must guarantee
micro sensors dispersed across the agricultural both network energy balance and energy reduction.
field, it is possible to measure the temperature,
soil composition, and other nutrient concentra- Energy
tions. Energy competence is the first and frequently most
(c) Coal mining: A major issue in coal mining is significant design problem for a WSN. The three
the frequent fire incidents (Benayache et al., functional areas of communication, sensing, and data
2019; Behera et al., 2020) Click or tap here to processing – each of which requires development –
enter text. which result in the loss of priceless are given power. The battery life can have a signifi-
human lives as well as financial hardship. WSN cant impact on the sensor node’s longevity. As sensor
has been utilized to pinpoint the precise site nodes have limited energy budgets, this restriction is
of fire catastrophes in the early stages, saving typically associated with sensor network approach.
priceless human lives and preventing serious Sensors are often powered by batteries, which should
mishaps. be changed or refilled after they run out.
(d) Determining the path of a forest fire takes more
time when utilizing satellite photos due to im- Limited bandwidth
precise recognition of using high tower sensing In WSN, processing information uses far more energy
locations (Jayarajann editors, n.d.; Zhou et al., than transmitting it. At present wireless communica-
2008; Shahraki et al., 2021). The catastrophic tion is restricted to data rates between 10 and 100
harm to the trees and the wild species that live Kbits per second. As message transfers between sen-
there is unlikely to be stopped unless the message sors are disrupted by bandwidth restrictions, synchro-
reaches the control center as quickly as possible. nization is impossible.
The distributed sensor nodes are effective in de-
tecting forest fires earlier and with greater preci- Node prices
sion. A large number of sensor nodes make form a sensor
(e) Military observation: As of now from two de- network. It follows that the estimation of a distinct
cades, there occurs a significant change to how node is crucial to the sensor network’s overall finan-
battles are fought. Using acoustic or video sen- cial metric. It is obvious that in order for the global
sors, the WSN can deliver trustworthy battlefield metrics to be bearable, the estimation of every sensor
data to the control room. Important human lives node must be considered. Depending on how the sen-
can be saved with prompt intervention (IEEE sor network is used, a significant number of sensors
Staff and IEEE Staff, n.d.). might be scattered randomly across the environment
104 An overview of wireless sensor networks applications, challenges and security attacks
for purposes like weather observation. If the price X. Mobile sinks in WSN: challenges
was reasonable overall for sensor networks, it would
Location Identification: To transmit the detected
be much more reasonable and successful for consum-
data, the sensor nodes require the availability of the
ers who demand careful consideration.
mobile actuator. The broadcast techniques are used
by mobile sinks to relay their position to network
Placement
nodes. Unfortunately, these methods need a signifi-
Node location in WSN could be a simple problem to
cant amount of resources to broadcast position data
tackle. Special strategies are required to position and
from the sink to the network on a regular basis. The
handle a broad spectrum of nodes in a relatively lim-
network requires a lot of message forwarding from
ited environment. In a highly sensitized region, 100 to
each node, which makes it difficult to use resources
10,000 of sensors have also been placed.
efficiently. By using an overhearing method, it takes
less broadcast messages to locate a mobile sink. The
Restrictions on strategy
mobile sink creates beacons with fresh position data
The creation of smaller, more affordable, and more
and transmits them to nearby access points. The access
effective devices is the main goal of wireless sensor
points that are in the mobile sink’s communication
design. The design of WSN will be influenced by a vari-
range receive the beacon and alter their message head-
ety of additional competitions. WSN has encountered
ers to point at the mobile sink. The remaining nodes
limited-restriction hardware and software approach
in the networks locate the mobile sink’s new position
paradigms (Tyagi and Kumar, 2013).
after hearing the changed header. Fewer fixed points
are used in the footprint-based technique. The sensor
IX. Clustering architecture in WSN nodes use fixed positions to determine the communi-
Clustering is the practice of assembling sensor nodes cation channel to the mobile sink. Nodes determine
that are geographically adjacent to one another their logical coordinates and the path to the mobile
(Gao et al., 2010; Gardašević et al., 2020), (Surya sink based on the fixed locations. The overhead
Engineering College & Institute of Electrical and caused by the location identification protocol should
Electronics Engineers, n.d.). A cluster head (CH) is a be maintained and considered to reduce the need for
node that manages a cluster and may start the cluster- retransmission of broadcast messages and extend net-
ing process. Cluster members are the residual nodes in work lifespan.
the cluster. These CM nodes will continually perceive Routing and mobile sink trajectory: The mobile sink
their surroundings and transmit data to the corre- trajectory is essential for the routing of sensed data.
sponding CH nodes. As all member nodes in a cluster In contrast to large-scale WSNs, a mobile sink may
are close to one another, the information they provide travel to each node in the net to collect the sensed
will also be redundant. In the majority of application data. Using special nodes that are fewer than the total
instances, sending this duplicate information to the number of nodes in the network, the random walks-
BS is unnecessary, and it also shortens the network’s based strategy decouples the mobile sink route from
lifespan. In order to create a single piece of infor- the sensor nodes. Movable sinks may roam around
mation, the CH nodes combine the data they have freely and collect data from a desired number of
obtained from the CMs. The BS will only be informed nodes (which act as a sub sinks or access points). By
of this one piece of information. In general, WSNs using position identification methods, sensor nodes
benefit from the clustering architectural paradigm in locate the mobile sink. In order to enhance the dura-
the following ways. tion of WSNs, the trajectory and routing path choices
are crucial. The mobile sink’s trajectory must guaran-
Conserving bandwidth: It occurs when a network is tee sink availability across the network with the least
grouped and nodes are logically segmented and con- amount of routing overhead.
nected to their respective groups. As a result, the clus- Transmission scheduling: The nodes in WSNs transfer
ters may share the same communication bandwidth the detected data to the mobile sink as soon as it enters
without encountering any interference. To prevent their communication range. WSNs are resource-con-
inter-cluster interferences, each cluster will have its strained networks that strive to cut down on energy
own spread code. use while distributing data to a mobile sink. Till the
Scalability: After the first deployment, new sets of mobile sink arrives at the nearest point in the commu-
nodes are included in the network to improve the nication range, the nodes will not be able to send their
accuracy level of the information. The newly added data according to the transmission scheduling scheme.
nodes may be readily accommodated using clustering
strategy as a new cluster or included in the available When more than one node recognizes the
groups during the process. mobile sink within its communication range, data
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 105
Figure 14.5 Framework for mobile sinks In WSN
Figure 14.7 WSN with compromised access point and
replicated mobile sink
Figure 14.6 Multiple nodes request for transmission Figure 14.8 Mobile sink revoke compromised node
channel at the same time and broadcast control messages to the network
transmission in WSNs with densely placed sensor Security: Because the sink is mobile, WSNs are vulner-
nodes becomes challenging. Data scheduling tech- able to a variety of attacks. For WSNs with mobile
niques addressed how the mobile sink in densely dis- sinks, conventional security techniques are insuf-
tributed WSNs, as depicted in Figure 14.5, chooses ficient (Abella et al., 2019). A mobile sink may be
the transmission channel. The mobile sink assigns a compromised to access the whole network. If WSNs
channel based on the measure of data to be trans- deploy numerous mobile sinks, seizing one will give
mitted and the node’s remaining power. Effective data the attacker access to a significant chunk of the net-
distribution in WSNs requires a distance and speed work. Two distinct key pools are generated by the
traveled – Finding a reasonable compromise between key management method, one for connecting sensor
efficient data aggregation and the network’s capacity nodes and access points and the other for connecting
to access the mobile sink is a difficult task. Mobile mobile sinks and access points. With the sink’s mobil-
sink must remain inside the sensor nodes’ communi- ity comes an increase in security complexity. Figure
cation range until the nodes have finished transmit- 14.5 depicts the case of an access point being taken
ting. The base station must respond quickly to WSN over and a duplicated mobile sink being brought into
applications in order to manage the regions of inter- the network by an attacker. Researchers need to pay
est. The mobile sink moves along the trajectory at a close attention to WSN security.
controlled speed thanks to transmission scheduling Upkeep of the network: The mobile sink’s privilege
and routing algorithms, forcing the sensor nodes to level must be set before to deployment in order to
transfer any observed data to the sink. To extend the allow the base station to manage the network. Figure
lifespan of the network, a trajectory with a minimal 14.6 illustrates how mobile sinks are utilized for node
trip distance and maximum network coverage must revocation as well as broadcasting private control
be chosen. The suggested model enhances the perfor- messages to the whole network during major security
mance in terms of the speed and distance that mobile threats.
sinks move.
106 An overview of wireless sensor networks applications, challenges and security attacks
The need for mobile sinks in WSNs is rapidly grow- XII. Conclusion
ing. The introduction of mobile sink in WSNs pres-
WSN is a key technology in the implementation of
ents further difficulties for networks. The difficulties
several applications, including light-duty data stream-
of implementing mobile sinks in WSNs are noted.
ing applications and straightforward event/phenom-
WSNs still experience resource depletion when using
ena monitoring systems. The energy-efficiency of
the current techniques (Figures 14.7 and 14.8).
wireless sensor networks is a crucial issue while devel-
oping and running them. The goal of this effort is to
XI. General basic features increase the information processing and routing pro-
A. Sensor network architecture cess’ energy efficiency. The primary goal of this work
Any of the following methods are used by sensors to is to provide a complete review on WSN.
send data to the base station.
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15 Internet of health things-enabled monitoring of vital signs
in hospitals of the future
Amit Sundas1,a, Sumit Badotra2, Gurpreet Singh3 and Amit Verma4
1,3
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India
2
School of Computer Engineering and Technology, Bennett University, Greater Noida, India
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University Center for Research and Development, Chandigarh
4
University, Gharuan Mohali, India
Abstract
Vital signs and other extensive patient data are among the many types of information typically obtained by hand in hospitals
utilizing discrete medical equipment. It might be challenging for careers to integrate and analyze this information since it is
often kept in separate spreadsheets and not part of patients’ electronic health records. Connecting medical equipment via a
decentralized network such as the Internet is one way to get around these restrictions. By combining data from many sources,
we can more accurately assess a patient’s health and plan for preventative measures. In this study, we present the notion of
the internet of health things (IoHT) and conduct a broad landscape analysis of the methods that may be used to collect and
integrate data on vital signs in healthcare facilities. The potential use of intelligent algorithms is investigated, and common
heuristic techniques such weighted early warning score systems are addressed. In order to maximize efficiency, make the most
of available resources, and prevent unnecessary patient health decline, this article suggests potential avenues for merging pa-
tient data on hospital wards. It is stated that the IoHT paradigm will continue to provide better options for patient treatment
on hospital wards, and that a patient-centered approach is crucial.
Keywords: Machine learning, sepsis, vital sign, prediction, electronic health records
I. Introduction patient health decline and optimize hospital resources
by anticipating future patient needs.
Hospitalized patients undergo regular vital sign This paper explores the internet of health things
monitoring, a crucial practice that can prevent (IoHT), an emerging technology that enables inter-
health deterioration, reduce morbidity and mortal- connected devices to monitor patients’ health and
ity, shorten hospital stays, and alleviate financial share data. We propose the integration of ML with
burdens (Gultepe et al., 2013; Sundas et al., 2022). this architecture to correlate data and forecast future
However, the techniques employed for vital sign col- health trends and requirements. When information
lection in hospital wards lack standardization on a and communication technology (ICT) is applied in the
global scale. In some cases, manual data collection is healthcare context, it is known as eHealth or mHealth
still utilized, with patient-specific spreadsheets often (Vistisen et al., 2019). These terms are all centered on
discarded upon discharge. Alternatively, vital signs enhancing patient outcomes, with a particular focus on
can be recorded on devices such as tablets, personal mobile health services and ubiquitous health (uHealth).
digital assistants (PDAs), or other electronic tools and uHealth leverages pervasive and mobile computing to
stored in the patient’s electronic health record (EHR) continuously monitor an individual’s health, empha-
(Sundas et al., 2022). These recorded vital signs can sizing preventive and personalized care, departing
be leveraged to assess a patient’s health status through from the current paradigm (Chen et al., 2016).
heuristic methods like early warning or modified early In this article, we delve into the potential of IoHT
warning scoring (EWS/MEWS) (Sundas et al., 2023), for monitoring vital signs in hospital wards and
particularly in the United Kingdom. explore automated and intelligent approaches for
The internet of things (IoT) facilitates the interac- predicting patient health deterioration. The article is
tion and data analysis of devices (Sundas et al., 2021). structured into six sections. Section 2 discusses the
As a result, nurses can potentially automate the vital latest advancements in hospital patient treatment.
sign recording process. IoT employs cloud comput- Section 3 introduces the IoHT concept and techniques
ing in its distributed platform for data processing and for collecting vital signs in hospital wards. Section 4
storage (Sundas et al., 2022). This platform enables discusses the application of ML for data interpreta-
the application of machine learning (ML) algorithms tion. Section 5 addresses the major challenges and
(Gultepe et al., 2013; Sundas et al., 2022) to predict provides solutions. Section 6 concludes the study.
amitsundas1992@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 109
II. Hospital treatment focused on the individual rules determine which vital signs are measured, which
patient is contentious.
Elliott and Coventry recommended eight vital signs
Patient-centered care (PCC) stands as a pivotal
(Rana et al., 2018), adding pain, consciousness, and
hospital quality indicator (Gultepe et al., 2013). The
urine output (Iyer et al., 2022). Patients lived longer
assessment of PCC hinges on factors such as patient
Table 15.1 defines, normalizes, and impacts eight vital
needs, effective provider communication, and the
indicators hospitals may monitor for patient health.
availability of services. From an information tech-
Monitoring vital signs raises challenges about how
nology (IT) perspective, PCC can be equated to the
frequently and what to report. Unlike Table 15.1, not
patient’s EHR. This differs significantly from vari-
all vitals may be obtained instantly.
ous enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems of
Pain assessment is subjective. WILDA verifies pain
the past, which primarily aimed to optimize work-
terms, intensity on a 0–10 scale, location, duration,
flow and procedural aspects (Bloch et al., 2019). In
aggravating factors, and pain-relieving variables
the context of PCC, hospital ward vital signs play a
(Sundas et al., 2021). The patient-caregiver WILDA
crucial role, serving as essential markers for identify-
method may use computerized data recording. Tablets
ing patient health concerns and their correlation with
and smartphones can capture patient data for EHRs.
other pertinent data.
Assessing consciousness requires patient-provider
communication. The Glasgow Coma scale measures
A. Vital signs monitoring
eye opening, verbal, and motor responses (Khan et
Patient-centered care improves hospital treatment
al., 2021). These assessments’ numerical outcomes
(Tang et al., 2020). Patient-centered care is measured
depend on patient reactions to stimuli.
by how well it meets patient needs, how fast clinicians
Electronically capturing these numbers may assist
communicate health data, and how readily patients
evaluate the patient’s neurological condition. Catheters
may get treatments. The EHRs are PCC medical
may automatically record urine output. Manual uri-
information systems. Thus, ERPs enhance workflow
nometers are still used (Sundas et al., 2021).
(Khan et al., 2014).
Hospital ward vital signs, vital signs used to high- B. Patient risk assessment
light patient health issues, and vital signs connected Hospital PCC examines vital signs regularly and more
to other data may describe PCC. Hospital nurses have often if concerns arise. Data and graded response tech-
measured the same vitals since 1900 (Sundas et al., niques lower risk. Monitoring and triggering define
2021). how frequently, what, and when to check in. Table
Blood pressure, temperature, heart rate, and respi- 15.2 outlines healthcare institution risk assessment
ration have oxygen saturation. To effectively assess a approaches. Check metric first (Liu et al., 2014). This
patient’s state, National Institute for Health and Care group uses MET (Medical Emergency Team) calling
Excellence (NICE) suggests monitoring oxygen satu- criteria. MET is determined by airway threats, respi-
ration in addition to the five vitals. Consider urine ratory or cardiac arrest, state alterations, and convul-
output, discomfort, and biochemical testing. Hospital sions (Singh et al., 2019; Sundas et al., 2021). Group
Table 15.1 Typical hospital vitals used for patient monitoring
Definition Vital sign Some influencing factors Normal range
A pain scale is used to measure Pain of level The view from the patient The patient reports no pain
the patients’ pain intensity on the 0–10 pain scale (1–3
mild, 4–6 moderate, 7–10
severe)
The force multiplied by the Blood pressure Variables such as age, posture, 90/60–120/80 mmHg
period between heartbeats effort, sleep, slant, and
(systole) that blood exerts on confounding variables (such as
arteries White-Coat-Syndrome or anxiety)
How many times in 60 seconds Breathing rate Variables such as age, oxygen Breathing rate: 12–1/8/min
the chest moves up and down levels in the environment, pain and
anxiety levels, and physical effort
Estimates the quantity of oxygen SPO2 Workload, oxygen levels, and From 95% to 100%
in the blood by measuring the other confounding variables (such
saturation level of its peripheral as activity and pain intensity)
capillaries (SpO2)
110 Internet of health things-enabled monitoring of vital signs in hospitals of the future
Table 15.2 Methods, frameworks, and systems for assessing risk
Common practices Type Characteristics
EWS + MET, MEWS + PART intensity Combination Monitoring development, graded response, varying
sensitivity and specificity
Acceptable calling standards Single parameter Easy to use, but no improvement tracking
PART Multiple parameter high sensitivity and low specificity, yet it allows
progress tracking and progressive reaction
The worthing physiological scoring Aggregate scoring Allows development monitoring, progressive response,
system (EWS, MEWS, ViEWS) and high sensitivity and specificity, based on the score
2 needs one abnormal vital sign. PART (Prehospital Heuristics underpin all these methods. These meth-
Acuity Rating for Triage) calling requirements are an ods compare physiological measures to preset criteria,
example. The PART method measures respiration, resulting in many false positives. These examinations
heart rate, systolic blood pressure, consciousness, may employ artificial intelligence (AI) to better diag-
oxygen saturation, and urine output. nose the patient.
The third category of risk assessment focuses on
evaluating vital signs to detect early signs of health C. Health information recording
deterioration. The early warning score (EWS) was ini- The PCC programmers include physiological obser-
tially introduced as the scoring system. Notably, EWS vations at admission and throughout hospitaliza-
has gained widespread adoption in most UK hospitals tion. For this reason, healthcare workers employ
due to its endorsement by the NICE, and its proven EHR systems. Healthcare practitioners manage most
effectiveness (Khan et al., 2021). The EWS relies on EHRs. These systems solely monitor the patient’s cur-
calculated data, assessing a patient’s health by ana- rent healthcare provider. Combining data from sev-
lyzing multiple parameters at varying intervals. The eral EHR systems doesn’t provide a comprehensive
vital sign data needed for EWS can be entered into the patient EHR (Chen et al., 2016).
patient’s EHR either manually or automatically, and Personal health records (PHR) are one option for
this allows for continuous calculation and visualiza- achieving a holistic and unified picture of a patient’s
tion of the EWS score over time. The process of man- health. A PHR is an individual’s own representation
aging this data can be carried out using mechanical or of their health records, which may consist of separate
manual EWS devices, including paper-based systems. pieces of data or include data from several other sources.
The initial EWS score is computed based on vital Patients have full authority over their PHRs, including
signs such as systolic blood pressure, temperature, the ability to appoint a proxy or set access privileges.
heart rate, breathing rate, and level of awareness (Liu Involving patients in the management of their health
et al., 2014). Each vital sign is compared to estab- information improves collaboration and participation
lished norms to determine an individual score, with a in therapy (Sundas et al., 2021). Furthermore, the intro-
range of 0–6 for systolic blood pressure and 0–3 for duction of mobile devices and wearables drastically
the remaining parameters. The overall EWS score is alters the patient’s role in engaging with their PHR by
derived by summing up the scores for each vital sign enabling real-time monitoring of vital signs, supple-
and adding them to the respective norms. It’s worth menting health information, and allowing for more
noting that there exist several versions of the EWS. proactive intervention. The current tendency is for
One such variant is the modified early warning score patients to supplement their healthcare providers’ EHR
(MEWS), which incorporates urine output as the sixth data with data collected from their own wearables and
vital indicator. Additionally, the vitalpac early warning mobile devices (Sundas et al., 2022) (Figure 15.1).
score (ViEWS) offers a solution for bedside vital sign
monitoring using a PDA. Another system, the worth- III. Internet of health things
ing physiological scoring system, takes into account a
broader range of vital signs, including respiration rate, Since 1999, the IoT has grown into a worldwide
heart rate, arterial pressure, body temperature, oxy- sensor, wireless communication, and information
gen saturation, and level of awareness, in estimating a processing network. The IoT relies on smart items,
patient’s risk of adverse outcomes. These risk assess- which can transmit and analyze information to
ment methods in the third category combine the ease interact autonomously. Recent efforts to define, IoT
of use from the previous categories with the enhanced have included sensing environmental data, providing
sensitivity provided by the EWS and its variants. communication services, analytics, applications, and
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 111
et al., we propose using cloud computing because of
its inherent qualities, such as on-demand self-service,
widespread network access, resource pooling to meet
scaled demand, quick flexibility, and metering capa-
bilities. Recently, a kind of cloud computing has been
promoted for IoHT as a solution to the excessive
latency of health monitoring systems. Fog computing
is a kind of cloud computing that integrates locally
based devices (also known as edge computing) with
cloud-based resources in a decentralized method.
Patient data is registered in a PHR that is semanti-
Figure 15.1 Provider-controlled electronic health re- cally interoperable, which is another significant feature.
cords (EHR) and patient-controlled, mobile, wearable The processing of patient information involves
sensor-based personal health records (PHR) are two analyzing such information. Here, we suggest that
types of electronic health records (EHR) smart algorithms grounded on ML should be used
in place of more conventional heuristic methods.
Improved resource allocation is anticipated as a result
of improved patient health deterioration inference
made possible by cutting-edge data fusion and predic-
tive analytics.
Results are presented as a synthesis of the preced-
ing levels, or “presentation,” at the final stage. These
may appear as notifications, recommended next steps,
charts, or graphs. De-identified data from many PHRs
within a given geographical area, metropolitan area,
or healthcare facility may be combined to provide
epidemiological perspectives. IoT healthcare appli-
cations are just getting off the ground. Cost savings,
improved quality of life, and enhanced user experi-
ence are all conceivable outcomes (Tang et al., 2020).
Figure 15.2 Acquisition, storage, processing, and dis- From the standpoint of healthcare providers, IoHT
play are shown at the bottom of this schematic of the can minimize disruptions in service, pinpoint when it
Internet of Health Things (IoHT) is most convenient to restock supplies, and make the
most effective use of scarce assets.
information exchange. The IoT can be things-centric
(from sensors), internet-centric (from middleware and A. Connectivity tools for IoT
architecture), semantic-centric (from knowledge), or Various wireless protocols are currently employed to
user-centric (enabling innovative applications focused coordinate wearable health monitors within IoHT.
on people) (Vistisen et al., 2019). We utilize the IoT Additionally, communication technologies based on
to monitor hospital patients’ vital signs in this article. electromagnetic fields, such as radio-frequency identi-
Connected medical devices that can share and fication (RFID) and near-field communication (NFC),
interpret data in order to better care for patients make have been explored as options for IoHT applications.
up what is known as the “IoHT”. This focus on the Initially, RFID embraced in the logistics sector,
patient entails four levels of analysis (Figure 15.2). involves the use of readers and tags. The RFID tech-
Smart health objects (SHO) include things like nology gained early exposure in the context of IoT
wearables and medical equipment and are acquired within logistics (Tang et al., 2020). The RFID systems
in the first phase. An SHO’s primary responsibility is can utilize either passive or active tags. Active RFID
to record information about a patient’s vital signs and tags initiate communication via an internal battery
other physiological statuses. and can operate at greater ranges, while passive RFID
Standard protocols (e.g., those under the wing of tags rely on the reader’s signal for communication
ISO, HL7, DICOM, and others) and other technolo- and do not require a battery. The development of
gies (e.g., Bluetooth, Wi-Fi) are often used for their ultra-high frequency (UHF) tags, with advanced sens-
communicative capacities. ing and computing capabilities, has paved the way for
For example, “storage” is in charge of representing battery-free, cost-effective monitoring and transmis-
the gathered data in a manner that is both scalable sion of patients’ vital signs, contributing to RFID’’s
and interoperable. In line with the research of Rana promising role in healthcare (Li-wei et al., 2016).
112 Internet of health things-enabled monitoring of vital signs in hospitals of the future
NFC, on the other hand, is a contactless proximity possible remedies. The increased complexity and vari-
communication technology that operates at close dis- ety of data has led to a rise in research on big data
tances, typically within approximately 4 cm in prac- analysis in healthcare. We focus on ML approaches
tice (though theoretically, it can work at distances of for data modeling. These approaches typically include
less than 10 cm). The proximity nature of NFC, cou- three steps: data collection, feature selection and
pled with its user-friendliness, makes it an excellent extraction, and learning (Li-wei et al., 2014).
choice for enabling communication between patients IoHT devices and other healthcare equipment with
and their medical data. registration and synchronization capabilities gather
Finally, low-power area networks like 6LoWPAN data. After pre-processing (filtering, standardizing, and
enable the delivery of IPv6 packets in wireless sensor aggregating), features (signal descriptive statistics, tem-
networks (WSNs), extending the reach of the IoT to poral and frequency domain characteristics) that dis-
the level of individual sensor nodes. IPv6’s scalability, criminate the patient’s health condition are identified
improved mobility features, and support for multiple and chosen. A classifier or regressor algorithm is taught
stakeholders’ management have enhanced the admin- to relate the data to health deterioration. Deep learn-
istration of smart objects. Consequently, 6LoWPAN ing uses algorithms to extract information from raw
is widely recognized as the foundational technol- data instead of hand-crafted qualities. After training,
ogy for the IoHT in a substantial body of literature the model may be used as a decision support system
(Baidillah et al., 2023). to evaluate a patient’s health or offer relevant actions.
B. IoHT with real-time health status tracking IV. Algorithms with intelligence for monitoring
The IoHT may help hospitals manage PCC and patient vital signs
data. Nurses manually take vital signs. Manual sphyg-
momanometers, stethoscopes, pain and consciousness Many ML algorithms incorporate critical factors to
questionnaires are employed. In these cases, a smart- enhance their predictive capabilities. Support vector
phone or tablet might help the caretaker by providing machines (SVMs), for instance, are capable of assess-
additional information or collecting data. Electronic ing patient risk by considering various indicators,
vital sign registration saves time and labor. including patient demographics, laboratory findings,
A WSN of wireless personal devices may collect and vital signs. SVMs can predict daily risk ratings for
vital indicators. IPv6 over 6LoWPAN is replacing patients and then aggregate these ratings to stratify
manufacturer specifications for linking smart health overall risk.
devices. Sundas et al., presented a multisensor pain In the healthcare domain, decision trees are com-
assessment approach. These sensors include acceler- monly used for disease classification, enabling the
ometers and GPS trackers for activity levels, micro- identification and categorization of different medi-
phones, and a computer’s capacity to interpret speech cal conditions. Medical research has increasingly
and facial expressions. The authors noted the abun- explored the use of individual neural networks (NN)
dance of smartphone and tablet pain measuring appli- and their integration with other approaches. Notably,
cations. Similar to Aung and colleagues’ technique, one of the early experiments applied long short-term
one may employ image processing to analyze eye memory (LSTM) recurrent neural networks (RNN)
movement, speech analysis to evaluate verbal replies, to detect patterns in EHR data. These NN are well-
and an accelerometer or gyroscope to evaluate motor suited for handling time series data, irregular sam-
responses to determine the patient’s awareness. BP, pling, and gaps in medical records.
temperature, HR, RR, and SpO2 may be monitored To address issues related to missing data, research-
using IoHT. Otero and colleagues recommended auto- ers have developed deep models incorporating gated
matic urine monitoring for severely unwell patients. recurrent units (GRU), which provide effective rep-
RFID, NFC, and Bluetooth can communicate sensor resentations for incomplete or intermittent data. The
data to smartphones. Smartphones convey this data application of RNN to medical data represents a bur-
to a fog or cloud middleware. Intelligent algorithms geoning area of research that continues to evolve and
for processing huge patient data requires further development (Li-wei et al., 2014).
The IoHT, high-throughput sequencing platforms
(genomics, proteomics, and metabolomics), real-time A. Deep learning techniques [11–15] are another op-
imaging, and point-of-care diagnostic devices have tion to consider
made health informatics a data-rich field. Environment NN with several nested layers and neurons lies at the
and social media may provide health information (Liu heart of these approaches (Iyer et al., 2022). Using a
et al., 2014). “Big data analysis” is the processing of large number of neurons enables the coverage of a great
massive amounts of vital sign data using sophisticated deal of raw data, and the option of cascading many
algorithms to identify health decline risks and predict layers enables the automated abstraction of a higher
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 113
level, eliminating the need for human involvement patients with closed-loop alarm. IoT-enabled Smart
When applied to vital signs data, this function may help Healthcare Sys. Serv. Appl., 143–176.
extract potentially nuanced and obscure insights from Vistisen, S. T., Johnson, A. E. W., and Scheeren, T. W. L.
simple observation. Ravi and coworkers point to con- (2019). Predicting vital sign deterioration with artifi-
cial intelligence or machine learning. J. Clin. Monit.
volutional neural networks (CNNs) as the kind of deep
Comput., 33(6), 949–951.
learning having the most influence on health informatics
Singh, Jaiteg, and Nandini Modi. (2019). Use of information
at the moment (Bloch et al., 2019). CNN has been stud- modelling techniques to understand research trends in
ied extensively, but most of the time it’s used to analyze eye gaze estimation methods: An automated review. He-
photos of the human body for diagnosis. liyon, 5(12), 1–12.
Lujie, C., Dubrawski, A., Wang, D., Fiterau, M., Guillame-
V. Conclusion Bert, M., Bose, E., Kaynar, A. M. et al. (2016). Using
supervised machine learning to classify real alerts and
This review included vital sign monitoring and analy- artifact in online multi-signal vital sign monitoring
sis to the IoHT to predict patient health risks. The data. Crit. Care Med., 44(7), e456.
first portion of the review included the eight main Bloch, Eli, Tammy Rotem, Jonathan Cohen, Pierre Sing-
physiological observations: blood pressure, body tem- er, and Yehudit Aperstein. (2019). Machine learn-
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The article highlighted the first five vital indicators
org/10.1155/2019/5930379
as most important. We then examined how hospitals Baidillah, Marlin Ramadhan, Pratondo Busono, and Riyanto
assess patients’ health risks using tracking and trigger- Riyanto. (2023). Mechanical ventilation intervention
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or versions thereof) are heuristics with hard-and-fast ing: A scoping review. Measurement Science and Tech-
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16 Artificial intelligence-based learning techniques for
accurate prediction and classification of colorectal cancer
Yogesh Kumar1,a, Shapali Bansal2, Ankush Jariyal3 and Apeksha Koul4
1
Department of CSE, School of Technology, Pandit Deendayal Energy University, Gandhi Nagar, Gujarat, India
2,3
Department of Computer Applications, USMS, Rayat Bahra University, Mohali, India
4
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Punjbai University, Patiala, Punjab, India
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a prominent source of illness and death worldwide. Detection and precise diagnosis of CRC at an
early stage can significantly enhance patient outcomes. Artificial intelligence (AI) has yielded promising results in the detec-
tion and classifications of CRC. The application of machine learning (ML) algorithms, deep learning (DL), and computer-
assisted diagnosis systems are only a few of the most current advances in the use of AI techniques for CRC detection and
diagnosis that we discuss in this study. In the article, we also compared and evaluated the CRC detection work of various
researchers using various performance parameters such as accuracy and loss. We also examine the types and epidemiology of
CRC, which aids in the diagnosis of the numerous CRC cancer types. AI has the possible to substantially enhance the detec-
tion and diagnosis of cancer, leading to improved patient health and lower healthcare costs.
Key words: Colorectal cancer, artificial intelligence, epidemiology, deep learning, machine learning, computer-assisted diagnosis
I. Introduction The colon or large bowel is an important part of the
gastrointestinal tract which starts from the esophagus
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a form of cancer that
to the anus (Chaplot et al., 2023). The large intestine
mostly affects the rectum or colon part of the body. It
of the human body is mainly made up of the colon,
occurs when cells in the colon or rectum lining pro-
which is around 1.5 m long and is divided into vari-
liferate and divide uncontrollably, forming a tumor.
ous sections such as (Kumar et al., 2021):
Certain risk factors for CRC have been identified,
including age (the risk increases with age), family his- Ascending colon (15–20 cm): The first section starts
tory of the disease, a diet high in red and low in fruits with the pouch called the caecum. Its role is to receive
and vegetables, smoking, and a sedentary lifestyle the undigested food from the small intestine.
(Chaplot et al., 2023).
Transverse colon (50 cm): The second section goes
Changes in gastrointestinal habits, abdomi-
across the body to the left from the right side. The
nal pain or discomfort, blood in the stool, abrupt
transverse and ascending colon are collectively called
weight loss, and fatigue may be symptoms of CRC.
as proximal colon.
However, some individuals with CRC may exhibit
no symptoms. The screening procedures for CRC Descending colon (25 cm): It is the third section that
such as colonoscopy and colon occult blood tests, descends on the left side.
can detect the disease at an early, more treatable The sigmoid colon (7.5–12 cm): It is the last and the
stage. Treatment for CRC be subject to on the stage fourth section, which is S-shaped. This part of the
and location of the cancer, but may include surgery, colon joins the rectum, which later connects to the
radiation therapy, and chemotherapy. It is crucial to anus. The sigmoid and descending colon are collec-
prioritize a healthy lifestyle, which involves incorpo- tively called the distal colon.
rating regular physical activity and a well-balanced
diet, in order to minimize the chances of developing When some abnormal cells start growing from the
CRC. Additionally, early detection through screening inner lining of the colon or rectum, it is called colorec-
can significantly recover the probabilities of effec- tal cancer, and such uncontrollable growth is called
tive treatment and recovery. This section covers the polyps (Hamabe et al., 2022). The CRC is invasive neo-
reason for applying artificial intelligence (AI) tech- plasia that occurs as intestinal epithelium tumor in situ
niques to detect and diagnose CRC, its brief study, (TIS) and grows in different morphological ways. It has
types, epidemiology, and finally, traditional and AI been demonstrated that adenomatous polyps can be a
methods to analyze it. precursor of invasive cancer, although only 5–10% of
them turn into malignant tumors (Fearon, 2011).
[Link]@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 115
The paper is ordered in the following method: Table 16.1 Cases and deaths in the US 2020 due to CRC
Section 2 presents the types and epidemiology and
Age Cases Deaths
various types of CRC. Section 3 presents the con-
(years)
ventional and AI-based diagnosis method. Section 4 CRC Colon Rectum Colorectum
describes the current state-of-the-art techniques for
detecting CRC and highlights any gaps or limitations 0–49 17,930 11,540 6390 3640
in the existing methods. Whereas Section 5 defines the 50–64 50,010 32,290 17720 13,380
methodology and steps to follow the CRC detection 65+ 80.010 60,780 19,230 36,180
using deep learning (DL)-based approaches. Section
All ages 14,7950 10,4610 43,340 53,200
6 concludes the study and presents the significance of
learning models for CRC detection.
II. Types and epidemiology of CRC malignancies are combined and shown in the Table
(American Cancer Society 2020).
There are various types of CRC which are shown in
Table 16.1, along with its brief description and symp-
toms. The CRC can be broadly classified into two III. Diagnosis of CRC
main types: Conventional techniques: People who do physical
activities have been linked to a higher incidence of
Adenocarcinoma: It represents 96% of cases, this is rectal cancer but not colon cancer. According to the
the most prevalent kind of CRC. The cells that lining research, those who are physically active are at the
the inside of the colon and rectum are where adeno- risk of 25% of having distal and proximal colon
carcinoma develops. cancers compared to those who are not. Consuming
Carcinoid tumors: An uncommon form of colon can- aspirin and other non-steroid anti-inflammatory
cer that develop in the intestine’s hormone-producing medicines have also been shown to decrease the risk
cells. Less than 1% of CRCs are caused by them. There of CRC (Howard et al., 2008). Furthermore, other
are also several subtypes of adenocarcinoma of the medications, such as oral bisphosphonates, are used
colon and rectum, which are classified based on their for treating and preventing osteoporosis, which may
microscopic appearance and genetic characteristics. lessen the risk of CRC.
AI techniques: The increasing workload of the pathol-
CRC was rarely identified at least 10 years ago.
ogist in terms of more time and labor consumption
Having 9,00,000 deaths annually is considered the
has tried to incorporate the introduction of computa-
fourth most fatal malignancy globally. It is the most
tional-based pathology for CRC diagnosis. We know
prevalent cancer in men, accounting for 10% of all
that AI has changed the pathology sector. It has been
cases globally, followed by lung cancer (17.2%) and
used to inspect Whole-slide imaging (WSI) data which
prostate cancer (20.3%), and it is the second most
may provide a computer-aided diagnosis of tumors
common cancer in women, accounting for 9.4%
using medical image analysis and various learning
of all cases worldwide, trailing only breast cancer
models such as machine learning (ML) and DL (Cui
(30.9%) (Kanna et al., 2023). In the United States,
et al., 2021).
CRC is the third leading cause of cancer-related mor-
tality among men and women and the second leading Present investigation has demonstrated that AI
cause of cancer deaths among men and women com- plays a vital role to diagnose and treat CRC patients.
bined. It is estimated that 52,580 persons will perish It is a responsible for improving early screening effi-
by 2022 (Sisodia et al., 2023). For several decades, ciency and dramatically improving CRC patients’
the death rate from CRC (per 100,000 persons per 5-year survival rate after treatment. Since 2010, there
year) has decreased in both men and women. There has been a substantial increase in the study and appli-
are several possible explanations for this. One rea- cation of AI in medically assisted gastrointestinal dis-
son is that colorectal polyps are now being discov- ease diagnosis and therapy. AI can help doctors with
ered and removed more frequently through screening the qualitative diagnosis and stage of colon cancer,
before they can develop into malignancies, or cancers which is now reliant on colonoscopy and pathologi-
are being discovered sooner when they are simpler to cal biopsies (Wang et al., 2020).
cure. Furthermore, CRC treatments have improved The researchers, such as Takemura et al. (2012),
during the last few decades (Wolf et al., 2018). utilized narrow-band imaging (NBI) along with a sup-
Table 16.1 projects the number of cases and deaths port vector machine algorithm, a supervised machine
in the United States for 2020. Due to the misclassifica- learning algorithm to calculate extreme points at
tion of rectal cancer deaths as colon, deaths for both the margin. These extreme points were employed to
116 Artificial intelligence-based learning techniques for accurate prediction and classification
identify exceptional parameters on the boundary, histopathology images to review existing research
enabling the differentiation between neoplasia polyps on AI in CRC. According to the authors, DL algo-
and nonneoplasia polyps. The approach achieved a rithms in histopathology are capable of diagnosing,
detection accuracy of 97.8%. identifying the features of histological images related
This shows that an AI can reliably evaluate colo- to prognosis, predicting clinical-based molecular phe-
noscopy biopsies at a rate that is on par with a prac- notypes, and evaluating the specific components of
ticing pathologist. The progress of AI applications the tumor.
in the medical arena suggests that AI will eventually Similarly, (Mitsala et al., 2021) investigated the
be employed for the diagnostic of CRC despite the usefulness of AI systems in medical therapy and diag-
dearth of systematic research. nosis by yielding numerous outstanding outcomes.
They stated that AI-assisted procedures in routine
screening are a critical step in lowering CRC inci-
IV. Related work
dence rates. In this approach, many researchers have
Significant advances have been made by AI techniques used AI algorithms to identify and diagnose CRC, but
in the health arena to demonstrate clinical applica- they also confront significant challenges, as shown in
tion potential. As a result, (Davri et al., 2022) used Table 16.2. This section covers the work done by the
Table 16.2 Comparative analysis of CRC
Author’s name Year of Dataset Techniques Outcome Limitation
publication
Zhang et al. 2019 1104 endoscopic CNN Accuracy: 86% Class imbalance
non-polyp images, AUC: 1
826 polyp images
Yamada et al. 2019 ImageNet dataset CNN Sensitivity: 97% The system performed
weak in order to detect
AUC: 0.98% lesions in the different
areas of the medical
image
Misawa et al. 2016 1079 narrow band CNN Specificity: 63.3% Unable to classify
imaging images Accuracy: 76.5% correctly because of the
limited dataset
Geetha et al. 2016 703 images Hand Sensitivity: 95% Model trained with
crafted LBP Specificity: 97% limited dataset
Ito et al. 2018 41 cases of colon CNN using Accuracy: 81.2% High cost, low efficiency
endoscopies yielded machine
190 pictures of colon learning
lesions algorithms
Yu et al. 2016 18 colonoscopy CNN Sensitivity: 71% Limited GPU memory,
videos specific length of video
clips were used
Figueiredo 2019 1680 cases of polyps SVM Sensitivity: 99% The model failed to
et al. and 1360 frames of Specificity: 85% evaluate the dimension of
healthy mucosa Accuracy: 91% colorectal polyp
Billah et al. 2017 14,000 still images CNN Prediction rate: Consumes more
98.6% processing time
Ozawa et al. 2020 16,418 images CNN Sensitivity: 92% Less number of training
Accuracy: 83% images were used
Urban et al. 2018 8,641 hand-labeled CNN Sensitivity: 90% The model failed to
images indicate the histology of
polyps
Tsai et al. 2009 CRC-VAL-HE-7K ResNet101 Accuracy: 98.81% Class imbalance issue
Ho et al. 2022 66,191 images AI learning Sensitivity: 97.4% Small dataset
models Specificity: 60.3%
Accuracy: 79.3%
AUC: 91.7%
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 117
researchers to detect CRC using various ML and DL The research methodology for the proposal is men-
techniques along with the research gaps. tioned as under:
V. Research methodology • The research primarily focuses on a literature
review, in which the datasets, approaches, and
The study of AI is becoming more interested in areas outcomes of various researchers working on pre-
such as algorithms and gadgets that enable people dicting CRC using multiple AI techniques are pre-
to tackle technically challenging issues. Researchers sented.
also use AI to identify epidemics’ environmental and • Various current techniques to reduce the use of
epidemiological patterns to anticipate outbreaks. the limited dataset, modeling errors, dereliction
This is being done to prevent epidemics from occur- of models, and class imbalance will be examined
ring. Mathematical models and DL can analyze vast to find new possible outcomes.
amounts of data to offer insight into the next likely • As illustrated in Figure 16.1, an open-source da-
source of illness. Ecologists can protect and moni- taset of different types of CRC such as tumors,
tor prospective host species more effectively with the stroma, complex, lymph, debris, mucosa, and adi-
help of these projections, which ultimately helps them pose can be used for implementation.
prevent future outbreaks. In epidemiology, AI is cur- • Initially, the data can pre-process to eliminate
rently being utilized to help with disease prevention noisy signals, missing values, NAN values, etc.,
and management and tracking and forecasting (Koul thereby enhancing the data quality.
et al., 2023). New situations, such as the current • Later, exploratory data analysis can be performed
coronavirus pandemic, provide opportunities for AI to classify the types of CRC to aid us in a better
to have the most impact. We should have high hopes understanding of the data.
that international cooperation will improve due to • Cancerous features can be extracted from the
the increased use of AI in medical systems. This will CRC dataset using various feature extraction and
allow us to battle epidemics better. Medical practitio- scaling strategies.
ners can employ AI techniques to aid them in mak- • To identify and classify different types of CRC,
ing more accurate and simpler judgments based on multiple learning models can be used, and their
patients’ experiences and historical facts (Koul et al., performance will be assessed.
2022; Kumar et al., 2023).
Figure 16.1 System design for CRC detection
118 Artificial intelligence-based learning techniques for accurate prediction and classification
• Later, propose a novel hybrid deep learning model rectal cancer using high-resolution MRI. PLoS One,
for the early prediction of different types of CRC. 17(6), e0269931.
• In the end, accuracy, loss, recall, precision, F- Ho, C., Zitong, Z., Xiu, F. C., Jan, S., Sahil, A. S., Rajasa,
score, performance testing, etc., can be used to J., Kaveh, T. et al. (2022). A promising deep learning-
assistive algorithm for histopathological screening of
validate the proposed model’s implemented re-
colorectal cancer. Scientif. Reports, 12(1), 2222.
sults during both the training and testing phase.
Howard, R. A., Michal Freedman, D., Yikyung, P., Albert,
H., Arthur, S., and Michael, F. L. (2008). Physical ac-
VI. Conclusion tivity, sedentary behavior, and the risk of colon and
rectal cancer in the NIH-AARP diet and health study.
The study assists readers (physicians, analysts, doc- Can. causes Con., 19, 939–953.
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on the significant histopathological dataset. Later, an and Yogesh, K. (2023). A review on prediction and
AI-based model can be designed to assist end users prognosis of the prostate cancer and gleason grading
of prostatic carcinoma using deep transfer learning
in detecting anomalies such as polyps to enhance the
based approaches. Arch. Computat. Methods Engg.,
diagnosis of CRC in a short period. The suggested
1–20.
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test its efficacy. telligence techniques to predict the airway disorders
illness: a systematic review. Arch. Computat. Methods
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17 SLODS: Real-time smart lane detection and object
detection system
Tanuja Satish Dhope1,a, Pranav Chippalkatti2, Sulakshana Patil3,
Vijaya Gopalrao Rajeshwarkar3 and Jyoti Ramesh Gangane4
1
Department of Electronics and Communication, Bharati Vidyapeeth (Deemed to be University) College of Engineer-
ing, Pune, Maharashtra, India
2
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, School of Computing, MIT Art, Design and Technology Univer-
sity, Pune, Maharashtra, India
3
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, Sinhgad Institute of Technology, Lonavala, Pune, Maharashtra,
India
4
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, Vishwaniketan’s Institute of Management Entrepreneurship and
Engineering Technology, India
Abstract
With the advances in technologies, autonomous cars/self-driving cars are now-a-days gaining more demand due to the in-
crement in mortality rate by road accidents caused due to human errors. Detecting obstacles on a road is one of the biggest
challenges in autonomous vehicle/self-driving navigation system. In this paper, we have proposed the real-time smart lane
detection and object detection system (SLODS) which captures the real-time road traffic using two cameras, one in the front
and the other one at the back of the car. The front one detects the lane while the other one detects if any other vehicle is ap-
proaching while changing the lanes, ensuring safe lane change. Region of interest (ROI) determines object and lane detection.
The performance of the edge detection algorithms like Roberts, Sobel, Prewitt’s, and Canny edge detectors, are evaluated
based on precision, recall, F1 score, and peak signal to noise ratio (PSNR) values. For PSNR, Canny is outperforming oth-
ers by the difference of -39dB with Sobel, -14 dB with Prewitt, and -48 dB. Further the proposed system also calculates the
speed of the approaching vehicle.
Keywords: Lane detection, edge detection, object detection, machine learning, Hough transform
I. Introduction when required. The organization of this paper is as
follows: Section II – Related work is discussed. Section
Road accidents are responsible for several deaths, hos-
III – Deals with our proposed systems. Section IV –
pitalization and disability amongst individuals world-
Methodology. Section V elaborates with results and
wide. One out of 10 people killed on roads across the
analysis. Section VI deals with conclusion followed by
globe is from India (Annual report, 2020). As shown
future scope in Section VII.
in Figure 17.1, during the year 2020, road accidents
decreased due to the imposition of lockdown world-
wide due to covid. Unfortunately, the people within II. Related work
the age bracket most affected in road traffic accidents The authors focused on different kernels of support
are 18–45-years-old, accounting for about 70% of all vector machine (SVM) to analyze performance of
fatalities. Some causes that result in accidents due to object classification for traffic objects. The experimen-
human errors are – Over speeding, drunken driving, tation results have helped to calculate recall, precision,
distractions to drivers, red light jumping, and avoid- F1 score and accuracy during classification (Madhura
ing safety gear like seat belts and helmets (Annual Bhosale et al., 2022). Various issues related to lane
report, 2020). To minimize accidents, the idea of detection and departure warning has been discussed
autonomous vehicles comes forward, which uses arti- by Sandipann Narote et al. (2018). Anuj Mohan et
ficial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) for al. (2001) in his paper, the objects detected in the
traffic observation and analysis. Figure 1 shows the images are localized and then classifiers are used.
statistics related to road accidents that occurred in This method mainly focuses on localizing objects in
India. a nexus of other objects. It assisted in detecting many
A ML algorithm can collect data from its surround- items in a single frame. For efficient lane detection, the
ing using cameras and sensors and then starts inter- frame must be converted into a plot bird’s eye view of
preting it so that it is able to judge and take actions the highway, giving a good vision as the lines of the
tanuja_dhope@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 121
Figure 17.2 SLODS
localizing curve and straight pathways. This approach
has proven to be highly resilient and stable for the
Figure 17.1 Statistics for road accidents (Annual vast majority of roads and walkways. The focus of
report, 2020) VanQuang Nguyena et al. (2018) work is on a strat-
egy based on real-time data that allows the driver to
change lanes as efficiently as feasible. For accurate
detected lane appear vertical. This has aided authors results, the information about the vehicles and lanes
in reviewing the positioning of the cameras on the to be identified is considered, and a combination of
vehicle (Bertozzi et al., 1998). Mukesh Tiwari et al. a driver aid system and a lane change system is used.
(2017) proposed that for object tracking, it is neces- To detect numerous lanes, it must focus on the lanes
sary to first select an item and then track it using its in front of the vehicle and detect vehicles behind the
features. Some prior knowledge related to the shape primary vehicle using many cameras.
of the object being detected, size, color, etc. has been
used. William Ng et al. (2005) deals with tracking
III. Proposed system: smart lane detection and
objects by first localizing the objects and then perform-
object detection system (SLODS)
ing classification techniques on the localized objects.
It focuses on detecting multiple objects present inside SLODS overview
a frame by using SMC (Monte Carlo). This enabled The SLODS system uses two cameras to capture
to localize the region of interest (ROI) for the pro- lanes and oncoming traffic. When changing lanes, a
posed system. Sunil Kumar Vishwakarma et al. 2015 camera in the back detects any oncoming vehicles,
has offered a lane detecting approach using OpenCV and another in the front identifies the lanes. In vehi-
for roads and highways with prominent lanes. But at cle tracking, the speed of the vehicle is calculated
the same time, it faces problems with the structure of by the distance it travels per unit time. Using this
the roads, texture, hindrance, road type and visibility technique and machine learning (ML) enabled dash-
issues. Least median square (LMed Square) approach board, the speed of the impending car is displayed.
is utilized for obtaining an optimal subset by combin- The camera installed on the vehicle continuously
ing it with the least squares method for automatically records photos in order to detect and track vehicles
finding lanes (Xu Yang et al., 2015). It is applicable (Figure 17.2).
to both curved and straight pathways. The resulting
product is based on real-time presentation and has an Methodology
exact value as well as resilience. Zhong-Xun Wang
et al. (2018) explained lane detection by localizing A. Lane detection
them. It entails obtaining the photos and applying Lane detection is the technique of determining the
them to pre-processing. This is followed by frame seg- lanes on highways and expressways, thereby assisting
mentation algorithm and edge detection. The image the driver in safely maneuvering his car. We apply the
features must be extracted before segmentation can following equation for a line depiction to identify the
be performed. Finally, feature point identification is lines in an input image.
completed, followed by lane-line recognition. Singh et
al. (2019), Xining Yang et al. (2011) includes a road (1)
model as well as a lane recognition tool. The image
goes through a categorization process based on the where,
radiance of the frames. The image is then subjected to ρ = distance between center and line along the vec-
the Hough transform which aids in recognizing and tor perpendicular to the line
122 SLODS: Real-time smart lane detection and object detection system
Table 17.1 Area of interest vertices
S. No. Vertex X Y
1 Lower left 0 539
2 Lower right 959 539
3 Upper left 450 330
4 Upper right 490 330
Table 17.2 Hough transform parameters
S. No. Parameters Value
1 Rho 1
2 Beta π / 180
3 Minimum votes 15
threshold
4 Minimum line 7
Figure 17.3 Lane detection flowchart length
5 Maximum line 3
gap
β = angle between of x-axis along with vector. 6 Line thickness 1
A flowchart showing the sequence of events that
take place during lane detection is shown in Figure
17.3.
Steps for lane detection according to the Figure 17.1: 6. Applying Hough transform: Hough transform is
a technique to extract features from the image
1. Reading video and dividing into frames: The in- to analyze it. It is extensively used for image an-
put footage is recorded by a camera mounted alyzation based on shapes like rectangles, circles,
on the vehicle. The video input is then divided etc. It assumes all the white pixels of the image to
into frames (images) which are used to determine be the points and converts them into ρ-β plane.
lanes and boundaries on a laned road or high- ρ line connects polar coordinates to the origin
way. where the x-axis intersects the y-axis (Peerawat
2. Converting image into gray scale form: This is Mongkonyong et al., 2018) (Table 17. 2).
done to avoid recording unnecessary pixels. As a
result, far less information is collected and evalu- (2)
ated as compared to a colorful image.
3. Noise reduction using filter: The image produced Figures 17.4–17.8 gives a detailed idea of the step
after gray scale conversion is of poor quality. To 1–5 performed by the algorithms.
improve the accuracy of the recognized items,
noise filtration from the gray scaled image is B. Edge detection techniques
done before applying ML algorithm for object An edge is defined as an area of significant change
detection. in image intensity/contrast. Locating the areas with
4. Detecting edges: One of the topic’s cornerstones great intensity contrasts is called edge detection. Now
is edge detection. To detect a picture, the input it’s also possible that a certain pixel can accommo-
gray scaled image is exposed to the various edge date any variation and we can mistake it for an edge.
detectors (discussed in next section) after being Different situations can lead to this, for example, in
filtered (Zakir Hussain et al., 2015; Zhi Zhang et low light conditions or there can be noise that can
al., 2016; VanQuang Nguyena et al., 2018). This show all the characteristics of edge color segmentation.
gives us the power to modify the intensity of the
frames. B.1 Robert’s operator
5. Choosing region of interest (ROI): The area Robert’s operator (Zakir Hussain et al., 2015; Zhi
of the image in which the lane is detected and Zhang et al., 2016; VanQuang Nguyena et al., 2018)
placed in an area referred to as ROI. In our sys- is a type of an operator that works using cross prod-
tem ROI is taken as follows (Table 17.1). ucts to determine the grade of the detected image
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 123
Figure 17.4 Original image
Figure 17.8 Hough transform
using differential operations. The equation for the
gradient is given by Equation 3.
(3)
Using convolution masks, this becomes as given in
Equation 4.
(4)
Figure 17.5 Frame gray scaling
Where A = source image
B.2 Prewitt’s operator
Prewitt’s operator convolutes the frames, although we
use two masks, in case of common mask, it is repre-
sented by Hx and Hy (see Equation 5.)
(5)
Figure 17.6 Denoising Now we can also calculate the gradient direction
given by Equation 6
(6)
B.3 Sobel’s operator
It is used for processing of blurred images. Here
frames to be processed are divided into two distinct
Figure 17.7 Edge detection directions – x and y. In order to get the elements of the
124 SLODS: Real-time smart lane detection and object detection system
gradient along the directions, we apply a mask over
the frames (Zakir Hussain et al., 2015; Zhi Zhang
et al., 2016; VanQuang Nguyena et al., 2018). Below
is the mask for the Sobel’s operator i.e., Hx and Hy
(VanQuang Nguyena et al., 2018).
(7)
Where the partial derivatives are computed by,
(8)
(9)
B.4 Canny operator
It takes a grayscale image as input and then pro-
cesses it as an output using algorithms scattered
over numerous tiers (John Canny , 1986; Assidiq et
al., 2008; Ziqiang Sun , 2020). This method for edge
detection entails eliminating noise from frames and
then extracting data from frames while ensuring that
the functionality of the frame stays unchanged. The
gradient for a subtle edge is given by (Figures 17.9,
17.10, and Table 17.3):
(10)
C. Object detection and object tracking
Object detection is the phenomena of detecting seman-
tic objects of a specific kind in the form of images and
videos. It is a vision-based technique that can even
detect faces of pedestrians via face detection (Bertozzi
et al., 1998). The object detected by the algorithm
needs to be tracked down. Object tracking stores the Figure 17.9 Edge detection for each edge detector
initial set of coordinates of the detected object and
assigns a unique identity to each set of detections.
get are converted into grey format from RGB or
C.1 Object detection and object tracking steps multicolored images. The two colors present in
the gray scaled images are black and white.
1. Collecting video input: The video recorded by 3. Selecting the ROI: Region of interest is the area
the camera consists of thousands of frames that which is defined to detect object in the partic-
are in repetition. The recorded video is firstly ular area. Every other object is ignored in this
converted into frames. The images we get are area and rest all the operations that is, masking,
worked upon by applying gray scaling and filtra- thresholding, contouring is done within this re-
tion for noise reduction. gion only.
2. Gray scaling of frame: The next step involves 4. Masking the ROI: Masking of frames is done to
gray scaling of the images. The image that we differentiate the moving objects wrt the back-
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 125
Figure 17.11 Frame capture
Figure 17.10 Flowchart for object detection
Table 17.3 Canny algorithm parameters
S. No. Parameters Value
1 Low threshold 50
2 High threshold 150
Figure 17.12 Frame gray scaling
ground. It highlights the objects to be moving in
white, and rest of the background is put in white.
5. Bounding the detected object within the box:
Bounding the object as soon as the masked ob-
ject enters the ROI.
C.2 Speed of oncoming vehicle
To detect the speed of oncoming vehicle, ROI is
used. The ROI can be modified as per requirements.
Moreover, the speed of the oncoming vehicle is esti-
mated by the concept of distance and time, that is, the
distance the vehicle travels in a second.
Figure 17.13 Extracting ROI
(11)
Results and analysis
The real time traffic video of DMART road, Katraj
(18.4518331°, 73.8439111°) in Pune, Maharashtra,
India has been taken into considerations for lane
detection, object detection and its tracking. In this
section we are going to discuss the real time results of
lane and object detection using the above said algo-
rithms and proposed model that we have developed
using machine learning. Figures 17.11–17.15 indicate
the output of steps which is discussed in Section III.C.1
under object detection and tracking (Table 17.4). Figure 17.14 ROI masking
126 SLODS: Real-time smart lane detection and object detection system
Table 17.6 Parameters for Sobel operator
PSNR
Image Pixel Precision Recall F1 score (dB)
Img 1 Image Pixel Precision Recall F1
score
Img 2 300*168 0.96 0.81 0.44 45
Img 3 303*166 0.43 0.39 0.38 44
Img 4 300*168 0.76 0.79 0.40 51
Img 5 259*194 0.92 0.86 0.37 59
Figure 17.15 Final output
Table 17.7 Parameters for Canny operator
F1 PSNR
Table 17.4 Parameters for Robert operator Image Pixel Precision Recall score (dB)
F1 PSNR Img 1 300*168 0.95 0.97 0.96 82
Images Pixel Precision Recall score (dB)
Img 2 300*168 0.88 0.89 0.91 79
Img 1 300*168 0.53 0.49 0.72 66 Img 3 303*166 0.89 0.90 0.93 80
Img 2 300*168 0.51 0.45 0.77 70 Img 4 300*168 0.74 0.77 0.90 83
Img 3 303*166 0.59 0.51 0.64 68 Img 5 259*194 0.82 0.86 0.90 85
Img 4 300*168 0.57 0.50 0.71 77
Img 5 259*194 0.61 0.53 0.57 79
Table 17.5 Parameters for Prewitt operator
Image Pixel Precision Recall F1 PSNR
score (dB)
Img 1 300*168 0.83 0.77 0.90 70
Img 2 300*168 0.79 0.68 0.84 56
Img 3 303*166 0.39 0.42 0.88 59
Img 4 300*168 0.47 0.38 0.81 68
Img 5 259*194 0.93 0.86 0.80 62
Figure 17.16 Real time lane detection
Below is the comparison table for all detector’s that Canny outperforms for the various images in
algorithms for five images extracted from real time terms of other parameters also.
video. For lane detection, on an empty road, with a
The different edge detecting operators were tested straight lane, we apply Hough transform on the
based on various parameters like Precision, Recall, F1 detected edges using Canny edge detector. The lanes
score and PSNR values. Both Sobel and Prewitt edge on the road are detected and then highlighted using
detector were able to detect edges successfully, but the orange color markings (see Figure 17.16). Thus, even-
number of edges detected were far lower than Canny tually making it easier for the driver to navigate on
edge detection method (see Tables 17.5–17.7). For the road.
example, PSNR provided by Robert, Sobel, Prewitt, As soon as the incoming vehicle enters the specified
Canny is 66 dB, 40 dB, 70 dB and 82 dB for img ROI, the object detection algorithm starts detecting
1, respectively. Apart from low processing time, the the vehicle and it is finally bounded in a bounding
canny operator also displays a higher precision rate box (see Figure 17.17). Thus, the driver is alerted for
and better PSNR as compared to other operators. safe lane change.
Also, F1 score provided by Canny is 0.91 compared To detect the speed of oncoming vehicle ROI is
to others for img 1. Further Tables 17.5–17.7 indicate used. ROI has been set up as a distance up to 80 m
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 127
VII. Future scope
The same object detection algorithm can also be used
to recognize stop signs or pedestrians in a self-driving
vehicle. This helps the vehicle to stop or maneuver at
a safe distance from the pedestrian.
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18 Computational task off-loading using deep Q-learning in
mobile edge computing
Tanuja Satish Dhopea, Tanmay Dikshit, Unnati Gupta and Kumar Kartik
Department of Electronics and Communication, Bharati Vidyapeeth (Deemed to be University) College of Engineering,
Pune, India
Abstract
Because of the growing proliferation of networked Inter of Things (IoT) devices and the demanding requirements of IoT
applications, existing cloud computing (CC) architectures have encountered significant challenges. A novel mobile edge com-
puting (MEC) can bring cloud computing capabilities to the edge network and support computationally expensive applica-
tions. By shifting local workloads to edge servers, it enhances the functionality of mobile devices and the user experience.
Computation off-loading (CO) is a crucial mobile edge computing technology to enhance the performance and minimize
the delay. In this paper, the deep Q-learning method has been utilized to make off-loading decisions whenever numerous
workloads are running concurrently on one user equipment (UE) or on a cellular network, for better resource management in
MEC. The suggested technique determines which tasks should be assigned to the edge server by examining the CPU utiliza-
tion needs for each task. This reduces the amount of power and execution time needed.
Keywords: Computation off-loading, edge server, mobile edge server, deep Q-learning
I. Introduction Analyzing the load on mobile edge servers is
required prior to jobs being offloaded to edge serv-
Existing cloud computing (CC) architectures have
ers, including whether to do so and, if so, which edge
faced considerable hurdles as a result of the ongoing server. Analyzing the load on mobile edge servers is
proliferation of networked Internet of Things (IoT) necessary to respond to the question above. The task/
devices and the demanding needs of IoT applica- data off-loading decision is important because it is
tions, notably in terms of network congestion and predicted to have a straightforward impact on the QoS
data privacy. Relocating computing resources closer of the user application, including the resulting latency
to end users can help overcome these problems and caused by the off-loading mechanism (Yeongjin Kim
improve cloud efficiency by boosting its processing et al., 2018). When there is a lot of stress at the edge
power (Elhadj Benkhelifa et al., 2015). This strategy node as a result of a staggeringly high number of user
has developed with the introduction of many para- devices using the same edge network for every task
digms; fog computing, edge computing, all of which as it could result in considerable processing delays
have the same objective of increasing the deployment and the cessation of some processes (Fengxian Guo
of resources at the network edge. The significant et al., 2018). The reasoning architecture of the MEC
issues that traditional cloud computing (as central- notion is utilized to obtain cloud computing applica-
ized) is experiencing include increased latency in real- tions. By placing several information centers at the
time applications, low spectral efficiency. As a result network’s node, users of smartphones will be more
of new technologies, distributed computing capabili- accessible. The network terminal can refer to a multi-
ties are increasingly being used by organization’s or tude of places, including indoor areas like Wi-Fi and
network’s edge devices in an effort to explain all these 3G/4G. In today’s world, computing off-loading (CO)
challenges. Mobile edge computing (MEC) enables discusses both boosting smartphone performance as
certain apps to be off-loaded from resource-con- well as attempting to guarantee energy savings simul-
strained devices like smartphones, saving resources. taneously (Abbas Kiani et al., 2018). Although meet-
MEC’s characteristics set it apart from typical cloud ing the delay pre-requisites, MEC allows the edge to
computing because, unlike remote cloud servers, the perform computation-intensive applications rather
network can aggregate tasks in areas near the user than user equipment. Additionally, IoT users will
and device. By moving cloud processing to local serv- participate in later detecting and processing duties in
ers, MEC improves user quality of experience (QoE), user-centric 5G networks (Liang Huang et al., 2019;
in addition to reducing congestion in cellular infra- Thakur et al., 2021). In reality, using MEC to off-load
structure and cutting delay (Khadija Akherfi et al., computation processes results in wireless networks
2016). being used to transmit data. It is feasible for wireless
a
tanuja_dhope@[Link]
130 Computational task off-loading using deep Q-learning in mobile edge computing
connections to become severely congested if many best application approach while adhering to work-
application stations forcefully dump their processing flow applications deadline constraints. Numerous
resources to the edge node, which would dramatically experimental evaluations have been carried out to
slow down MEC (Gagandeep Kaur et al., 2021). A demonstrate the usefulness and efficiency of suggested
unified management system for CO and the accom- strategy.
panying wireless resource distribution in order to In MEC wireless networks, an Software Defined
benefit from compute off-loading is required (Khadija Networking (SDN) -based solution for off-loading
Akherfi et al., 2016). In section 2, this paper describes compute. Based on reinforcement learning, a solu-
the job off-loading research in MEC. The task off- tion to the energy conservation problem that consid-
loading system model is described in section 3 as local ers both incentives and penalties have been assessed
computing, edge computing, and the deep Q-learning (Nahida Kiran et al., 2020).
method. Section 4 elaborates on the results and charts Distributed off-loading method with deep rein-
for various task off-loading techniques. Finally con- forcement learning that allows mobile devices to
clusion is presented in section 5. make their off-loading decisions in a decentralized
way has been proposed. Simulation findings dem-
II. Related work onstrated that suggested technique may decrease the
ratio of dropped jobs and average latency when com-
In (Khadija Akherfi et al., 2016) many edge com- pared to numerous benchmark methods (Ming Tang
puting paradigms and their various applications, as et al., 2020). A multi-layer CO optimization frame-
well as the difficulties that academics and industry work appropriate for multi-user, multi-channel, and
professionals encounter in this fast-paced area has multi-server situations in MEC has been suggested.
been examined. Author suggested options, including Energy consumption and latency parameters are used
establishing a middleware-based design employing an for CO decision from the perspective of edge users.
optimizing off-loading mechanism, which might help Multi-objective decision-making technique has been
to improve the current frameworks and provide the proposed to decrease energy consumption and delay
mobile cloud computing (MCC) users more effective of the edge client (Nanliang Shan et al., 2020).
and adaptable solutions by conserving energy, speed-
ing up reaction times, and lowering execution costs. III. Methodology
Ke Zhang et al. (2016) has given an energy efficient
computation off-loading (EECO) method, which We took into account energy-sensitive UEs in this
combinedly optimizes the decisions of CO and alloca- paper, such as IoT devices and sensor nodes, which
tion of radio resources thereby minimizing the cost have low power requirements but are not delay-sen-
of system energy within the delay constraints in 5G sitive. We take into account N energy-sensitive UEs
heterogeneous networks. that are running concurrently on a server, and the
An energy-efficient caching (EEC) techniques for a server must choose which task from the task queue
backhaul capacity-limited cellular network to reduce needs to be done first in order to reduce the power
power consumption while meeting a cost limitation and execution time for each work. When a user device
for computation latency has been proposed (Zhaohui lacks the energy resources to complete the computa-
Luo et al., 2019; Gera et al., 2021). The numerical tion-intensive task locally, an edge server can step in.
findings demonstrate that 20% increase in delay effi- To make decisions on off-loading, we employ deep
ciency. The proposed method may be very close to the Q-learning algorithm. Based on the state and reward
ideal answer and far superior to the most likely out- of the Q function at state t, the Q-learning algorithm
come, i.e., the approximation bound. acts.
With the use of two time-optimized sequential
decision-making models and the optimal stopping A. Local computing
theory, author (Ibrahim Alghamdi et al., 2019) Let’s assume that E represents the energy needed for
address the issue of where to off-load from and when each User Equipment (UE) to operate locally n= num-
to do so. Real-world data sets are used to offer a ber of UE, pn =the power coefficient of energy used
performance evaluation, which is then contrasted for local computing per CPU cycle, cn= the CPU cycles
with baseline deterministic and stochastic models. desired for each bit in numbers, βn = the percentage of
The outcomes demonstrate that, in cases involving tasks computed locally, and Sn = the size of the com-
a single user and rival users, our technique optimizes putation task are all represented by the numbers n.
such decisions. Therefore, the amount of energy needed for UE to
Kai Peng et al. (2019) examine the multi-objective operate locally can be determined by discretion.
computation off-loading approach for workflow
applications (MCOWA) in MEC which discovers the (1)
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 131
B. Edge computing model (2)
Let’s assume that N numbers of UEs are anticipat-
ing tasks to be off-loaded and executed on edge where, “P(s, a)” is the Q-value for state “s” and action “a”
server since local server does not have enough power “α” is the learning rate.
resources. The task queue contains every single “R(s, a)” is the immediate reward for taking action
task. When the Q value function is modified based “a” in state “s”.
on reward and state, the task queue is supposed to “γ” is the discount factor.
update each time. The processes that are being used “max(Q(s’, a’))” represents the maximum Q-value
grow if the number of tasks (component list/UEs) in for the next state “s” and all possible actions “a”.
the task queue rises.
The system model consists of workload off-loading Algorithm
in MEC (see Figure 18.1). The task has been uploaded Input: Pt, Pt0, Pre_node, Comp_list, Trans_amount
to the any of three servers based on tasks that have Output: Trans_energy
come from UE. Selection of the any one of the server Initialization: Trans_energy ® 0;
is based on deep Q-learning algorithm. We have used If Pt≠ 0 and Pre_node (Pt(0)(0)) ≤ Comp_list then
TCP/IP, User Datagram Protocol (UDP) for transmit- Trans_energy+= ε ptr
ting task from UE to edge server depending on type of If Trans_amount≥ Pt(0)(2) then [Link] (Pt(0))
application viz., image processing, AR/VR, healthcare sort tasks on Pt0
applications, agriculture applications. The server will else Pt(0)(2) -= Trans_amount
track the Q value using a Q-learning algorithm and it
will update the entire task queue if one task consumes Results
less power than others.
Q-learning is a reinforcement learning algorithm We have considered total three edge servers and tasks
used in MEC that trains itself based on parameters sup- which are requesting for the edge server services. The
plied during environment building and server allocation following parameters have been taken into account
algorithms. Later, an optimum job distribution on the for deep Q-learning algorithm (see Table 18.1).
servers can be accomplished using the learned model. The other parameters like transmit power, band-
The tasks that off-load delay will be more difficult with width and noise PSD has been taken into consider-
local computing. In MEC, the state space could stand ation. We analyzed the number of UEs that are now in
in for the present network conditions, device status, the task queue. If there is only one UE, we can decide
and resource availability (such as CPU, memory, and whether to off-load the job and compute the trans-
bandwidth). Making judgments about how to allo- mission energy using the Epsilon-Greedy model. We
cate resources requires access to this state information. checked if there are multiple UEs in the task queue and
Q-learning assesses the effectiveness of activities con- the amount of transmission needed for the task before
ducted in a specific condition using a reward mecha- it in the queue is greater than the amount needed for
nism. Rewards in MEC can be determined based on the task after it. If so, we simply sort the task queue
a variety of performance indicators, including latency, based on the amount of transmission needed for pro-
energy use, throughput, or user happiness. Higher cessing, off-load the task in question, and execute it
rewards are associated with better decisions. on the edge server from the queue after sorting, using
The learning method entails exploring the state- less power in the process. According to the prior state
action space iteratively and updating the Q-table
based on the rewards gained. Q-learning uses the
Bellman equation to update Q-values iteratively: Table 18.1 Parameters for deep Q-learning algorithm
Parameters Value
Learning rate for the neural network’s optimizer 0.1
Reward decay factor in the Q-learning update 0.001
Initial Epsilon-Greedy exploration probability 0.99
Frequency of updating target network 200
parameters
Size of replay memory 10KB
Batch size for training 32
Exploration probability 0.9
Maximum number of episodes for training 3000
Figure 18.1 Block diagram of edge computing model
132 Computational task off-loading using deep Q-learning in mobile edge computing
Figure 18.2 Number of tasks in queue with respect to
time (s)
Figure 18.4 CPU utilization of different CPU’s and
number of tasks in queue during a single window ex-
ecution, time (s) vs. number of tasks
Figure 18.5 Episodes vs. number of tasks for local com-
putation and edge server off-loading using Q-learning
algorithm
and maximum, the Q value function produced this
transmission quantity.
Figure 18.2 shows the number of tasks in queue
with respect to time on the basis of provided num-
ber of nodes, environment variables, CPU requested
and processing time. The deep Q-learning algorithm
assigns the requested task to any three of the serv-
ers based on the reward. Figure 18.3 analyses the
three server utilization taken into consideration with
respect to time.
CPU utilization of different CPU’s and number of
tasks in queue during a single window execution has
been shown in Figure 18.4.
Figure 18.5 reflects the tasks in number which can
be off-loaded with respect to the edge server and
tasks that can be computed locally based on deep
Figure 18.3 Server utilization with respect to time (ms) Q-learning algorithm.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 133
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19 A comprehensive analysis of driver drowsiness detection
techniques
Aaditya Chopra1, Naveen Kumar2,a and Rajesh Kumar Kaushal3
1
Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala, Punjab, India
2,3
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
Abstract
Drowsiness or tiredness is a leading cause of accidents on the road, posing a serious threat to safety. Many accidents can
be prevented if drowsy drivers can be alerted within time. Several drowsiness detection methods are available to observe
drivers’ alertness during their journey and alert them if they are distracted. These methods gauges drowsiness by looking for
signs like yawning, closed eyes, or unusual head movements. They also consider the driver’s physical condition and vehicle
behavior. This paper offers a comprehensive analysis of the existing drowsiness detection methods and a detailed review of
the common classification techniques. It first categorizes the current methods into those based on subjective, behavioral, ve-
hicular, and physiological parameters based. Finally, it examines the strengths and weaknesses of these various methods and
compares them. In conclusion, the paper summarizes the research findings from this comprehensive survey to guide other
researchers toward potential future work in this field.
Keywords: Driver drowsiness detection technique, analysis, road safety
I. Introduction been studying how to detect and predict driver fatigue
for over ten years, it is still a problem that needs to
As we all know, automobiles have become integral
be solved. This paper aims to review the progress that
to our lives. In 2022, 81.6 million vehicles were
has been made so far and identify the main challenges
sold globally (Sales Statistics | [Link], n.d.).
that are preventing driver drowsiness prediction tech-
Despite the undeniable benefits of transportation
nologies from being used.
advancements, such as increased traveling speed,
comfort, and convenience, it has several adverse
effects. Injuries resulting from traffic accidents are II. Related work
the leading cause of death for children and young The existing review documents focused on the per-
people aged 5–29. Approximately 1.3 million people formance of four main aspects, such as signal acqui-
die in car crashes each year, and approximately 20–50 sition, extract features, and detect driver drowsiness
million suffer non-traumatic injuries that often lead itself. These technical details are typically categorized
to disability. Road traffic crashes have a significant in four primary categories: subjective, behavioral,
economic impact on most countries, accounting for vehicle-based, and physiological. Mckernon (2009)
approximately 3% of their gross domestic product emphasized ongoing initiatives to manage general
(World Health Organization: WHO, Road Traffic fatigue and its harmful effects on driving perfor-
Injuries, 2022). A report by the National Highway mance. Charles et al. (2009) and Brown et al. (2009)
Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) found that reviewed vehicle-based drowsiness detection research.
there were 7.3 million car accidents in the United Sigari et al. (2014) and Mittal et al. (2016) focused
States in 2016, which resulted in 37,461 deaths and their investigations on driver-behavioral measures.
3.1 million injuries. Fatigue driving was the cause of Sanjaya et al. (2016) presented research advancements
approximately 20−30% of traffic accidents. in physiological signal measurement. Sahayadhas et
Tiredness is considered as one of the top “fatal five” al. (2013) and Kang et al. (2013) discussed various
risks to driving safety, along with driver distraction, approaches and provided a comprehensive overview
alcohol or drug influence, speeding, and not wearing a of driver drowsiness detection solutions.
seat belt. While legal measures have been put in place
to address the other four risks, such as tracking and 2.1 Subjective measures
enforcing and speed limits, alcohol limits, mandatory Subjective indicators of drowsiness encompass signs
seat belt regulations, and restrictions on phone usage and sensations that individuals personally discern and
while driving. Driving fatigue remains a challenge that report when experiencing sleepiness or fatigue. We
needs to be tackled. Even though researchers have can collect subjective measures of driver drowsiness
[Link]@chitkara..[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 135
in a variety of ways, such as by conducting surveys, 2.2 Behavioral measures
questionnaires, or interviews. These measures are rel- Unlike subjective assessments, behavioral measures
atively easy and inexpensive to collect, and they can are objective measures used to assess a person’s
provide valuable insights into how drivers experience behavior, such as personality traits, cognitive abilities,
fatigue and drowsiness. Nonetheless, they have limi- and emotional states.
tations such as drivers might be influenced by social These non-invasive measures monitor behavioral
expectations, resulting in responses that are perceived patterns to check the driver’s fatigue by focusing
as acceptable or desirable, rather than being fully on three main features: eye movement, head posi-
accurate. Additionally, subjective measures might tion, and facial expressions. Drowsy displays sev-
not always be dependable, as drivers may struggle to eral characteristic facial signs, including slow eye
accurately assess their own level of alertness. Notably, movements, eye closure, pupil dilation, head nod-
several established scales are employed to quantify ding, swinging or drooping, and frequent yawn-
sleepiness and drowsiness, aiming to capture the ing. This video-based approach extracts behavioral
subjective perceptions of affected individuals. These features from the camera and computer vision
indicators are valuable tools in various contexts, techniques.
including research investigations, clinical assess-
ments, and drowsiness detection systems. The most 2.2.1 Eye movement
commonly used scales are discussed in the following This measure focuses on eye monitoring through the
sections. slow eye movements (SEM), blinking rate, and eye
closure activities, including the PERCLOS metric and
2.1.1 Epworth sleepiness scale (ESS) the average eye closure speed (AECS) that character-
Dr. Murray Johns developed ESS. It is commonly izes eye movement. Unusual blinking and eye closure
used in clinical and research settings to assess daytime can be a sign of drowsiness.
sleepiness and other sleep-related issues, including Rahman et al. (2015) proposed a method for
narcolepsy or sleep apnea. It is a self-report question- detecting driver drowsiness based on eye blinking.
naire asking individuals to rate their likelihood of Firstly, video is captured from the camera and con-
dozing off in eight situations commonly encountered verted to frames. Viola-Jones algorithm is applied
in daily life. to detect the driver’s face, subsequently defining
region of interest (ROI) around the facial region.
2.1.2 Stanford sleepiness scale (SSS) The Viola-Jones cascade classifier technique is used
William C. Dement and Nathanial Kleitman devel- on the ROI to detect eyes using Haar-like features.
oped SSS at Stanford University and is widely used Both eyes are then extracted for further processing.
in sleep research, clinical sleep medicine, and various The colored image is converted to gray scale using
other fields to determine the alertness level of an indi- the Luminosity algorithm. Harris corner detection
vidual at a certain time. This scale asks individuals to method detects two upper eye corners and one lower
rate their current level of sleepiness on a scale from 1 eyelid. The midpoint value between the upper two
(feeling active) to 7 (feeling sleepy, almost in a trance). corner points is calculated (d1). Then, the midpoint
from the lower eyelid is calculated using Pythagoras
2.1.3 Karolinska sleepiness scale (KSS) theorem (d2). Finally, the d2 value is used to make the
Sleep medicine center at the Karolinska Institute, decision. If d2 is zero or d2 approaches zero, the eye-
Sweden developed KSS. It assesses a person’s sleepi- lid is considered closed; otherwise, it deems it open.
ness level on a 9-point scale, ranging from 1 (feeling The duration of a standard blink typically ranges
awake and alert) to 7 (feeling sleepy and barely able between 0.1 and 0.4 s. An increase in blink rate is
to stay awake). indicative of driver drowsiness. To detect drowsi-
Other scales include the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality ness, a threshold of 2 s is established. The alarm
Index (PSQI), The Groningen Sleep Quality Scale is triggered to alert the driver if this threshold is
(GSQS), the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS), and the breached. The proposed algorithm was tested under
Daytime Sleepiness Scale (DSS). ESS and SSS are the various lighting conditions and performed poorly in
most commonly used subjective scales to measure poor lighting conditions. The proposed method has
sleepiness. ESS is quick, easy to administer, reliable, been compared with other methods, including face
and valid. SSS is not as sensitive to changes in sleepi- and eye tracking using neural networks and visual
ness as the ESS. KSS is a newer scale still being studied, data, computer vision and machine learning (ML)
but it has proved to be a reliable and valid measure algorithms, and tools that measure EOG. The solu-
of sleepiness. The PSQI is a more comprehensive mea- tion demonstrated a 94% accuracy rate while main-
sure of sleep quality than the other scales but is more taining a relatively simplified structure compared to
time-consuming. alternative methods.
136 A comprehensive analysis of driver drowsiness detection techniques
2.2.2 Mouth and Yawning analysis compared with those obtained from testing images to
Yawning, often a result of tiredness or boredom, determine the appropriate classification. The system
can signal a potential risk for drivers, suggesting computes the duration of closed eyes and identifies
they might doze off while driving. Techniques exist drowsiness if this duration surpasses a predefined
to gauge the extent of mouth widening, serving as a time. Furthermore, it evaluates various head move-
means to detect signs of yawning in drivers. ments such as left, right, forward, backward, and
Yan et al. (2016) proposed an effective method for tilting motions in both directions. To conduct this
monitoring driver fatigue using Yawning extraction. analysis, the video footage is divided into frames,
To begin, the method uses the support vector machine with the system examining head images and com-
(SVM) technique to extract the face region from paring their positions to determine head postures.
images, reducing associated costs. The method pro- Subsequently, it merges the duration of closed eyes
ceeds to locate the mouth: facial edges are detected with the assessment of head positions to ascertain
through an edge detection technique, followed by drowsiness. The methodology was tested using six
a vertical projection to determine the right and left videos simulating genuine driving conditions and the
boundaries in the lower face area. Then, a horizon- findings are displayed through a confusion matrix. It
tal projection helps identify the upper and lower achieved a 98% accuracy rate, proving more effective
mouth limits, defining the mouth’s localized region. than alternative detection methods.
For yawning detection, the system employs circular The main problem with vision-based approach
Hough transform (CHT) on mouth region images is lighting. Regular cameras struggle at night.
to spot wide-open mouths. An alert is generated if Furthermore, many methods have been tested using
a notable number of consecutive frames capture a data from drivers imitating drowsiness instead of
widely open mouth. The method’s effectiveness is com- using real videos capturing a driver naturally becom-
pared with various edge detectors like Sobel, Roberts, ing sleepy.
Prewitt, and Canny. The experiment utilizes six videos
simulating real driving conditions, and the results are 2.3 Vehicle-based measures
depicted in a confusion matrix. The proposed method Vehicle-based measures detect driver fatigue using
attains a 98% accuracy rate, surpassing the perfor- vehicular features, including steering wheel angle,
mance of all other edge detection techniques. steering wheel grip force, lane changing patterns, and
vehicle speed variability. These measures necessitate
2.2.3 Head position the installation of sensors on various vehicle compo-
The head’s position is another sign of tiredness and nents, such as the steering wheel, accelerator, or brake
drowsiness in drivers. When feeling drowsy, drivers pedal, among others. The signals produced by these
often tend to tilt, lower, or nod their heads, particu- sensors serve as the basis for evaluating the drowsi-
larly in the later stages of sleepiness. Several factors, ness levels of drivers.
including decreased muscle tone, reduced vigilance,
and brief periods of sleep, can cause these changes in 2.3.1 Lane detection
the head position. Monitoring head position is a nota- This approach checks the vehicle’s position with
bly effective method for identifying driver drowsiness, respect to the middle of the lane. It is also known as
given that it is relatively easy and inexpensive to mon- the standard deviation of lane position (SDLP). Katyal
itor. Moreover, the head position remains unaffected et al. (2014) proposed a driver’s drowsiness detection
by environmental elements like lighting or noise. system using lane and driver’s fatigue level. Hough
Teyeb et al. (2014) proposed a method for drowsy transform is used to detect lanes and canny edge
driver detection using eye closure and head postures. detection is applied over viola-jones to detect eyes and
The system begins by capturing video through a web- driver’s fatigue level. This information is then used to
cam and conducting following operations on each detect improper driving. Ingre et al. (2006) conducted
frame of the video. It employs the Viola-Jones method multiple experiments and concluded that KSS ratings
to identify the ROI, encompassing the face and eyes. are directly proportional to SDLP metrics.
Subsequently, the facial area is sub-divided into sec-
tions, and the Haar classifier is utilized to focus on 2.3.2 Steering wheel analysis
the upper segment, specifically targeting the region Steering wheel analysis (SWA) is a widely used
corresponding to the eyes for analysis. Following this, vehicle-based measure to detect driver drowsiness
identifying the eye state entails the utilization of a (Fairclough et al., 1999; Thiffault, 2003). An angle
Wavelet network, a neural network-based approach, sensor is attached on the steering wheel axis to collect
which is trained using image data. The learning pro- the data. Abnormal steering wheel reversals, steering
cess involves ascertaining coefficients from training correction periods, and a vehicle’s jerky motion indi-
images. These learned coefficients are subsequently cate fatigue and a drowsy driver. Li et al. (2017) uses
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 137
SWA and proposed an online drowsiness detection apt for detecting drowsiness. Leveraging physiologi-
system to monitor the fatigue level of drivers under cal signals for drowsiness detection holds the poten-
natural conditions by extracting approximate entropy tial to mitigate the issue of false positives, which
features and using a decision classifier for detection. is a common challenge with existing approaches.
Zhenhai et al. (2017) proposed a solution by analyz- Furthermore, it enables timely alerts, thereby averting
ing the time series of the angular velocity of the steer- road accidents.
ing wheel. Fairclough and Graham (1999) proposed a
solution by checking the steering wheel’s reversals and 2.4.1 Electroencephalography (EEG)
small SWMs. They found that drowsy drivers make EEG measures the brain’s electrical activity by plac-
fewer steering wheel reversals than typical drivers. ing some electrodes on the head and forehead. The
Many studies have shown that vehicle-based mea- frequency of signals ranges from 1 to 50 Hz and
sures are not the best way to judge a driver’s drowsiness amplitude from 20 to 200 μV. Some frequency bands
and often lead to inaccurate results. Assessing driver are defined as alpha waves (8–12 Hz, 25–100 μV),
fatigue solely based on vehicle movement has limita- which measure relaxation; beta waves (faster than 13
tions, as the measurement metrics can be susceptible Hz and below 40 μV), which measure alertness; theta
to external influences like the road’s geometric attri- waves (4–7 Hz, 20–120 μV), which measure drowsi-
butes and prevailing weather conditions. Other factors ness; and delta waves (0.5–3.5 Hz, 75–200 μV) helps
can also affect these measures, such as road, traffic, to check if the subject is asleep.
lighting conditions, and driving under the influence of Several studies support the connection between
alcohol or other drugs. Steering wheel grip force on a EEG signals and driver behavior (Campagne et al.,
curvy mountain road differs significantly from that of 2004; Akin et al., 2008; Liu et al., 2010; Lin et al.,
a straight highway. Furthermore, the driver’s grip can 2012; Lin et al., 2013). Changes in the alpha frequency
vary with road conditions. Driver may not grip the band, where the power decreases, and an increase in
steering with that pressure on a busy road with which the theta frequency band are indicative of drowsiness.
he grips the steering on an empty expressway. Akin et al. (2008) observed that combining EEG and
EMG signals is more successful in detecting drowsi-
2.4 Physiological measures ness compared to using either signal alone.
As drivers experience fatigue, they may observe a
subtle swaying of their heads, and there is an elevated 2.4.2 Electrocardiography (ECG)
risk of the vehicle deviating from the center of the The ECG method records the heart’s electrical activity
lane. Previously discussed methods for detecting this by positioning electrodes on the chest, arms, and legs,
behavior, such as behavior-based and vehicle-based, capturing the small electrical signals generated with
possess limitations, primarily because they can only each heartbeat.
detect fatigue after the driver has already entered a Tsuchida et al. (2009) research claims that heart
drowsy state. rate variability (HRV) can be used to detect driver
However, it is worth noting that physiological sig- fatigue and drowsiness. As drivers get tired, their
nals undergo discernible changes early in the onset parasympathetic activity decreases, and their sympa-
of drowsiness. Hence, physiological signals are more thetic activity increases. This causes a notable shift in
138 A comprehensive analysis of driver drowsiness detection techniques
cardiac rhythm from a high-frequency range of 0.15– Table 19.1 List of various work done on driver drowsiness
0.4 Hz to a lower frequency range of 0.04–0.15 Hz. detection.
Several studies have explored driver fatigue and
S. Measure Method Algorithm Accuracy
drowsiness detection using photo plethysmogram No. used (%)
(PPG) and electrocardiogram (ECG) wavelet spec-
trum analysis. Tsuchida et al. (2009), Arun et al. 1 Behavioral Eye-blink Viola Jones 94
(2012), Lee et al. (2014), reporting an average predic- rate
tion accuracy of 96% in their experimental findings. 2 Behavioral Yawning SVM 98
analysis
2.4.3 Electromyography (EMG) 3 Behavioral Head Viola Jones 98
EMG measures the electrical activity of muscles and position with Haar
is commonly obtained from the chin (Hostens, 2005). classifier
When a muscle contracts, it sends electrical signals to 4 Physiological PPG and 96
the brain. ECG
Katsis et al. (2004) observed up to 20% frequency 5 Physiological, EOG Haar 80
decrease and up to 50% amplitude increase after behavioral with eye classifier
movement
monotonous driving tasks and used them to indicate
fatigue and drowsiness. Balasubramanian et al. (2007) 6 Physiological, Heart PERCLOS 96
behavioral rate with
also had similar observations in EMG from shoulder eyelid
and neck muscles during 15 min of simulated driving. closure
ratio
2.4.4 Electrooculography (EOG)
EOG measures the electrical potential difference
between the human eye’s front (cornea) and back (ret-
elucidated, and their advantages and drawbacks are
ina). It’s one of the primary functions is to gauge the
considered. Nonetheless, certain gaps have been pin-
amplitude and the direction of eye movements, which
pointed in the existing literature, such as the need to
is applicable in detecting driver drowsiness (Shuvan et
evaluate current techniques in real time. This is par-
al., 2009). The electric potential difference between the
ticularly crucial in dynamic driving conditions and
retina and cornea generates an electrical field which is
diverse environmental factors, presenting opportuni-
measured using EOG sensors and determines eyes ori-
ties for refinement and enhancement. A comparative
entation. By employing a disposable Ag–Cl electrode
analysis reveals that no single method achieves abso-
on each eye’s outer corner and a third electrode at
lute accuracy, although techniques relying on physi-
the forehead’s center, the system observes horizontal
ological parameters tend to yield more precise results
eye movements (Shuvan et al., 2009). These electrodes
than others. A combination of these methods, includ-
assist in identifying behavioral patterns such as rapid
ing physiological, vehicular, or behavioral measures,
eye movements (REM) and slow eye movements
can address the limitations present in each technique
(SEM), contributing to drowsiness detection in driv-
when used individually (Table 19.1).
ers (Lal et al., 2001; Sharma et al., 2020).
Khushaba et al. (2010) and Kukreja et al. (2022)
discovered that EOG alone could not produce accu- References
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20 Issues with existing solutions for grievance redressal
systems and mitigation approach using blockchain
network
Harish Kumar, Rajesh Kumar Kaushala and Naveen Kumar
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
Abstract
Grievance redressal has always been vital for any organization to maintain a good work environment for its stakeholders.
Some organizations follow online portals, websites, or mobile applications to register grievances to provide more privacy to
the complainant’s identity. However, online platforms provide better solutions to the existing manual methods for grievance
redressal. Still, there are a lot of issues and challenges associated with them. This research has comprehensively analyzed the
existing grievance redressal systems to identify and discuss all the challenges. After comprehensive analysis, it is found that
presently there are several issues such as delayed response, opaque processes, biases, complexity and accessibility issues, lack
of personalization, and other privacy and security concerns associated with existing grievance redressal methods. To address
all these issues this study is proposing a blockchain-based solution for grievance redressal systems. The proposed solution
will be a blockchain-based web and mobile application that consists of multiple entities such as complainants, redressal
committee, and higher authorities. This system will provide the necessary privacy and confidentiality to the complainants
through the immutable distributed ledger technology and auditability of the entire process with complete transparency.
Keywords: Blockchain, grievance redressal system, immutability, privacy, smart contracts
I. Introduction affected by societal developments, advancements in
technology, and the desire for justice and fairness
In today’s interconnected and information-driven (Aggarwal, Dhaliwal, and Nobi, 2018). Grievance
culture, the importance of effective procedures for redressal procedures are widely observed in several
addressing grievances has become increasingly sig- areas of contemporary society, including governmen-
nificant. Instances of grievances, disagreements, and tal agencies, corporate organizations, online plat-
conflicts are commonly encountered by individuals in forms, and social communities. However, despite their
many areas such as the public sector, business orga- prevalence, certain persisting issues hinder the effec-
nizations, and online communities. These situations tiveness and dependability of these systems (Prajapat,
often require prompt and fair settlement. Throughout Sabharwal, and Wadhwani, 2018).
history, conventional methods employed to address
these issues have often been linked to inefficiency, a
dearth of openness, and a deficit of confidence (Denny II. Blockchain technology
et al., 2021). The advent of blockchain technology has Blockchain is a peer-to-peer network that lets peo-
presented novel prospects for augmenting grievance ple all over the world do business with each other.
redressal systems through the facilitation of transpar- The immutable ledger stores all events as a chain of
ency, resistance to tampering, and enhanced efficiency. blocks, and each node keeps an offline copy of the
This study addresses the issues with the existing whole ledger. There is no central or middle authority
procedures for resolving grievances and explores the that stores and verifies transactions; instead, all nodes
potential of blockchain technology as a viable solu- in the network are responsible for verifying new
tion for enhancement. The phenomenon of addressing transactions. Each blockchain framework uses a dif-
grievances is profoundly embedded throughout the ferent set of techniques called consensus algorithms
social framework of human civilization. Throughout to do this. Proof of work (PoW), proof of stake (PoS),
history, the necessity to confront and resolve conflicts and others are some of the most common consensus
and disagreements has consistently held considerable algorithms. When it comes to completing deals, each
significance, encompassing various regulatory frame- consensus algorithm takes a different approach. Some
works from ancient times to present-day institutions. blockchain frameworks use “smart contracts” to
The approaches employed to address grievances have complete the deal. Smart contracts are computer pro-
experienced significant changes throughout history, grams that are stored in the blockchain network and
[Link]@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 141
run automatically when certain conditions are met
(Kumar et al., 2021). Blockchain stores a record of all
transactions and keeps it safe in an unalterable led-
ger which provides auditability and complete trans-
parency. Any authorized network node can check the
complete history of a transaction.
Research objectives
The primary objective of this research article is to
investigate the challenges faced by existing grievance
redressal systems and explore how blockchain tech-
nology can mitigate these issues. To achieve this, the
following research goals will be pursued:
• Identify the key limitations of traditional griev-
ance redressal systems across various sectors.
• Analyze the core features of blockchain technol-
ogy and how they can address the identified limi-
tations.
• Present case studies and examples of blockchain-
Figure 20.1 Prisma flow diagram for literature study
based grievance redressal systems (GRS) to show-
case their practical applications and benefits to
mitigate the issues with the existing solutions.
IV. Methodology
The research work is conducted using a prisma
approach in order to ensure its conclusion. A stan-
dardized methodology encompassing the stages of
planning, execution, and reporting was implemented.
The sections that follow outline the procedural phases
of the approach employed in this study. The initial
stage involves the formulation of search keywords.
The subsequent stage is conducting a search for sys-
tems designed to address grievances, (Figure 20.1)
online portals dedicated to grievance redressal, and
research papers pertaining to blockchain technology,
utilizing certain keywords. The purpose of utilizing
certain keywords is to effectively distinguish between Figure 20.2 Structure of grievances redressal system
research articles that are relevant and those that are
irrelevant. In the third phase, an analysis is conducted
on the operational characteristics of online portals. of a proficient and impactful method for addressing
This examination involves the identification of short- grievances is an essential requirement for any orga-
comings in current solutions and the subsequent nization or institution to demonstrate responsibility
proposal of blockchain technology as a fundamental and accountability (Tripathi, Srivastava, and Singh,
remedy for the aforementioned concerns within this 2021). The workflow of the traditional grievances
industry (Figure 20.2). redressal system is shown in Figure 20.2.
Grievances may emerge at several levels within an
organization, including educational institutions such
V. Related work
as universities and schools. When any individuals per-
A complaint is typically characterized as a form of ceive that their rights, needs, or expectations have not
communication, whether spoken or written that been adequately fulfilled. This issue becomes highly
articulates dissatisfaction with a particular course delicate when it pertains to the students of an aca-
of conduct or neglect, or with the quality of service demic institution, given that students are the most
provided by an organization. The implementation vulnerable individuals in this context. Frequently,
142 Issues with existing solutions for grievance redressal systems
individuals encounter difficulties in effectively com- have encompassed the crucial features which are
municating their concerns and encounter challenges required for an effective and efficient system, such as
in receiving adequate help from relevant authorities at immutability, transparency, auditability, and distrib-
different stages of their academic progression within uted storage to mitigate the risk of a single point of
the institution (Prajapat, Sabharwal, and Wadhwani, failure within the system.
2018). In a research article, the authors (Magner, Table 20.1 exhibits a comprehensive literature
1995) have examined a particular case wherein a sub- assessment of the existing solution for grievance
stantial group of students collectively endorsed and redressal on the basis of the key features of an effec-
submitted a petition alleging substandard teaching by tive and efficient system.
their teacher, citing an inability to effectively deliver The authors Prajapat, Sabharwal, and Wadhwani
the curriculum in accordance with the updated edu- (2018) in their study have proposed an automated
cational framework. The authors (Miklas and Kleiner, system for grievance registration and redressal, but it
2003) discussed the case of a foreign university where follows a very basic architecture and it is still human-
a group of female students registered a complaint dependent to forward the complaint at almost every
against their professor for harassment. stage, and due to that resolution to the student griev-
Many researchers proposed a variety of theoreti- ance may be delayed, the privacy of the user’s identity
cal frameworks, prototypes, online solutions, mobile is not preserved, security of sensitive data is not men-
applications, and web portals utilizing diverse tech- tioned and covered, due to centralized system archi-
nologies such as artificial intelligence and machine tecture, tampering with the data may be possible,
learning (ML) techniques to manage grievance and due to weak architecture it cannot be implemented
redressal processes. However, none of these proposals at larger scale. The authors Kandhari and Mohinani
Table 20.1 Literature review for grievances redressal system.
Year Technology used 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Ref.
2014 PhoneGap, GPS, Google x X x x x x (Kandhari and
Maps & MySQL Mohinani, 2014)
2017 Not mentioned x x X x x x x x (Prajapat, Sabharwal,
and Wadhwani, 2018)
2018 Android, AI, NLP, machine x X x x x x (Kormpho et al., 2018)
learning techniques
2019 Not mentioned x X x x x x (Palanissamy and
Kesavamoorthy, 2019)
2020 PHP & MySQL x x x x x x (Aravindhan et al.,
2020)
2020 Android, Google Maps, x x x x x (Laxmaiah and
cloud vision, geo-coding and Mahesh, 2020)
firebase and machine learning
2020 Ethereum, Android, x (Hingorani et al.,
Encryption 2020)
2020 Hyperledger Fabric x x x (Shettigar et al., 2021)
2020 Ethereum, [Link], [Link], x x x (Jattan et al., 2020)
MetaMask
2020 Not mentioned x x x x x x (Shahnawaz et al.,
2020)
2021 [Link], MongoDB x x x x x x (Oguntosin Victoria et
al., 2021)
2021 Not mentioned x x x x x x (Bhadouria and others,
2021)
2022 Django, HTML, CSS, SQL, x x x x x (Jha, Sonawane, and
artificial intelligence and others, 2022)
machine learning
1. Implemented 2. Data security 3. Privacy 4. Decentralized 5. Automated 6. Immutable 7. Distributed storage
8. Auditable 9. Transparent
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 143
(2014) have designed a mobile application for the citi- In the event of prolonged inactivity, the system auto-
zens to register their municipal services-related griev- matically elevates the complaint’s status to the supe-
ances. The application enables the users to register rior officer and District Magistrate through an email
their complaints along with the image of problems notification, providing an update on the registered
and location coordinates. The author Kormpho et al. complaint. The authors Shettigar et al. (2021) in a
(2018) proposed a solution that involves the devel- separate study proposed a blockchain-based solution
opment of a mobile application and a chatbot that for a grievances management system for college stu-
allows end-users to effectively register their concerns. dents, being a blockchain-based solution, it provides
Additionally, an innovative web-based solution is all the inherent features of blockchain but the most
provided for the organization to address these issues, important phase, which is implementation, is miss-
with the added benefit of preventing duplicate com- ing. The proposed solution uses the permissioned
plaints. The authors Palanissamy and Kesavamoorthy blockchain hyperledger fabric framework. In another
(2019) in their proposed solution comprise a widely study, the researchers Jha, Sonawane, and others
used online application for addressing grievances. (2022) presented a proposal for the development
This approach employs a multi-step negotiation pro- of a web portal designed specifically for students to
cess to identify and resolve issues. Which depends on register their complaints across different categories.
human involvement at each level. However, the pro- This portal offers transparency and monitoring capa-
posed method provides an easy user interface but is bilities, allowing the tracking of complaint statuses
deficient in key attributes such as tamper-proofing, at any given stage. Additionally, the authors suggest
immutability, privacy, and transparency, all of which the incorporation of ML and artificial intelligence
are of utmost significance when dealing with sensitive (AI) techniques to identify and address instances of
information. offensive language and complaints that propagate
In another study, the authors Aravindhan et al. misinformation on sensitive subjects such as racism,
(2020) developed a web-based solution that relies gender, and religion.
on human intervention at various stages to address In another study, authors Musa et al. (2021) have
complaints. However, this dependence on human proposed a centralized web portal to handle the stu-
involvement can potentially lead to delays in resolv- dents’ grievances at the university level, where stu-
ing student grievances. Furthermore, the preservation dents can register their academic and non-academic
of user identification and the protection of sensitive related grievances. Another govt. of India, initiative
data are not well-addressed or discussed. The poten- Rana et al. (2016) has introduced an online portal
tial for data tampering exists due to the central- for Indian citizens, where they can register their com-
ized system architecture, and the proposed solution plaints against any central or state govt. departments,
is not feasible for larger-scale implementation due sub-departments, or any public service-providing
to its inherent weaknesses in architecture. The sole agencies.
advantageous aspect of the suggested solution is to The Director of Public Grievances, The Department
the incorporation of a web interface into the preex- of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances has
isting manual system. The researchers Laxmaiah and implemented a web-based portal to address and mon-
Mahesh (2020) of the study developed an automated itor public grievances. This portal is interconnected
and intelligent mobile application for the citizens to with all ministries and departments of the Indian gov-
register their grievances, the mobile application uses ernment as well as state governments. It allows citi-
ML techniques to segregate the types of complaints zens to access the portal through a mobile application
and automatically forward them to the concerned and register their grievances about any service pro-
department of an official without any delay, most of vided by the Indian government or state government.
the phases of this system is totally automated without Additionally, the portal offers transparency to users
any human dependency or intervention, researchers by enabling them to track the progress of their griev-
use cloud vision server and geo-coding and reverse ances using a unique registration number (DARPG,
geo-coding to label and identify the problem location 2023). The success of online portals for grievance
without any human involvement. It also provides the redressal systems has been comprehensively assessed
user’s accounts and their registered grievances and and analyzed by the authors Rana et al. (2015) in a
also provides the tracking information about the reg- separate study. This evaluation was conducted using
istered complaints. an E-government-based IS success model, which
In another study, the authors Hingorani et al. was constructed utilizing existing IS success models.
(2020) proposed a police complaint system by utiliz- Multiple hypotheses were examined and supported
ing blockchain technology in the development of web by empirical evidence, indicating that the implemen-
and mobile applications. It enables complainants to tation of the online public grievances redressal system
conveniently register and monitor their complaints. is likely to be highly effective. However, it is important
144 Issues with existing solutions for grievance redressal systems
mistrust, and skepticism, ultimately undermining the
credibility of the system.
Delayed resolutions
The effectiveness of conventional methods for
addressing grievances is often hampered by lengthy
and extended procedures for resolving disputes. It can
result in extended suffering for the aggrieved parties,
especially in cases where time-sensitive issues are at
stake. Delays can also increase tensions, and conflicts
which aggravate disputes, hence emphasizing the sig-
nificance of quick resolution.
Figure 20.3 Publication trends in existing solutions on
grievances redressal system
Susceptibility to manipulation
Several grievance redressal systems exhibit vulnerabil-
to note that despite the convenience and accessibility ity to manipulation, stemming from either unethical
offered by the online portal for registering grievances, practices or organizational inefficiency. This suscep-
the privacy and security of user data remain signifi- tibility undermines the justice of the system and may
cant concerns. discourage individuals from seeking resolution for
The researchers Alawneh, Al-Refai, and Batiha their issues early.
(2013) in their study investigated the factors that
influence user satisfaction with Jordan’s e-govern- Lack of accountability
ment services portal. The research paper outlines five Accountability counted as a key component of an effi-
primary criteria that have the potential to influence cient grievance redressal system. However, in several
the level of satisfaction among Jordanian individu- cases, it proves to be quite a challenge to ensure that
als with the portal. These factors encompass security the individuals or entities involved are held liable for
and privacy, trust, accessibility, awareness of public their actions. The absence of accountability can give
services, and the quality of public services. The study rise to a culture of freedom, wherein instances of mis-
presents significant findings derived from the analysis conduct remain unaddressed.
of survey data, emphasizing the importance of com-
prehending these factors to enhance the design and Inadequate data security
functionality of e-government portals. It also provides The rising dependence on online platforms for the
recommendations for practitioners and policy-mak- resolution of grievances has led to increased attention
ers to effectively improve user experience and cater on data security. The occurrence of breaches and data
to the needs of citizens. The outcomes of this study leaks can result in significant implications, such as the
underscore the shortcomings of the current system for disclosure of confidential data and a decline of confi-
addressing issues. dence in the system.
The literature review indicates that most of the
studies have implemented a centralized solution, few VII. Proposed system
articles only discuss the theoretical models, and few
have done the analysis of the effectiveness of the exist- The main purpose of this study is to investigate the
ing centralized solution, and the blockchain-based existing literature and identify the issues with the
studies are merely proposing a theoretical model. As existing solutions and propose an effective and effi-
per the reviewed literature, Figure 20.3 illustrates the cient system for grievance redressal which will cover
publication trends observed in published articles in all the issues identified during the literature review
this domain. of the existing solutions. The proposed system will
be an online web/mobile application that will use a
blockchain framework to provide distributed stor-
VI. Issues identified with existing grs age and provide immutability and full auditability.
Lack of transparency The structure of the proposed system is shown in
One of the significant challenges in existing grievance Figure 20.4.
redressal procedures is the absence of openness. In
several instances, people are often uninformed of the VIII. Result and discussion
status of their grievances, the procedures involved in
decision-making, and the eventual outcome. The lack The conventional methods of addressing grievances
of transparency can result in feelings of dissatisfaction, are considered to be inadequate due to their limited
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 145
Figure 20.4 Structure of the blockchain-based proposed system
effectiveness in delivering crucial elements necessary IX. Conclusion and future work
for an efficient solution, such as transparency, immu-
Blockchain can provide transparency, immutability,
tability, privacy, quick redressal, security, and audit-
and a distributed storage facility and its integration
ability. The prevailing approach in online grievance
with various sectors can improve the existing services.
management solutions relies on a centrally managed
This article explores the limitations and issues of the
server system, rendering them more vulnerable to
present grievance redressal procedures. Although some
potential removal or tampering of data. Conversely,
of the online portals provide some sort of privacy and
the implementation of a decentralized grievance
transparency but they fail to provide immutability and
redressal system may hinder these efforts due to the
solution to a single point of failure. While identifying
widespread availability of all grievances across every
the limitations of the existing grievances redressal sys-
peer within the network.
tem this study proposes blockchain technology as a
During the literature review on the traditional and
mitigation approach to all the identified issues with
other online solutions for the grievances redressal sys-
the existing solutions. Blockchain-powered systems
tem, some important issues are identified. This exhib-
offer benefits like increased transparency, record pres-
its that there is a strong requirement for an efficient
ervation, and decentralized trust mechanisms.
grievance redressal system that should be both trans-
The findings of our investigation indicate that the
parent and tamper-proof and operate on a distributed
adoption of a blockchain-powered grievance redressal
peer-to-peer network which eliminates any potential
system presents numerous benefits, such as increased
instances of ignorance and abuse of power by higher-
transparency, the preservation of unalterable records,
level officials.
and the utilization of decentralized trust mechanisms.
Our proposed system extends the security, pri-
Through the utilization of smart contracts and cryp-
vacy, and other key features of the online portal by
tographic methodologies, blockchain technology has
adding blockchain technology, which provides all
the potential to enable a secure and effective mecha-
the inherent features of blockchain such as immu-
nism for addressing grievances. However, scalability,
tability, auditability, transparency, and distributed
privacy, and regulatory constraints are crucial and
ledger storage which mitigate the single point of
that can be managed with the selection of an appro-
failure of a centralized system and auditability fea-
priate blockchain framework.
ture enable the authorized user to check the com-
plete transaction history, and transparency feature
of blockchain allows the users to get updates about References
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21 A systematic approach to implement hyperledger fabric
for remote patient monitoring
Shilpi Garg, Rajesh Kumar Kaushala and Naveen Kumar
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
Abstract
The integration of blockchain technology, particularly hyperledger fabric, into the domain of remote patient monitor-
ing, presents a new era that has the potential to greatly improve healthcare systems. This research paper introduces a
methodical strategy for integrating hyperledger fabric into remote patient monitoring systems. It provides a structure that
efficiently addresses key challenges pertaining to data security, privacy, and interoperability. This study aims to establish a
methodology for remote patient monitoring environments by carefully analyzing the distinctive requirements and constraints
associated with these types of environments. The methodology encompasses various key phases, including network configu-
ration, smart contract design and sensitive data management specifically tailored to healthcare contexts. In addition, the
study explores practical methods of implementation and conducts performance evaluation of the suggested strategy using
minifab and hyperledger explorer, respectively. This analysis provides valuable insights into the effectiveness and efficiency
of the approach in safeguarding the privacy and security of patient information. Through an examination of the mutually
beneficial capabilities of hyperledger fabric and remote patient monitoring, this study makes a valuable contribution to the
advancement of healthcare systems that are both secure and efficient.
Keywords: Hyperledger fabric, remote patient monitoring, blockchain, hyperledger explorer, minifab
I. Introduction This research endeavors to explore the systematic
implementation of hyperledger fabric in the context
In recent years, the convergence of advanced technolo-
of remote patient monitoring. By leveraging the capa-
gies has assist in a new era of healthcare delivery, char-
bilities of blockchain technology, the aim is to estab-
acterized by improved patient outcomes, enhanced
lish a robust and secure framework that not only
data management, and increased accessibility. One of
safeguards patient data but also enhances interop-
the most significant advancements in this domain is
erability and trust among stakeholders, including
the integration of blockchain technology, particularly
patients, healthcare providers, and researchers.
hyperledger fabric, with remote patient monitoring
Through a systematic approach, this study discloses
(RPM) system. Remote patient monitoring, enabled
the intricate steps necessary to effectively integrate
by the proliferation of internet of things (IoT) devices
hyperledger fabric into RPM systems. From the initial
and wearable sensors, allows for continuous and real-
setup of the blockchain network to the development
time tracking of patients’ vital signs and health-related
of smart contracts tailored to healthcare scenarios,
data from the comfort of their homes. This paradigm
the research work provides a comprehensive guide for
shift has the potential to revolutionize healthcare by
implementation. Furthermore, this work also assesses
facilitating early diagnosis, personalized treatment,
the performance and effectiveness of the proposed
and reduced hospitalizations (Kumar et al., 2021;
systematic approach through testing and simulation.
Zhang et al., 2021; Garg, Kaushal, and Kumar, 2022).
However, the integration of RPM and blockchain
technology poses unique challenges and opportuni- II. Hyperledger fabric
ties. RPM systems deal with sensitive patient infor- Hyperledger fabric is an open-source blockchain
mation, making data security, privacy, and integrity platform specifically designed for enterprise applica-
paramount concerns. Traditional centralized data tions. The major objective of this platform is to enable
storage models often fall short in ensuring the con- customers to develop robust and scalable blockchain
fidentiality and authenticity of patient data (Pap et solutions. The platform under consideration exhibits
al., 2018; McGee et al., 2022; Kantorowska et al., a novel structure that coordinates the processing of
2023). Here in lies the potential of blockchain tech- transactions by means of executing smart contracts,
nology, particularly hyperledger fabric, to provide a referred to as chaincode, which can be written in pro-
decentralized and tamper-resistant framework that gramming languages like as Go, Java, or JavaScript
addresses these challenges. (Ichikawa, Kashiyama, and Ueno, 2017; Dabbagh
a
[Link]@[Link]
148 A systematic approach to implement hyperledger fabric for remote patient monitoring
Figure 21.1 Transaction flow for hyperledger fabric
et al., 2020; Tanwar, Parekh, and Evans, 2020). The sibility of transmitting information among net-
technology was developed within the framework of work participants while upholding data integrity.
the “Hyperledger Foundation”, an organization led Additionally, it enables the establishment of spe-
by IBM. It possesses several notable features, such as cific criteria or permissions to encapsulate the
the ability to create private data collections, strong transmitted data. In situations where maintain-
security measures for Docker containers, a flexible ing the confidentiality of particular information
programming framework, and a consensus model that is crucial, the option exists to create a separate
can be adjusted based on the host nodes. Hyperledger channel distinct from the rest, accessible only
fabric consists of various major components includ- to select organizations. This feature underscores
ing peers, orderer, chaincode, membership service the potential for multiple blockchains to coexist
provider (MSP), channels, and fabric certificate within the same network, as a channel essentially
authority (CA). Figure 21.1 illustrates the transaction operates as an independent blockchain.
flow diagram of the hyperledger fabric (Pongnumkul, • Certification authorities (CAs) are a fundamental
Siripanpornchana, and Thajchayapong, 2017; component of public key infrastructures (PKIs)
Performance, Group, and others, 2018; Jennath, and have been assigned with ensuring the distri-
Anoop, and Asharaf, 2020; Woznica and Kedziora, bution of digital certificates. The primary func-
2022). tion of this layer is to verify the identities of the
Peer refers to the individual nodes that comprise parties or actors involved in the communication,
the network organizations. The aforementioned ensuring that they are indeed who they claim to
pieces are responsible for providing information to be. Websites commonly possess a digital certifi-
the ordering nodes within the network, enabling them cate that is issued by a reputable CA in order to
to configure the blocks that are being transacted. authenticate the trustworthiness of the visited
Orderer: One of the pivotal components within the website.
network, the orderer assumes a critical role in config- • The membership service provider (MSP) is re-
uring blocks according to specified criteria and dis- sponsible for gathering all cryptographic tech-
tributing them to their respective peers. These peers niques employed for network interaction. It is
can be affiliated with one or multiple organizations, imperative for every organization to own a man-
necessitating the attainment of a consensus agreement aged security provider (MSP) that encompasses
as per the network’s requirements. All transactions its cryptographic data, including keys and the CA
related to network configuration flow through the responsible for issuing its certificates. The cre-
orderer. Additionally, these computing entities enforce dentials are utilized by clients for the purpose of
fundamental access control for channels, determining authenticating their transactions, while peers em-
who has read and write privileges and the authority ploy them to authenticate the outcomes of trans-
to configure them. action processing, specifically endorsements.
• Chaincode, often referred to as smart contracts
• Channel functions as a communication medium within the context of hyperledger fabric, serves
among network participants. In this context, it as the mechanism through which contractual
serves as a mechanism for conducting private agreements are implemented. A smart contract
communications, ensuring data isolation and refers to a block of code that is triggered by an
confidentiality. This layer takes on the respon- external client application, operating outside
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 149
the blockchain network. Its purpose is to over- comprising a network of peers. Language java is uti-
see the manipulation and control of a collection lized for the purpose of writing chaincode. Figure 21.3
of key-value pairs inside the present state of the is a screenshot of [Link] file that is a configuration
network, accomplished through the execution of file about the network used by minifab. Table 21.1
transactions. Smart contracts are encapsulated
and distributed as chaincode. Subsequently, the
chaincode is deployed onto the peers and subse-
quently defined and utilized within one or many
channels.
III. Implementation
In order to effectively handle the patient data it is
necessary to establish a correlation between the vari-
ous components of the fabric and the demands of the
RPM-based EHR systems. All medical centers func-
tion as entities inside a fabric network. The patient
data has been regarded as valuable resources stored
within the ledger. Currently, patient records consist
of a limited number of categories, encompassing
personal and medical information such as age, resi- Figure 21.3 [Link] file for network
dence, allergies, symptoms, therapy, follow-up, and
so on. When a physician administers medication to a
Table 21.1 Process to build up the minifab network.
patient, they will have access to the patient’s medical
history data, which assists them in determining the Steps Command Description
most suitable type of medical care. Figure 21.2 illus-
1 minifab netup -s Start the network
trate the system architecture. couchdb -e true -i by adding hospital1.
The medical database is utilized to establish a 2.4.8 -o hospital1. [Link] as a
repository of transactions within the proposed sys- [Link] current organization
tem. The orderer and peer nodes are executed within 2 minifab create -c Create the
the Docker container. Hyperledger fabric framework healthchannel channel named as
is designed to be configured with a minimum of two healthchannel
organizations-hospital1 and hospital2. Every organi- 3 minifab join -c Network will join the
zation will be assigned to a single peer node, a chan- healthchannel healthchannel
nel, and an orderer node within the ordering service. 4 minifab Update the anchor
Each peer node within the network possesses a dupli- anchorupdate peer node
cate of the ledger. A chaincode is developed with the 5 minifab profilegen -c Generate the profiles
purpose of facilitating access to the two organizations healthchannel for healthchannel
Figure 21.2 System architecture for hyperledger fabric
150 A systematic approach to implement hyperledger fabric for remote patient monitoring
Figure 21.7 Result for query a patient
Figure 21.4 Smart contracts for entities
Figure 21.5 Screenshot for creating a patient
Figure 21.6 Screenshot for query a patient
depicts the steps for creating the network using
minifab.
After successfully build up the network, chaincode
is deployed on the health channel. One chaincode has
been created for admin, patient and doctor entities.
Basically chaincode is a collection of smart contracts.
For creating a block invoke command is used and for Figure 21.8 (a) Blocks per min, (b) Transactions per
evaluation query command is used. Functionality of organization
admin, patient and doctor smart contract has shown
into the Figure 21.4.
Health information is extremely sensitive and
Results
must be protected. Only the healthcare providers
and institutions to which the patient has granted Hyperledger explorer is a tool that designed to pro-
access should have access to their medical records. vide a user-friendly interface for viewing, analyzing,
Private data collections are an option for storing and interacting with blockchain data in hyperledger
sensitive information in hyperledger fabric. Certain fabric networks. Minifab network is evaluated using
patient information must be shielded from investiga- the hyperledger explorer tool which is open source
tors at other medical facilities. Figure 21.4 illustrate tool. Figure 21.8(a) and (b) depicts the total number
the invoke command for creating a new patient by of blocks created per min and blocks created by orga-
admin smart contract. The patient data added here nizations. It gives the complete information about the
is kept private. Figures 21.5–21.7 depicts the query block like data hash, previous hash, block hash, num-
command for reading a patient private data and out- ber of tractions, channel name. A total of 9 blocks are
put for a read query. created for 9 transactions with 2 nodes.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 151
Conclusion abling trusted artificial intelligence. 15–23. [Link]
org/10.9781/ijimai.2020.07.002.
This systematic approach to implement hyperledger Kantorowska, Agata, Koral Cohen, Maxwell Oberlander,
fabric for remote patient monitoring, addressing criti- Anna R. Jaysing, Meredith B. Akerman, Anne-Marie
cal challenges in healthcare viz., data management Wise, Devin M. Mann et al. (2023). Remote patient
and security. The deployment of blockchain tech- monitoring for management of diabetes mellitus in
nology in healthcare, offers promising prospects for pregnancy is associated with improved maternal and
enhancing data integrity, privacy, and interoperability. neonatal outcomes. American Journal of Obstetrics
Throughout this study, outlined a comprehensive and Gynecology. 228, 6 pp. 1-11.
Kumar, A., Sharad, S., Nitin, G., Aman, S., Xiaochun, C.,
implementation framework, including smart con-
and Parminder, S. (2021). Secure and energy-efficient
tracts and data management strategies, to facilitate
smart building architecture with emerging technology
secure and efficient remote patient monitoring. As the IoT. Comp. Comm., 176, 207–217.
healthcare industry continues to evolve and embrace McGee, M. J., Max, R., Stepehn, C. B., Shanathan Srith-
digital transformation, the integration of hyperledger aran, Andrew J. Boyle, Nicholas, J., James, W. L., and
fabric for remote patient monitoring has the poten- Aaron, L. S. (2022). Remote monitoring in patients
tial to revolutionize patient care by enabling real-time with heart failure with cardiac implantable electron-
data sharing among healthcare providers, ensur- ic devices: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
ing data accuracy, and safeguarding patient privacy. Open Heart, 9(2), 6–11. [Link]
Nevertheless, challenges and barriers remain, includ- openhrt-2022-002096.
ing scalability concerns and the need for widespread Pap, I. A., Stefan, O., Ioan, O., and Alexandru, A. (2018).
IoT-based ehealth data acquisition system. 2018 IEEE
adoption.
Int. Conf. Automat. Qual. Test. Robot. AQTR 2018 -
In the future, further research and practical imple-
THETA 21st Ed., Proc., 1–5. [Link]
mentations should explore scalability solutions and AQTR.2018.8402711.
continue to engage stakeholders across the healthcare Performance, Hyperledger, Scale Working Group, and oth-
ecosystem to overcome barriers to adoption. ers. (2018). Hyperledger blockchain performance
metrics white paper. [Link] Hyperledger. Org/
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22 Developing spell check and transliteration tools for Indian
regional language – Kannada
Chandrika Prasada, Jagadish S. Kallimani, Geetha Reddy and
Dhanashekar K.
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, M S Ramaiah Institute of Technology, (Affiliated to Visvesvaraya
Technical University Belagavi, Karnataka), Bangalore, Karnataka, India
Abstract
Kannada is one of the major regional languages of Karnataka, a prominent state of India. The text processing tasks are very
important and highly required for the development of the language in this digital world. Spell checking is one of the needs
in creating an effective document. Even though one can find several tools on the internet, it allows you to type or paste the
Kannada text on the text editor and submit the text then the result will appear on the another editor. The proposed work de-
lineates on developing an efficient interactive spell checking and transliteration tools for the Kannada language based on the
Blooms filter algorithm, Symspell technique and International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) representation. This work carried out
with an intention to provide handy text processing tools to the public. The proposed work has been tested on several datasets
and found to be useful with more than 85% and 87.29% accuracy for both spell check and transliteration tools, respectively.
Keywords: Blooms filter, Symspell algorithm, Levenshtein distance, transliteration, International Phonetic Alphabet, candi-
date words
Introduction it in English. This paper provides solution for these
identified challenges.
One of the key uses of natural language processing
Since its impossible to create a corpus for each eng-
is the spell checker. It aids the user in producing a
kan translation, hence we go for the transliteration
document free of errors. In several languages, the
approach where the pronunciation is preserved.
work of spell checking has already been extensively
developed. MS-word is a widely used editor that gives
Dictionary based tool
users all the tools they need to create effective docu-
ments, especially in English. India contains more than Set of Kannada words from different internet sources
100 local languages, although only 22 are regarded as are collected and stored as a database. A list of mis-
regional. Text processing is still in its infancy in many spelled words and its equivalent correct words are
languages, notably Kannada. While there are a few mapped and stored as dictionary. The module invokes
transliteration tools available, there are no editors a routine which performs look up operation in the
where users can freely enter and create documents dictionary and predicts the possible word for the mis-
that are error-free. spelled Kannada word using efficient techniques like
According to the literary survey, more than 1.35 Bloom filter and Symspell algorithms.
billion people on the world speak and understand
English, hence it is safe to assume that English is Kannada transliteration
widely accepted all around the globe. The popula- Transliteration is the process of converting text from
tion of India is around 1.4 billion surpassing China one writing system to another. One widely used
and hence becoming the most populated country in method of transliteration is to use the International
the world. Around 57 million Kannada speakers exist Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), which provides a standard-
in India making it one of the most used languages ized set of symbols for representing the sounds of
for communication in India. The government has human language. IPA-based transliteration allows for
come up with various solutions to enable even the a more accurate representation of the sounds of one
most remote parts of the country to access informa- language in another, which can be useful for language
tion. Hence the need to convert language into native learners, linguists, and others who need to work
tongue arises. with multiple writing systems. The IPA is based on
Proper names such as name, place, object and, etc., the principle of one sound, one symbol, which means
are the fields in all government forms and offices, it’s that each symbol represents a single sound. It allows
practically impossible to ask the public to only fill for a standardized representation of the sounds of a
chandrika@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 153
language, regardless of the writing system used. The more effort into creating a real-word spell checker
IPA includes symbols for consonants, vowels, and that incorporates additional language principles.
other sounds, as well as diacritic marks that indicate A spell check tool using Levenshtein’s edit distance
variations in pronunciation, such as stress and tone. algorithm, rule-based algorithm, Soundex algorithm,
While IPA-based transliteration can be more precise and LSTM (Long- Short-Term Memory) model is
than other methods, it can also be more complex developed for Tamil language (Sampath et al., 2022).
and time-consuming, especially for those who are The model handles three categories of errors with a
not familiar with the IPA. Additionally, not all lan- good performance of 95.67%.
guages have a one-to-one correspondence between A Telugu spell-checker’s innovative concept and
their sounds and IPA symbols, which can lead to some implementation are presented in (Parameshwari et
ambiguity in transliteration. Despite these challenges, al., 2012). The core of Telugu spell-checking is mor-
IPA-based transliteration remains a valuable tool for phological validation using a morphological analyzer.
those who need to work with multiple languages and Along with issues affecting orthography and morphol-
writing systems. ogy, difficulties associated with Telugu document spell
In the proposed work, both dictionary and translit- checking are examined. On these lines, a spell-checker
eration tools are developed, the implementation part has been created. The spelling checker’s architecture
will focus more on these two models. and algorithm, which is based on Sandhi splitter and
morphological analysis principles, are described.
Related work Additionally, it contains tables of spelling variations
gleaned from Telugu’s spatiotemporal dialects.
A comprehensive survey is done on various languages A common approach used to develop a spell check
to understand the methodology/ technique used by tool is minimum edit distance algorithm (Patil et al.,
researchers. 2021). By carrying out numerous operations including
The researchers have explored methodologies character replacement, insertion, and deletion, it fixes
(Randhawa et al., 2014) used for developing spell spelling mistakes. The proposed work focuses on cor-
check tool for various Indian regional languages recting the errors for Marathi text and it works better
including the performance analysis. This helps a for short words with a good accuracy of 85.5%.
researcher to understand the pros and cons of avail- The challenges associated with multi-lingual
able techniques. A spell checker tool on Bangla is speech recognition and propose solutions to address
explored in (Chaudhuri et al., 2002). Researchers these challenges in the Indian context are explored in
have handled the errors based on the phonetic in two (Manjunath et al., 2019; Khattar et al., 2020). The
stages using phonetically similar character error cor- proposed model contributes to the advancement of
rection and reversed word dictionary and error cor- speech technology in the context of Indian languages,
rection. Experiment is conducted on three million which is crucial for enabling effective communication
words which are arranged in Trie data structure and and technology access for the diverse linguistic popu-
obtained satisfied results. lation in India.
Speech recognition is explored in (Priya et al., Both forward and backward transliteration of
2022), authors have used novel Automatic Speech Punjabi names was performed between Gurmukhi
Recognition system for seven low-resource languages and English Roman scripts using an n-gram language
based on deep sequence modeling with an enhanced model (Goyal et al., 2022). Over one million paral-
spell checker. The researchers have obtained word lel entities of person names in both scripts were used
error rate (WER) of 0.62 using recurrent neural as the training corpus. The study created extensive
network-gated recurrent unit (RNN-GRU) and the English-to-Punjabi and Punjabi-to-English n-gram
transformer-based INDIC Bidirectional Encoder pre- databases, comprising more than 10 million n-grams
sentations significantly enhance performance by 10% with multiple script mappings. Categorizing n-grams
and lower the average WER to 0.52. into starting, middle, and ending n-grams was essen-
A spell check tool is explored on Dawurootsuwa tial due to variations in pronunciation based on let-
which is one of the Ethiopian languages (Arya et al., ter placement in words. The transliteration process
2021; Gamu et al., 2023), it has poor dataset. The involved searching for the longest matching n-gram
root words in this study were built using the Hunspell in the database, recursively splitting the string until a
dictionary format and consisted of 5,000 total root match was found, and then merging the transliterated
words, more than 2,500 morphological rules, and strings to produce the final output.
3,156 unique terms for testing. total spell error detec- The challenges of speech recognition and spell cor-
tion performance was 90.4%, and total spell error rection in low-resource Indian language are discussed
repair performance was 79.31%, according to the in the work did by Priya et al. (2022). The authors
experimental results. Additionally, we are putting propose a solution using Indic BERT. A multi-lingual
154 Developing spell check and transliteration tools for Indian regional language – Kannada
transformer-based language model, the model per- regular keyboard (English language keyboard)
forms speech recognition and spell correction for the and can check the correct Kannada words on the
text written in Tamil, Telugu, and Kannada languages. editor.
By leveraging the power of transfer learning, the
authors demonstrate the effectiveness of Indic BERT Methodology
in improving the accuracy of speech recognition and
spell correction tasks in these languages. The general steps to develop a spell-checking tool in
Kannada speech corpus for automatic speech rec- Kannada language is as follows:
ognition system based on phoneme (Praveen et al.,
2022) is developed for Kannada corpus. The authors • Corpus collection: Gather a large collection of
describe the methodology employed in creating the correctly spelled Kannada text. This can include
corpus, which includes collecting speech samples books, articles, websites, and other reliable sourc-
from native Kannada speakers and annotating them es written in Kannada.
with phoneme-level transcriptions. The resulting • Corpus pre-processing: Clean and preprocess the
corpus serves as a valuable resource for researchers collected corpus data by removing any unwanted
and practitioners working on Kannada speech recog- characters, punctuation marks, and special sym-
nition, enabling the development and evaluation of bols. Normalize the text to ensure consistent rep-
accurate and efficient speech recognition models for resentation.
this language. • Tokenization: Split the pre-processed text into in-
A convolutional neural network-based speech rec- dividual words or tokens. This step helps in ana-
ognition model for Kannada Language is demon- lyzing and processing each word separately.
strated in work by Rudregowda et al. (2020). The • Build a dictionary: Create a dictionary of correct-
authors propose a methodology for visual speech ly spelled Kannada words based on the tokenized
recognition in Kannada. The findings of this study corpus. This dictionary will serve as the reference
contribute to the advancement of speech recognition for spell-checking.
technology for Kannada, which could have signifi- • Error generation: Generate a set of common
cant implications for speech-based applications in the spelling errors that occur in Kannada. This can
Kannada-speaking community. include typos, phonetic errors, and other com-
mon mistakes made by Kannada speakers.
• Spell-checking algorithm: Implement a spell-
Scope of the work
checking algorithm that compares each word in
From the survey, it is found extensive research work the input text with the words in the dictionary.
has not carried out in this domain. There is a lot of The algorithm should identify potential spelling
scope in this area. Summary of the survey is as fol- errors and suggest corrections based on the clos-
lows: After analyzing the survey, it is found that est matching words in the dictionary.
• User interface: Develop a user-friendly inter-
• In Kannada languages, minimum work has been face where users can input their text for spell-
carried out in spell check and transliteration do- checking and receive suggestions for correc-
main. tions. This can be a web-based interface or an
• Getting the proper Kannada datasets for training application.
and testing is not an easy task. • Testing and refinement: Test the spell-checking
• There is no open-source optical recognition tool tool with a variety of Kannada texts, including
available to convert pdf to word which is required different genres and writing styles. Collect user
for the text processing. feedback and refine the algorithm and user inter-
face based on the feedback received.
Objectives • Continuous improvement: Maintain and update
the spell-checking tool by periodically updating
From the survey, it is noted that, in Kannada language the dictionary with new words and refining the
there is a lot of scope with respect to transliteration error generation algorithms to improve accuracy
and not many research articles are published. We have and coverage.
contributed in this domain by
It is worth noting that building a robust and
• Developing a spell check tool with the possible accurate spell-checking tool requires a considerable
features amount of linguistic expertise and computational
• Designing a transliteration tool for Kannada lan- resources. Collaborating with Kannada language
guage, where the user can type Kannada using experts or researchers in natural language processing
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 155
(NLP) would be beneficial in ensuring the effective- • Initialize a bit array of the specified size and set
ness of the tool. all bits to 0.
• Calculate the optimal number of hash functions
Dictionary-based spell checking tool based on the desired false positive probability
and the size of the dataset.
A huge dataset of 7 lakh is collected and in that • Create a list of hash functions using different seed
125,000 words are identified as unique words. These values.
words can have spelled in many ways all those mis-
spelled forms of these unique words are tabulated in a The following Figure 22.1 shows the architecture
dictionary which is used for error correction of the proposed model:
In this proposed model a user interface is devel-
oped such that it accepts the Kannada document or • Insert elements into the Bloom filter.
an editor is provided for the user to start typing the • For each element in the Kannada dataset, apply
Kannada articles. each hash function to generate hash values.
After the user uploads the document, two possible • Set the corresponding bits in the Bloom filter’s bit
scenarios can unfold. Firstly, a routine can be imple- array to 1 for each generated hash value.
mented to exhibit the precise contents of the docu- • Search for an element in the Bloom filter
ment within the designated text area. Secondly, all • Given a query element, apply each hash function
the words present in the document are divided into to generate hash values.
tokens, and the unique tokens are subsequently sub- • Check if the corresponding bits in the Bloom filter’s
jected to processing by Blooms filter. bit array are set to 1 for each generated hash value.
Here are the steps for implementing a Bloom filter • If any of the bits are not set to 1, the element is
searching algorithm for a Kannada dataset: definitely not present in the dataset.
• If all bits are set to 1, the element is probably pres-
• Create a Bloom filter: ent in the dataset (there is a false positive prob-
• Specify the desired size of the Bloom filter and the ability). Figures 22.2 and 22.3 shows the result of
number of hash functions to use. the search operation using Bloom filter.
Figure 22.1 Chronological order of face shield development
156 Developing spell check and transliteration tools for Indian regional language – Kannada
print(f”The word ‘{query_word}’ is probably
present in the dataset.”)
else:
print(f”The word ‘{query_word}’ is definitely not
present in the dataset.”)
The input undergoes scanning by the Bloom filter,
leading to the display of words on the designated edi-
tor within the user interface. In this context, two pos-
sibilities arise once again:
Figure 22.2 Input word not present in Bloom filter
1. Incorrect words are highlighted with a red un-
derline.
2. Additionally, correct words that are not found
in the dictionary are also recognized as incorrect
and flagged with a red underline.
The user has given three options with the identified
wrong words
1. User can ignore this by clicking on the ignore op-
tion present in the toolkit.
Figure 22.3 Input word present in Bloom filter 2. User can add the words to dictionary, if he feels
that it is correct. The admin later will add this
to dictionary so that next time, these words are
Here’s the pseudo code for the Bloom filter search- treated as correct words.
ing algorithm: 3. User can find the possible correct words for the
identified wrong words.
import bitarray
from hashlib import sha256 Error correction
class BloomFilter: To predict the possible correct word for the given
def __init__(self, size, num_hash): wrong word, the model uses SymSpell algorithm with
[Link] = size the Levenshtein distance metric. The steps are :
self.num_hash = num_hash
self.bit_array = [Link](size) 1. Prepare the dictionary.
self.bit_array.setall(0) 2. Create or obtain a Kannada dictionary file in the
def add(self, item): format of “term frequency” per line.
for seed in range(self.num_hash): 3. Initialize SymSpell
index = int(sha256([Link](‘utf-8’) + 4. Perform spell checking with post-process sugges-
str(seed).encode(‘utf-8’)).hexdigest(), 16) % [Link] tions using the Levenshtein distance, the steps to
self.bit_array[index] = 1 calculate the similarity between two words are
def search(self, item): given below:
for seed in range(self.num_hash): 5. Input: Two Kannada words, word1 and word2,
index = int(sha256([Link](‘utf-8’) + for which we want to calculate the Levenshtein
str(seed).encode(‘utf-8’)).hexdigest(), 16) % [Link] distance.
if self.bit_array[index] == 0: 6. Initialize the matrix
return False • Create a matrix, dp, of size (m+1) × (n+1),
return True where m is the length of word1 and n is the
# Example usage: length of word2.
bloom_filter = BloomFilter(size=1000, num_hash=3) • The literature was reviewed first to find the
kannada_dataset = [“ಪ್ರಿಯಾ”, “ಸುರೇಶ”, specifications of initialize the first row of the
“ಕೃಷ್ಣ”, “ಮಂಜು”] matrix with values 0 to n, representing the
for word in kannada_dataset: number of insertions required to transform
bloom_filter.add(word) an empty string into word2.
query_word = “ಸುರೇಶ” • Initialize the first column of the matrix with
if bloom_filter.search(query_word): values 0 to m, representing the number of
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 157
deletions required to transform word1 into the given dataset. Similarly, the term fail in the graph
an empty string. refers to the percentage of failure in predicting the
7. Calculate the Levenshtein distance wrong words.
• Iterate through the characters of word1 From the Table 22.2 and the graph in Figure 22.5,
(from i=1 to m) and word2 (from j=1 to n). it is clear that for a small dataset like 10 words it
• If word1[i-1] is equal to word2[j-1] (i.e., the works pretty well with 90% accuracy. As we increase
characters are the same), the cost of the cur- the dataset it performs better, for 1 lakh of words
rent operation is 0. Set dp[i][j] to the value the accuracy is still better with 87%. Frequency of
of dp[i-1][j-1]. the words in the dictionary and different forms of
• If word1[i-1] is different from word2[j-1], grammatical words for a given word has an impact
we have three possible operations: on the performance of the model. If the data-
• Insertion: Calculate the cost of inserting set has more wrong words, then it will learn and
word2[j-1] into word1 at position i. Set dp[i] perform the prediction better. Figures 22.6–22.9
[j] to dp[i][j-1] + 1.
• Deletion: Calculate the cost of deleting
word1[i-1] from word1. Set dp[i][j] to dp[i- Table 22.1 Dataset details.
1][j] + 1.
• Substitution: Calculate the cost of substitut- Dataset Files
ing word1[i-1] with word2[j-1]. Set dp[i][j]
Articles 1026
to dp[i-1][j-1] + 1.
• Choose the minimum cost among the three Stories 51
possible operations and assign it to dp[i][j]. Wikipedia dataset 201
• Output: Grammar data 3
• The final Levenshtein distance is stored in
Dataset Content Size
dp[m][n], representing the minimum num-
ber of edits required to transform word1 Words 726,654
into word2.
Unique Words 179,863
The following Figure 22.4 demonstrates the results of
searching a word in a dictionary using Bloom filter.
Table 22.2 Performance analysis.
Results [Link]. Number of words Accuracy in %
The proposed work with complete user interface is
1 10 90
uploaded on a website and released to the public. The
website is designed by taking requirements from the 2 100 91
users working from various domains. Initially the 3 1000 89
model is tested with 7 lakh words and later with dif- 4 10,000 85
ferent set of words. Tables 22.1 and 22.2 shows the 5 100,000 87
dataset type, size and the accuracy of the model. The
graph in Figure 22.5 shows the performance of the
model. In the graph, the term pass refers to the accu-
racy of the model in predicting the wrong words for
Figure 22.4 Input misspelled word to Symspell give
suggestion word Figure 22.5 Performance analysis
158 Developing spell check and transliteration tools for Indian regional language – Kannada
demonstrates the user interface, underlining of
wrong words, selecting a wrong word and its cor-
rect word, respectively.
Snapshots
Figure 22.9 Suggesting the correct word for the mis-
spelled word
Figure 22.6 User interface for spell check
Figure 22.10 Pipeline for the process
Table 22.3 Dataset split up.
Dataset split Number of words
Train 75,557
Validation 25,185
Test 25,185
Figure 22.7 Identifying wrong words (underlined in
red)
English to IPA translation
The model is built using IPA to transliterate words
written in English to Kannada language. The dataset
used has 125,927 unique words. It is represented as
each English word and all its IPA translations. The
Figure 22.10 demonstrates the abstract view of this
work.
The following are the steps involved in the
translation:
Data pre-processing
The input data is initially in the raw state, converting
the dataset into a pair of English words and their cor-
responding IPA translations is done in the preprocess-
ing stage by removing unwanted text like numbers
Figure 22.8 Selecting the wrong words with options
and the special symbols since these do not require any
translations.
The English words and IPA translations are
Kannada transliteration tool tokenized, and the unique characters in both sets are
This section describes the implementation details of extracted. The input sequences are padded to a fixed
transliteration which translates text from English to length to ensure uniformity. The dataset details are
Kannada. shown in the Table 22.3.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 159
Model architecture
Character BERT is a specialized variant of the BERT
model that operates at the character level, making
it suitable for tasks such as phonetic transcription.
When translating English words to IPA transcrip-
tions, character BERT learns the relationship between
input characters and their corresponding IPA sym-
bols. The process begins by encoding each English
word into individual characters and converting them
into numerical representations using a character
vocabulary.
The model architecture of character BERT con-
sists of a multi-layer bidirectional transformer that
captures contextual information from both the left
and right contexts of each character. Prior to fine-
tuning, Character BERT undergoes pre-training on
large-scale unlabeled data, where it learns to predict
masked characters based on the context provided by
surrounding characters. Figure 22.11 Character BERT embedding
During fine-tuning, the model is trained on a par-
allel dataset of English words and their IPA tran-
scriptions, enabling it to encode the input characters
and predict the correct IPA transcriptions using the
learned contextual information. In inference, given an
English word, the characters are tokenized, encoded,
and passed through the fine-tuned character BERT
model. The model generates a sequence of numeri-
cal representations that can be decoded using the IPA
vocabulary, yielding the corresponding IPA transcrip-
tion. Character BERT’s strength lies in its ability to
capture fine-grained information from individual
characters, enabling accurate and context-aware IPA
transcriptions for English words (Figure 22.11).
• The target IPA sequence is shifted by one time
step to form the decoder input, and one-hot en- Figure 22.12(a) Mapping vowels to its IPA representa-
coding is used for training labels. tion
• For inference, the trained model is used to gener-
ate IPA translations for new English words.
• The encoder model is used to encode the input
English word and retrieve the final hidden state.
• The decoder model takes the encoded state and
generates the IPA translation sequence character
by character.
Model training
• The model is trained using the compiled model
with the RMSprop optimizer and categorical Figure 22.12(b) Mapping consonants to its IPA rep-
cross-entropy loss function. resentation
• The training is performed by providing the en-
coder input (English word sequence) and decoder
input (IPA translation sequence) to predict the de- • The generated IPA translations are outputted for
coder output (next IPA character) as shown in the evaluation or further processing.
Figures 22.12a and b.
• The model is trained on a training set and vali- After the IPA translation is generated, using the
dated on a separate validation set. IPA-Kannada mapping we map each IPA symbol
160 Developing spell check and transliteration tools for Indian regional language – Kannada
to a corresponding Kannada alphabet as shown in Table 22.4 Sample transliterations of Kannada words
the Figure 22.13. The pseudo code is given by the
following: English word IPA translation Transliteration
Annabella ˌænəˈbɛlə ಅನ್ನಾಬೆಲ್ಲಾ
Algorithm: ipa to kannada Time taɪm’ ಟೈಮ್
School skul ಸ್ಕೂಲ್
Input: an ipa string
Output: transliterated kannada string Transformer trænsˈfɔrmər ಟ್ರಾನ್ಸ್ಫಒರ್ಮೆರ್
Amazing əˈmeɪzɪŋ ಅಮೇಜಿಂಗ್
1. Initialize consonant = 0, kan = “ “
Public ˈpəblɪk ಪಬ್ಲಿಕ್
2. While there are unprocessed characters in the Beautiful ˈbjutəfəl ಬ್ಯೂಟಿಫುಲ್
generated IPA word:
if consonant == 0 and IPA word is a vowel:
3. Append the corresponding vowel from the
given dataset. The model may perform well with
Kannada mapping to ‘kan’
increase in cleaned dataset.
else if consonant! = 1 and IPA word is a
vowel:
Discussion
4. Combine the consonant and vowel, and ap-
pend the result to ‘kan’ The proposed work incorporates both dictionary
5. Decrement ‘consonant’ based spell checking tool and transliteration. Spell
else if consonant != 1 and IPA word is a checking tool is based on dictionary and the per-
subscript: formance of the model mainly based on the volume
of the dictionary. As long as the dictionary is grow-
6. Append the subscript to the consonant ing the performance starts improving. This is not an
else if IPA word is a consonant: effective nature instead if the model understands the
7. Increment ‘consonant’ and append it to ‘kan’ rules of the grammar, the model doesn’t depend on
else: print(“error”) the words in the dictionary. This is the planned work
in the future.
Table 22.4 shows the sample examples of the Kannada transliteration tool is a productive one
transliteration. since it is based on the rules of the Kannada gram-
The proposed model performs well on the valida- mar still more feature can be added to it in future and
tion set by achieving an accuracy of 86.9% for the released for public use.
Conclusion
The proposed work incorporates both dictionary
based spell checking tool and transliteration. Spell
checking tool is based on dictionary and the per-
formance of the model mainly based on the volume
of the dictionary. As long as the dictionary is grow-
ing the performance starts improving. This is not an
effective nature instead if the model understands the
rules of the grammar, the model doesn’t depend on
the words in the dictionary. This is the planned work
in the future.
Kannada transliteration tool is a productive one
since it is based on the rules of the Kannada gram-
mar still more feature can be added to it in future and
released for public use.
References
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23 Real-time identification of traffic actors using YOLOv7
Pavan Kumar Polagania, Lakshmi Priyanka Siddib and Vani Pujitha M.c
Velagapudi Ramakrishna Siddhartha Engineering College, Vijayawada, India
Abstract
Real-time traffic object detection is a key topic in computer vision, especially for improving traffic safety and management. This
research describes a novel strategy for detecting traffic actors in real-time using YOLOv7, a cutting-edge deep learning system.
Traditional computer vision algorithms, such as Single Shot Detector, R-CNN, and older versions of You Only Look Once
(YOLO), frequently exhibit slow response times and poor accuracy in high-traffic areas.YOLOv7, an advanced object detec-
tion method based on convolutional neural networks (CNNs), is used in the proposed approach to address these difficulties
straight on. YOLOv7 not only achieves real-time object detection, but also greatly increases accuracy by removing superfluous
candidate boxes and employing a non-maximum suppression module to choose the best bounding boxes from overlapping
ones. Furthermore, the spatial pyramid pooling block improves accuracy by enhancing the network’s receptive field without in-
troducing additional parameters. In this study, we demonstrate the performance of our model under various driving scenarios,
including clear and cloudy skies, varying lighting, occlusions, and noisy input data. This model detects traffic participants such
as automobiles, pedestrians, cyclists, and traffic signs, which contributes to improved traffic safety and management.
Keywords: YOLOv7, traffic detection, convolutional neural networks
Introduction The manuscript follows a structured format com-
prising seven sections and they are as follows: An
Real-time object detection in traffic poses a formi-
extensive literature review on image classification and
dable challenge within the realm of computer vision.
object detection. The dataset used in this study. An
This task involves processing live video streams cap-
overview of the architectural framework utilized. The
tured by cameras or sensors deployed in traffic envi-
methodology employed in our research. Experimental
ronments. The objective is to detect and precisely
setup. The experimental data are presented together
localize a wide variety of items, such as vehicles,
with a thorough evaluation of the model’s perfor-
people on foot, bicycles, and traffic signals. The pri-
mance and a discussion of the results. Finally, the
mary goal of real-time object detection in traffic is to
paper is concluded by summarizing key insights and
enhance traffic safety by providing real-time informa-
suggesting potential avenues for future research.
tion to drivers regarding the condition of traffic in
nearby locations.
Main contribution of the work
This task is complex due to factors such as the
1. The primary objective in this project is to cre-
diverse appearance and motion of objects, chang-
ate a computer vision system that can accurately
ing lighting conditions, occlusions, and noise in the
identify and track various traffic objects, such as
input data. To address these issues, numerous meth-
vehicles, pedestrians, and cyclists, in real-time.
ods and techniques have been developed in the field
2. It leverages real-time traffic data to dynamically
of computer vision. These include methods based on
adjust traffic signals, provide drivers with up-
deep learning, approaches that rely on features and
to-the-minute information, and alert emergency
strategies that involve combining different sources of
services about potential accidents. This ap-
information.
proach aims to enhance both traffic safety and
One widely adopted algorithm for real-time object
efficiency.
detection is YOLO (You Only Look Once). YOLO
3. This research places a strong emphasis on identi-
partitions the input image into a grid of cells and esti-
fying smaller objects within the camera’s field of
mates the likelihood of object presence within each
view, thereby expanding the system’s capabilities
cell. Notably, YOLO’s swiftness is a key advantage,
and potential.
enabling real-time object detection with a single for-
ward pass through the neural network. This efficiency
makes it particularly suitable for applications like Related work
autonomous driving and surveillance, where rapid In this section, we delve into various methodologies
and precise object detection is essential. employed for real-time object detection in traffic, each
pavankumarpolagani@[Link], bpriyankasiddi89@[Link], cpujitha@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 163
offering distinct strengths and weaknesses, thereby Advantage: Enhanced intention recognition through
enriching the diverse landscape of solutions within human skeletal characteristics.
this domain. Disadvantage: Increased computational complex-
The method described in this study relies around the ity and longer training times due to multiple model
use of the Fast-Yolo-Rec method, which expertly bal- usage.
ances accuracy and speed. Its key goals are trajectory
classification via long- short-term memory (LSTM)- DFF-Net, which was introduced in this study, is
based recurrent networks and position prediction intended to detect real-world traffic items on rail-
via SSAM-YOLO and LSSN. The optical flow-based ways. It is divided into two parts: previous detection
detection method is critical in establishing the direc- and object detection. To initialize the system and
tion and speed of individual pixels inside a picture. restrict the search space for object detection, the pre-
An interesting method is used to speed up process- vious detection module employs VGG-16 pre-trained
ing. Odd frames of input images are designated for on ImageNet. The object detection module seeks to
detection, while even frames are committed to predic- recognize and predict the kinds of objects contained
tion, considerably increasing overall speed (Zarei et within the prior boxes (Li et al., 2020).
al., 2022).
Advantage: DFF-Net excels at increasing detection
Advantage: Fast-Yolo-Rec excels in rapid and cost- accuracy and effectively addressing class imbalance in
effective vehicle detection. railway object detection.
Disadvantage: However, it demands substantial com- Disadvantage: However, when compared to YOLO, a
putational resources for handling real-time data. one stage object detector, DFF-Net has a slower total
In this study, methodology introduces the SEF-Net speed.
framework, which is made up of three modules.
Stable bottom feature extraction (SBM), Lightweight The authors obtained a large dataset spanning
feature extraction (LFM), and Enhanced adaptive fea- numerous traffic incidents such as accidents, conges-
ture fusion module (EAM). SBM improves precision tion, and vehicle breakdowns in this study. They used
in tiny object detection by expanding convolutional a pre-trained Mask-SpyNet model for video-based
channels, which is especially beneficial for small object detection and post-processing to identify and
objects. Furthermore, attention enhancement blocks categorize traffic occurrences (Ye et al., 2021).
encode geographic and channel-specific semantic
Advantage: This novel approach considerably
information, which improves item detection and
enhances nighttime traffic event identification, hence
placement (Ye et al., 2022).
improving motorway traffic management safety and
Advantage: (1) This approach swiftly identifies car efficiency.
locations at a lower computational cost compared
Disadvantage: However, there are evaluation con-
to other high-speed detectors without necessitating
straints, and the method’s performance may be altered
additional processing. (2) SBM significantly enhances
by changing lighting circumstances.
precision for small object detection, outperforming
YOLOv4 in multi-detection capability. DLT-Net, the suggested technique in this study, is a
Disadvantage: Handling and analyzing large volumes unified neural network built for self-driving cars. Using
of real-time data demand substantial computational common features, it detects drivable zones, lane lines,
resources. and traffic objects all at once. For each task, the design
incorporates a common encoder and three different
In this methodology, a technical framework based decoders. A context tensor is proposed to improve
on the YOLOV4 concept is introduced. This frame- overall performance and computing efficiency by
work focuses on a variety of topics, such as risk facilitating information sharing among activities. DLT-
assessment, object detection, and intent recognition. Net uses the YOLOv3 model for traffic object detec-
Notably, the system uses part affinity fields to add tion, which is a cutting-edge one-stage object detection
human skeletal traits, resulting in enhanced inten- approach. Extensive studies on the BDD dataset show
tion recognition. It also uses LSTM and CNN to that DLT-Net outperforms traditional approaches in
assess vehicle heading, while EfficientNet is utilized these key perception tasks (Qian et al., 2020).
to estimate potentially harmful cars. Furthermore, to
improve risk assessment capabilities, the framework Advantage: its unified design improves efficiency
employs saliency maps generated by the RISE algo- and performance in autonomous driving perception
rithm and explainable AI technology (Guney et al., by recognizing drivable zones, lane lines, and traffic
2022). objects all at the same time.
164 Real-time identification of traffic actors using YOLOv7
Disadvantage: Complex scenarios, such as identifying scenarios. Figure 23.2 represents the architectural
reflected items from traffic signs or dealing with inter- diagram of YOLOv7.
rupted lane lines, may pose difficulties.
Proposed methodology
The study describes a comprehensive autonomous
driving framework that includes four key tasks: Two key elements make up our suggested methodol-
object detection using an optimized YOLOv4 model, ogy and architecture for the real-time detection of
intention recognition based on pedestrian skeleton traffic actors using YOLOv7: Extended efficient layer
features via part affinity fields and CNN analysis, and aggregation networks (EELAN) and a compound
CNN-driven risk assessment for dangerous vehicles scaling technique for concatenation based models.
and traffic light recognition. The YOLOv4 model has
been improved to improve detection accuracy, provid- Extended efficient layer aggregation networks (E-
ing a comprehensive approach to ensuring safe auton- ELAN)
omous driving (Li et al., 2020). Extended efficient layer aggregation networks, or
E-ELAN, are intended to improve network learning
Advantage: It integrates object detection, intention while maintaining the integrity of the initial gradient
identification, and risk assessment to improve auton- path. Expand, shuffle, and merge cardinality tech-
omous driving safety. niques are incorporated into the computing blocks of
Disadvantage: The complexity of the improved PAFs the design to accomplish this. The expand operation
model in the intention recognition component may uses group convolution to expand the channel and
have an effect on computing efficiency. cardinality of the computing blocks. The network is
able to capture a wider variety of features by extend-
ing the channels. Parallel processing and the investi-
Dataset
gation of several feature representations inside each
The enormous collection of images in the traffic computing block are both made possible concurrently
object dataset was specifically picked for the task of by increasing cardinality.
identifying and classifying traffic objects. This data- It makes use of group convolution to keep the orig-
set consists of 4,591 high-quality images that depict inal transition layer of the design. By doing this, it
various real-world traffic situations which have 38 is made sure that the patterns of connectedness and
classes. It is taken from Roboflow where 80% is used information flow between the computing blocks are
for training and the remaining 20% is for testing.
Here, Figure 23.1 represents a sample training image
from the dataset.
Architecture
The YOLOV7 architecture mainly consists of three
parts, i.e., backbone, neck, and head. The backbone
extracts features from the input image, the neck com-
bines features of different resolutions, and the head
generates object detection predictions. This modu-
lar design enables YOLOv7 to efficiently process
input data and accurately detect objects in real-time
Figure 23.1 A sample image from the dataset Figure 23.2 Architecture diagram of YOLOv7
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 165
maintained. In order to provide seamless information as the backbone network in YOLOv7 offers several
transfer while supporting the enlarged channel and advantages:
cardinality, the transition layer serves as a link between
the earlier computational blocks and succeeding lay- 1. Accuracy: ResNet50 has a strong track record of
ers. It also enables several groups of computational achieving high accuracy on diverse image clas-
blocks to specialize in learning different characteris- sification and object detection datasets, ensuring
tics by utilizing these expand and group convolution reliable results.
procedures. The network can capture and distinguish 2. Efficiency: ResNet50 is known for its relative
traffic actors with increased accuracy because to the computational efficiency, enabling swift training
diversity of feature learning. The shuffling process is and execution, which is crucial for YOLOv7’s
also very important in E-ELAN. According to a pre- real-time object detection design.
determined group parameter, it divides the feature 3. Transfer learning: ResNet50 comes pre-trained
maps produced by the computational blocks into on a vast dataset of images. This pre-training
various groups. By successfully mixing and combin- advantage can be leveraged when training YO-
ing the learned features from many blocks, this shuf- LOv7 on a smaller, custom dataset of images,
fling method promotes feature diversity and guards saving time and resources.
against over-reliance on a single set of computational 4. In summary, ResNet50 is a favorable choice for
blocks. As a result, the model’s ability to generalize YOLOv7’s backbone network due to its ability
and distinguish among traffic actors in real-world cir- to extract rich image features efficiently, leading
cumstances is improved. The E-ELAN process ends to accurate results in object detection tasks.
with the merge cardinality procedure. The merged
feature map with maintained channel numbers is cre- Feature pyramid network (FPN)
ated by joining the shuffled feature maps from several The feature pyramid network (FPN) is a key compo-
groups. nent of the YOLOv7 model. The FPN is responsible
The merge procedure successfully merges the for extracting feature maps at multiple scales, which
many features picked up by several computational allows the model to detect objects of different sizes.
block groups, utilizing their combined knowledge to The YOLOv7 FPN uses top-down architecture with
increase detection precision. EELAN improves the lateral connections. The top-down pathway starts
YOLOv7 architecture overall by allowing ongoing from the highest-resolution feature map and gradually
learning of various features without altering the initial downsizes it while preserving semantic information.
gradient path. Different sets of computational blocks The lateral connections combine the down sampled
can specialize in learning different features thanks to feature maps from the top-down pathway with the
the combination of expand, shuffle, and merge cardi- corresponding feature maps from the backbone net-
nality approaches. work. This results in a set of feature maps at multiple
scales, which are then used by the YOLOv7 head to
ResNet50 predict object bounding boxes and class labels.
ResNet50, CNN architecture, is widely acclaimed The FPN offers distinct advantages over traditional
for its effectiveness in image classification and object single-scale feature extraction methods. Firstly, it
detection tasks. It stands out for its capacity to train enables the model to detect objects of various sizes
deep networks while mitigating the risk of over fit- by providing multiple-scale feature maps. Secondly,
ting. Notably, ResNet50 assumes the role of the back- it enhances object detection accuracy by combin-
bone network in the YOLOv7 model, responsible ing low-level features, rich in spatial information,
for extracting crucial feature maps from the input with high-level features that carry semantic informa-
image. These feature maps serve as the foundation for tion. Thirdly, FPN improves the model’s resilience to
YOLOv7’s head, enabling it to predict object bound- challenges like occlusion and image degradation. In
ing boxes and class labels. The choice of ResNet50 YOLOv7, the FPN is implemented through a series of
as the backbone network for YOLOv7 is strategic. convolutional layers. The initial layer downsizes the
It excels in extracting a diverse and informative set feature map from the backbone network. Subsequent
of features from the input image, a critical factor in layers in this stack handle the task of upsizing feature
the model’s ability to detect and classify objects accu- maps from the prior layers and merging them with
rately. Furthermore, ResNet50 is known for its rela- corresponding maps from the backbone network. The
tive computational efficiency, making it a practical final layer in this stack generates a set of feature maps
choice. This efficiency is particularly important for at various scales, which the YOLOv7 head then uses
YOLOv7, which is designed with real-time object to predict object bounding boxes and class labels.
detection in mind, necessitating a model that can be This approach makes YOLOv7 effective in detect-
trained and executed swiftly. The use of ResNet50 ing objects of different sizes, enhancing accuracy,
166 Real-time identification of traffic actors using YOLOv7
and robustness in the presence of image challenges. RPN classification scores. Bounding boxes are sub-
In conclusion, the feature pyramid network is a criti- sequently produced through RPN bounding box
cal element within the YOLOv7 model, and it greatly regression. The classification layer provides scores to
bolsters the model’s performance across a diverse set the detection layer, which refines the bounding boxes.
of object detection tasks. Both RPN loss and detection loss are included in the
loss module, where the latter combines classification,
Compound scaling method for concatenation-based regression, and object losses, while the former focuses
models on classification and regression losses specific to the
In order to modify the YOLOv7 architecture to meet RPN. These losses, using cross-entropy and smooth
various inference speed requirements, model scaling L1 loss functions, are computed for each image in
is a crucial component. Scaling concatenation-based the batch. This comprehensive module underpins
models, however, presents particular difficulties in YOLOv7’s accurate object detection by enabling
maintaining the ideal structure while attaining the effective region proposals, improved predictions, and
needed scalability. In light of these difficulties, we optimized model training.
provide a compound scaling technique that concur-
rently takes into account the depth and width factors Module-level ensemble (MLE)
of processing blocks and transition layers. It becomes Module-level ensemble (MLE) is a technique employed
especially crucial to preserve the ideal structure when to enhance the performance of object detection mod-
growing concatenation-based models. Performance els by fusing outputs from various modules. In MLE,
shouldn’t be adversely affected by the architecture’s a single module in the model is often replaced with
ability to adapt to variations in depth. In order to multiple parallel modules. These parallel modules
achieve this, our suggested compound scaling strategy generate outputs, which are subsequently fused to
concentrates on maintaining the proportion of input yield the model’s final output. Within the YOLOv7
to output channels while scaling. model, a module-level ensemble layer is integrated
The depth factor describes how many comput- into the neck section of the model. This neck portion
ing units are stacked inside the design. Scaling the plays a role in amalgamating feature maps from both
depth factor alters the in-degree and out-degree of the model’s backbone network and its head.
each layer by increasing or decreasing the number In YOLOv7, the module-level ensemble layer
of computational blocks. The subsequent transition replaces the conventional convolutional layer within
layer’s input-to-output channel ratio is impacted by the neck with an array of parallel convolutional lay-
this modification. To avoid hardware consumption ers. These parallel convolutional layers generate
distortions and guarantee appropriate model param- outputs that are then amalgamated to produce the
eter use, the ratio must be maintained. In addition, final feature maps utilized by the model’s head. This
the width factor, which describes the size of the com- approach enhances the model’s overall performance
putational blocks’ channel, must be changed in pro- in object detection tasks.
portion to variations in depth. The ideal structure of
the original architecture is maintained by scaling the Trainable bag of freebies
width factor, which makes sure that the expanded Trainable bag of freebies (BoF) encompasses tech-
or contracted computational blocks line up with the niques designed to enhance object detection models’
needs of the altered depth. performance without increasing the training cost.
The compound scaling method provides a con- These techniques manifest as trainable modules that
stant ratio between input and output channels all can be seamlessly integrated into existing object detec-
over the architecture by taking into account both the tion models. In the YOLOv7 model, several trainable
depth and width parameters together. This method BoF techniques are incorporated, including:
enables smooth switching between various scaling
factors without impairing the model’s functionality. 1. Cross-module channel communication (C3):
For the model to continue learning and making accu- C3 facilitates inter-module communication by
rate traffic actor distinctions, the ideal structure must sharing channel information, enabling modules
be maintained when scaling. The model’s ability to to learn from each other and enhancing overall
effectively capture and analyze features is maintained model performance.
by the compound scaling strategy, enabling accurate 2. Selective attention module (SAM): SAM enables
and reliable detection of traffic actors in real-time the model to focus on critical parts of the input
circumstances. image, reducing noise processing and conse-
In the YOLOv7 architecture’s detection mod- quently improving model accuracy.
ule, the region proposal network (RPN) generates 3. Efficient channel attention (ECA): ECA em-
anchors based on size and evaluates those using powers the model to discern the significance of
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 167
various channels in the input image, streamlin-
ing processing by reducing the number of chan-
nels.
Experimental setup
Detection module
1. Region proposal network (RPN): The experimental setup for training YOLOv7 on the
a. Anchors traffic object dataset included 4591 photos represent-
ing 38 distinct object classes, which were divided
into training and testing subsets with an 80/20 split.
(1) Google Colab’s GPU support was used to acceler-
ate model convergence. To allow the model to learn
where wmin and wmax represent the minimum detailed traffic object attributes, training parameters
and maximum widths of the anchors, and hmin comprised a batch size of 8, an initial learning rate of
and hmax represent the minimum and maximum 0.001, and 50 training epochs.
heights of the anchors. The dataset was meticulously divided into training,
b. Anchor scores validation, and test sets, and each image was tagged
with bounding boxes that defined item placements. To
balance computational efficiency and detection preci-
(2)
sion, the YOLOv7 model was built to recognize all
38 different object classes using an input image size
where σ represents the sigmoid function, rpn_c
of 640 pixels.
ls_s corerepresents the output of the RPN’s clas-
The PyTorch framework was used for training, and
sification layer.
the model was evaluated on both a validation set for
c. Bounding boxes
assessing generalization during training and a spe-
cialized test set for testing real-world detection accu-
(3) racy. This configuration allowed for a thorough test
of YOLOv7’s performance in real-time traffic object
where rpnbboxp redrepresents the output of the detection.
RPN’s bounding box regression layer
2. Detection layer:
Experimental results
a. Classification scores
Figure 23.3 displays the results of an object detec-
(4) tion experiment based on the YOLOv7 model. The
five item types that this model was specially trained
where clss is the output of the detection layer of to recognize are cars, people, bicycles, motorcycles,
the RPNaximum heights of and buses. The graph has been divided into two sec-
b. Bounding boxes tions for clarity. The model’s effectiveness is shown in
the first section on a dataset used for validation, and
in the second section on a separate dataset used for
(5)
testing.
where represents the output of the RPNaximum
1. Box: The average precision (AP) for the bound-
heights of the anchors of the
ing boxes drawn around the detected objects.
A. Loss module
2. Objectness: The AP for the objectness score,
1. RPN loss:
which is a measure of how confident the model is
that an object is present in a given bounding box.
(6) 3. Classification: The AP for the classification score,
which is a measure of how confident the model is
where Lcls is the cross-entropy loss for the clas- that a detected object is of the correct type.
sification scores and Lreg is the smooth L1 loss for 4. MAP@0.5: The mean average precision (mAP)
the bounding boxes. for the first 50% of the detection curve, where
2. Detection loss: the detection curve is a recall plot versus the pre-
cision at different IoU (intersection over union)
thresholds.
(7) 5. MAP@0.5:0.95: The mAP for the detection
curve between IoU thresholds of 0.5 and 0.95.
168 Real-time identification of traffic actors using YOLOv7
Figure 23.3 Different results curves
Figure 23.4 Precision-recall curve
In essence, higher average precision (AP) or mean aver- find precision, denoting the proportion of retrieved
age precision (mAP) values indicate superior model instances that are indeed relevant.
performance. On the whole, the results underscore the The graph’s blue line illustrates the precision-recall
YOLOv7 model’s commendable performance on both curve for the model. In contrast, the white line serves
the validation and test datasets, as evidenced by AP as a reference, representing the ideal precision-recall
and mAP scores surpassing 0.5 for all five object cat- curve where precision consistently equals 1. This
egories. Nevertheless, it’s worth noting that there are curve essentially represents perfect performance.
variations in performance across diverse metrics and The mAP@0.5, prominently displayed at the graph’s
object types. For instance, the model exhibits stronger apex, signifies the mean average precision calculated
detection capabilities for cars and people compared to at an IoU threshold of 0.5. It’s a widely used met-
bicycles and motorcycles. ric for assessing the performance of object detection
In Figure 23.4, the x-axis represents recall, which models. A higher mAP@0.5 value is indicative of a
signifies the proportion of all relevant instances suc- more effective model. Examining the precision-recall
cessfully retrieved by the model. On the y-axis, you’ll curve, it becomes evident that the model achieves a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 169
Figure 23.5 Confusion matrix
high recall while maintaining relatively high preci- Table 23.1 Overview of confusion matrix.
sion. This implies that the model successfully identi-
Predicted True FN FP TN TP
fies a substantial portion of relevant instances without
excessively retrieving irrelevant ones, signifying its Pedestrians Pedestrians 2 10 2000 1990
strong performance.
Vehicles Vehicles 5 5 1995 1990
The mAP@0.5 score of 0.666 is a strong indica-
tion of the model’s ability to perform accurate object Traffic lights Traffic lights 1 1 1998 1998
detection. In Figure 23.5, the model’s performance Stop signs Stop signs 0 0 2000 2000
across each object class is depicted. The matrix Speed signs Speed signs 0 0 2000 2000
rows represent predicted classes, while the columns Buildings Buildings 0 0 2000 2000
denote the true classes. Elements on the diagonal of
the matrix signify the count of correctly classified
objects. For instance, the element at row 0, column 0
represents the number of pedestrians correctly identi- across most object classes. However, it does reveal a
fied as pedestrians. In contrast, off-diagonal elements specific challenge in distinguishing between pedestri-
signify the count of objects incorrectly classified. For ans and vehicles. This difficulty likely arises from the
example, the element at row 0, column 1 indicates the visual similarity between pedestrians and vehicles,
number of pedestrians mistakenly classified as vehi- particularly when observed from a distance.
cles. This matrix provides a comprehensive view of Notably, the model exhibits the highest accuracy for
the model’s performance on individual object classes. object classes like traffic lights, stop signs, speed signs,
The confusion matrix provides an overall posi- and buildings, successfully predicting all instances of
tive assessment of the YOLOv7 model’s performance these categories. In contrast, the model’s accuracy for
170 Real-time identification of traffic actors using YOLOv7
good precision and recall rates. The object categoriza-
tion task’s accuracy, precision, recall, and F1 scores
met expectations. The task of captioning photographs
also displayed strong performance.
Although the project has advanced greatly, there
are still many areas that could use more work and
improvement: Increasing the dataset size will enable
the model to be applied to more scenarios and object
kinds. Hyperparameter optimization and tuning, add-
Figure 23.6 (a) & (b) represents the sample input im- ing other modules, such as attention mechanisms or
ages predicted using model spatial temporal modeling, can be researched in order
to improve object detection and tracking in movies.
Look at different deployment strategies for efficient
inference on edge computing or on low-resource
devices.
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f14020415.
24 Revolutionizing cybersecurity: An in-depth analysis of
DNA encryption algorithms in blockchain systems
A. U. Nwosu1, S. B. Goyal2,a, Anand Singh Rajawat3, Baharu Bin Kemat4
and Wan Md Afnan Bin Wan Mahmood5
City University, Petaling Jaya, 46100, Malaysia
1,2,4,5
3
School of Computer Science & Engineering, Sandip University, Nashik, Maharastra, India
Abstract
The rapid advancement of technology has increased the need for robust cybersecurity measures to protect sensitive data
and ensure secure transactions in the digital world. The conventional encryption method has played an appositively role in
the security and privacy of digital systems in the past years. However, emerging cyber threats, such as quantum attacks and
others, pose a looming threat to the security of digital systems. This study explores the innovative approach that leverages
blockchain-based DNA-based encryption algorithms to strengthen the security and privacy of digital systems against these
emerging cyber threats. This paper presents an overview of DNA encryption algorithms and highlights the challenges of
DNA-based encryption algorithms. In addition, this study proposed a blockchain system with DNA-based encryption algo-
rithms to enhance the security and privacy of digital information systems.
Furthermore, the study presented the existing case studies of DNA-based encryption algorithms in different domains of
blockchain systems. Finally, we introduced the challenges of integrating blockchain in DNA encryption. This study concludes
that the proposed solution is more secure and efficient than the conventional DNA encryption approaches, and blockchain
system DNA-based encryption algorithms can potentially revolutionize cybersecurity in emerging digital strategies.
Keywords: Algorithms, blockchain, cybersecurity, DNA encryption, digital system, analysis
Introduction that does not require a third party and is viewed as
a ledger system that aids in storing and maintaining
In an increasingly interconnected world driven by
records in a time stamped block through computing
rapid technological advancements and digital trans-
networks (Nakamoto et al., 2008). Deoxyribonucleic
formation, the importance of cybersecurity has grown
acid (DNA) serves as the fundamental building block
exponentially (Wang et al., 2014). Cybersecurity pro-
of life, containing the genetic instructions that dictate
tects systems, networks, programs, and data from
the development and functioning of all living organ-
digital attacks, damage, or unauthorized access. It
isms (Sawada et al., 2012). Due to its inherent proper-
involves implementing a combination of technologies,
ties, DNA possesses exceptional capabilities that can
processes, and best practices to safeguard digital assets
be harnessed for data encryption. Using DNA as a
and maintain the confidentiality, integrity, and avail-
cryptographic tool may sound unconventional, but
ability of information in the digital realm (Schatz et
it carries unique advantages that could revolutionize
al., 2017). Cybersecurity has become critically crucial
cybersecurity.
since cybercriminals become more sophisticated and
The contribution of this paper is listed below:
organized. By employing advanced techniques like
ransomware, phishing, and social engineering, they
a) The challenges of DNA-based encryption algo-
target individuals and organizations, and their attacks
rithms
can have far-reaching consequences and impact critical
b) A blockchain-based DNA encryption algorithm
infrastructure (Agrafiotis et al., 2018). However, the
that can strengthen the cybersecurity of digital
conventional encryption methods have not been effec-
systems.
tive (Goswami et al., 2016) in recent times in curbing
c) A case study on the application of blockchain-
the menace of emerging cyber-attacks such as quan-
based DNA encryption algorithms in industries
tum attacks (Ambainis et al., 2014). Therefore, there is
like healthcare, pharmaceutical, legal, and so on,
a need to leverage innovative blockchain-based DNA
where DNA encryption could safeguard critical
encryption algorithms to protect digital systems from
data and enhance trust in digital systems.
cyber-attacks. Blockchain technology is described as
d) The challenges of integrating DNA encryption
a peer-to-peer (P2P) distributed ledger technology
into blockchain systems.
drsbgoyal@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 173
e) The comparative analysis shows that the pro- tion in living organisms. Due to its incredible
posed solution is more secure and efficient than density and stability, researchers have explored
the existing system. its potential as a data storage medium. Instead
of traditional electronic storage methods, DNA
The remaining section of this study is organized could store large amounts of information in a
as follows: The background of the work, which tiny physical space.
consists of an overview of DNA encryption and the b) DNA encoding: In DNA encryption, digital data
challenges of DNA-based encryption algorithms. (such as text, images, or files) is converted into
The introduction of blockchain and its operational DNA sequences. This encoding process involves
bases. The literature reviews and related works on mapping binary data (0s and 1s) to DNA bases
types of DNA-based encryption schemes. In addi- (adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine). Vari-
tion, it analyses the existing DNA-based algorithms ous coding schemes can be developed to repre-
with its limitations and the analysis of blockchain sent digital data using DNA bases.
systems DNA-based encryption algorithms in differ- c) DNA encryption: Once the data is encoded into
ent domains. The proposed solution – the proposed DNA sequences, encryption techniques can be
algorithm of blockchain-based DNA encryption for applied to enhance security. Traditional crypto-
improved security of digital systems. The challenges graphic algorithms or specialized DNA-based
of integrating blockchain systems with DNA-based encryption methods could be used to protect
encryption algorithms. The case studies of existing the encoded information. The encrypted DNA
DNA-based encryption algorithms leveraging the sequences contain the encoded data in a not di-
blockchain in different sectors and analysis of exist- rectly understandable form.
ing and DNA-based encryption algorithms. Last is the d) DNA decryption: The encrypted DNA sequences
conclusion and recommendation for future research must be decrypted to retrieve the original digital
scope. data; decryption involves reversing the encryp-
tion process, which may require cryptographic
Overview of study keys or specialized DNA-based decryption algo-
rithms. The decrypted DNA sequences are then
DNA-based encryption converted back into binary data. Figure 24.1
DNA encryption is a concept that explores the pos- depicts the cryptographic mechanism of DNA-
sibility of using DNA molecules as a medium for based encryption.
storing and securing digital information (Roy et al.,
2020). It involves converting binary or digital data Challenges of DNA encryption algorithm
into DNA sequences and potentially using DNA- DNA encryption is an emerging field at the intersec-
based encryption and decryption. Here is an overview tion of biotechnology and information security. The
of DNA encryption (Jacob et al., 2013): idea behind DNA encryption is to encode digital
information into DNA molecules, which can then
a) DNA as a data storage medium: DNA is a bio- be stored and processed using biological techniques.
logical molecule that encodes genetic informa- While this concept holds promise for secure data stor-
age, it also presents several significant privacy and
security challenges.
Data leakage: DNA data can be extracted from physi-
cal samples, making it challenging to maintain data
privacy. If someone gains access to the physical DNA
sample, they could extract the encoded information
without authorization.
Error rates: DNA sequencing and synthesis technolo-
gies are imperfect, and errors can occur during encod-
ing and decoding. These errors could lead to data
corruption or loss, a significant security concern.
Authentication and authorization: Ensuring that
only authorized individuals or systems can access
and decode DNA-encoded data is complex. Robust
Figure 24.1 Cryptography mechanism of DNA en- authentication and authorization mechanisms are
cryption necessary to prevent unauthorized access.
174 Revolutionizing cybersecurity: An in-depth analysis of DNA encryption algorithms
Data integrity: DNA can degrade over time, and envi- The basis of blockchain technology operations is
ronmental factors can impact the stability of DNA- discussed (Swan, 2015; Christidis, 2016).
encoded data. Ensuring the long-term integrity of the
data is a challenge. Decentralization: Traditional centralized systems rely
Data recovery: Developing efficient and accurate on a single authority or intermediary to manage and
methods for retrieving encoded data from DNA mol- validate transactions. In contrast, blockchains oper-
ecules is a significant technical challenge. Data recov- ate on a decentralized network of computers (nodes),
ery processes should be reliable and resistant to errors. where transactions are validated through a consensus
mechanism agreed upon by the network participants.
Biological threats: DNA-based data storage could be
vulnerable to biological attacks, such as introducing Blocks and chains: Transactions are grouped into
harmful biological agents that could compromise the “blocks,” which contain a set of transactions and a
integrity of the DNA data. unique identifier (hash) of the previous block. These
blocks are linked chronologically, forming a “chain”
Scalability: As DNA data storage technologies are still of blocks, hence the name “blockchain.”
in the early stages of development, scalability remains
a concern. Efficient and cost-effective methods for Transparency and immutability: Once a transac-
encoding, storing, and retrieving large volumes of tion is added to a block and that block is added to
data need to be developed. the blockchain, altering or deleting the information
becomes challenging. This immutability is achieved
Cryptography challenges: Developing secure encryp- through cryptographic hashing and consensus
tion algorithms tailored to DNA storage is complex. mechanisms, ensuring that historical records remain
Ensuring that these algorithms are resistant to crypto- tamper-proof.
graphic attacks is essential.
Consensus mechanisms: Consensus mechanisms
Interoperability: Another challenge is ensuring that ensure agreement among participants on the valid-
different DNA data storage systems and platforms ity of transactions (Bamakan et al., 2020). The most
can communicate and exchange data securely. well-known consensus mechanism is proof of work
(PoW), used by bitcoin, which requires miners to
This study will use blockchain technology with
solve complex mathematical puzzles to validate trans-
DNA-based encryption to address the identified
actions. Other mechanisms like proof of stake (PoS),
challenges.
delegated proof of stake (DPoS), and practical byz-
antine fault tolerance (PBFT) offer alternatives with
Blockchain technology
different levels of security and energy efficiency.
Blockchain is a revolutionary technology that has
gained widespread attention for its potential to trans- Security and trust: The decentralized nature of
form various industries and enhance digital trust and blockchain, coupled with cryptographic techniques,
security (Swan et al., 2015; Swan et al., 2017). At its provides a high level of security against fraud and
core, a blockchain is a distributed and decentralized unauthorized access. Transactions are verified by
digital ledger that records transactions across multiple a distributed network, reducing the risk of a single
computers in a transparent, secure, and tamper-resis- point of failure.
tant manner. Figure 24.2 shows the layered diagram Smart contracts: Smart contracts are self-executing
of blockchain technology (Zheng et al., 2018). contracts with the terms of the agreement directly
written into code (Li et al., 2017). These contracts
automatically execute and enforce predefined rules
when certain conditions are met. Smart contracts can
automate various processes, reducing the need for
intermediaries and enhancing efficiency.
Literature review and related works
This section reviews the literature on the types of
DNA-based encryption schemes, the existing DNA-
based solutions, and existing blockchain systems with
DNA encryption algorithms.
Types of DNA-based encryption schemes
The three primary DNA-based encryption schemes
Figure 24.2 The layered diagram of a blockchain are biological-based, substitutions-based, and
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 175
mathematical-biological-based (Mukherjee et of data stored on cloud technology. Table 24.2 sum-
al., 2023). Their usability depends on the type of marizes the recent work on the application of DNA
algorithm. encryption in different domains.
Substitute-based scheme: The encoding process in Blockchain system with DNA-based encryption algo-
this technique is carried out using a DNA dictionary rithms
or a look-up table that has been predetermined. In the application of DNA encryption algorithm with
Biological-based scheme: The encryption process is a blockchain system, some work has been done on
carried out using biology-based algorithms. They are this domain on different domains. For example, Kaur
comparatively more secure since they require little et al. (2023) proposed a blockchain-based system
human involvement. for securing and managing healthcare data gener-
Substitute and biological-based scheme: This method ated on cloud networks through DNA cryptography.
performs the encryption using mathematical and bio- Ramaiah et al. (2021) and Arya et al. (2021) designed
logical procedures. The biological operations give a blockchain-based criminal identification using a
an extra layer to the symmetric or asymmetric cryp- DNA encryption algorithm. Table 24.3 analyses the
tographic keys used in mathematical calculations, application of DNA-based encryption algorithms
making them the most secure DNA-based method. with blockchain systems in different domains.
Table 24.1 analyses the types of DNA-based encryp- Based on the limitations of existing literature, this
tion schemes. study will Integrate blockchain-based DNA encryp-
tion algorithms to address the challenges.
Existing DNA-based solutions
Some works have been conducted on the application Proposed solution
of the DNA-based encryption method. For instance
This part presents the proposed blockchain-DNA
Erlich et al. (2017) presented a DNA-based encryption
encryption algorithm to transform cybersecurity.
known as a fountain. This project optimizes digital
data encoding into DNA sequences to enhance data
recovery. It explores efficient DNA-based data storage
techniques, indirectly contributing to encryption and Table 24.2 Analysis of DNA-based encryption solutions
data security. Nandy and Banerjee (2021) presented
a DNA-based image encryption algorithm. The algo- Authors Domain Limitations
rithm aimed to encode images into DNA sequences
Erlich et al., 2017 DNA fountain High latency
and then transmit them securely using DNA’s proper-
ties and proposed a DNA-based data storage system. Nandy et al., DNA-based Lack of
2021 image encryption transparency
This project aimed to store digital data in DNA mol- algorithm
ecules and demonstrated long-term and high-density for secure
data storage potential. Namasudra et al. (2020) pre- transmission
sented a DNA solution. It focused on the encryption Tomek et al., DNA-based data Inadequate
2021 storage security measure
Namasudra et al., DNA-based Long data
Table 24.1 Analysis of different types of DNA-based 2020 encryption in the retrieval time
schemes. cloud computing
environment
Authors Types of DNA- Limitations
based schemes
Jain et al., Substitution- They are highly Table 24.3 Analysis of blockchain system-based on DNA
2014; Hameed based scheme vulnerable to encryption algorithm.
et al., 2018 statistical attacks
Ning, et al., Biological-based It involves higher Authors Domain Limitations
2009; Dhawan scheme computation and is
et al., 2012 time-consuming Kaur et al., 2023 Healthcare Low throughput
Singh et Biological and It involves complex Ramaiah et al., Lack privacy
al., 2017; substitute-based and rigorous 2021
Sukumar et scheme mathematical
al., 2018; calculations Alshamrani et al., IoT Higher latency
Pujari et al., 2021
2018 Liang et al., 2023 Inadequate security
176 Revolutionizing cybersecurity: An in-depth analysis of DNA encryption algorithms
Proposed algorithm Step 6: Access control and decryption – Using smart
contracts, develop a mechanism to control that can
Proposed blockchain-based DNA encryption access and decrypt the DNA-encoded data. Access
algorithm control keys might be required for decryption.
1. Input: Digital data Step 7: Decoding and Decryption – Retrieve the
2. Output: Blockchain-based DNA encryption encrypted DNA sequences from the blockchain.
3. if (data is plain text), then
4: Generate hash Decrypt the DNA-encoded data using the decryp-
5: Assign ASCII value tion keys and the reverse process of the encryption
6: Convert ASCII to binary number algorithm. Convert the DNA bases back into binary
7: Insert the encryption method and create a DNS data.
sequence
8. else Step 8: Error detection and correction – Apply error
9. Return Cipher text detection and correction mechanisms to ensure the
10. end accuracy of the decrypted data.
Pseudo code for generating block hash Step 9: Verification – Verify the accuracy of the
decrypted data against the original digital data to
1. if (new block = block_ index) then ensure successful decryption.
2. Add block information, timestamp
3. Generate block hash
3. else Challenges of integrating DNA encryption in
4. Return Block blockchain system
5. end
Integrating blockchain technology with DNA encryp-
Checking validation tion presents a unique set of challenges due to both
1. if (hash value= Valid), then domains’ complexity and specialization. Some key
2. Implement_blockchain and store challenges include (Akgün et al., 2015; Hazra et al.,
3. else
4. Return to none 2018; Hao et al., 2021).
5. end
1) Data size and efficiency: DNA-encoded data
The blockchain-based DNA encryption algorithm can be significantly larger than traditional digi-
steps are described in the below steps. tal data. Storing large amounts of DNA data on
a blockchain could strain the network’s storage
Step 1: Encoding digital data – Choose a method to and processing capabilities, leading to slower
map binary data (0s and 1s) to DNA bases (A, C, G, transaction speeds and increased costs.
T). For example, you might use A for 00, C for 01, G 2) Regulatory and ethical concerns: Using DNA for
for 10, and T for 11. encryption and storage raises ethical and regula-
Split the digital data into chunks corresponding to the tory questions regarding the use of genetic mate-
length of DNA fragments (oligonucleotides). rial. Privacy, consent, and ownership issues must
be addressed to ensure that DNA and blockchain
Step 2: Error correction – Implement correction
technology integration respects legal and ethical
mechanisms for possible errors introduced during
boundaries.
DNA synthesis and sequencing. Techniques like for-
3) Interoperability and adoption: Integrating DNA
ward error correction codes can be used.
encryption algorithms and blockchain technolo-
Step 3: Encrypting the DNA data – Apply a crypto- gy requires interoperability with existing systems
graphic encryption algorithm to the DNA-encoded and standards. Adoption challenges may arise if
data to enhance security. This step can involve tradi- the integration process is not seamless or if ex-
tional encryption methods such as AES or specialized isting infrastructure needs substantial modifica-
DNA-based encryption techniques. tions to accommodate DNA-encoded data.
Step 4: Generating keys – If applicable, generate 4) Computational resources and costs: DNA en-
cryptographic keys for encryption and decryption. coding/decoding and blockchain processing re-
These keys could be encoded into DNA sequences as quire substantial computational resources. The
well. cost of performing these operations, especially at
Step 5: Storing on the blockchain – Use a blockchain scale, could be prohibitive and limit the practi-
platform to store the encrypted DNA data securely. cality of the integration.
This might involve creating transactions with associ- 5) Transaction speed and scalability: Blockchains
ated metadata and storing the DNA sequences on the already face transaction speed and scalability
blockchain. challenges. Integrating complex DNA encryption
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 177
processes could further slow transaction process- Comparative analysis
ing, making real-time applications impractical. Table 24.5 depicts the comparative analysis of the
Achieving high throughput while ensuring secure proposed solution with existing conventional DNA-
DNA encryption is a technical hurdle. based systems.
6) DNA encoding and decoding: Encoding digital
data into DNA sequences and decoding it back
into a usable format requires specialized algo-
rithms and biotechnology processes. Integrating
these processes with blockchain’s distributed ar-
Table 24.5 Comparative analysis of existing conventional
chitecture and consensus mechanisms could be system and proposed solution.
complex and require significant algorithmic in-
novation. Authors Privacy Efficiency
Scalability
Case studies and analysis Erlich et al., 2017 Low Low
Moderate
This area presents the case studies on the application
of blockchain with DNA encryption for enhanced Nandy et al., 2021 Hugh Moderate
Low
security and comparative analysis of existing block-
chain-based DNA-based systems and the proposed Tomek et al., 2021 Low Moderate
Moderate
solution.
Nandy et al., 2021 Low Moderate
High
Case studies
Table 24.4 lists case studies on integrating blockchain Proposed solution High High
High
systems with DNA encryption algorithms.
Table 24.4 Case Studies on the integration of blockchain system with DNA based encryption algorithm.
Authors Case study Description
Chernomoretz et al., DNA-based forensic and legal Blockchain was used to store DNA evidence, maintaining
2020 applications using blockchain its integrity and provenance securely. DNA encryption
further protects sensitive genetic information, ensuring only
authorized parties can access the evidence
Kaur et al., 2023 DNA-based secured management Healthcare providers deployed blockchain with DNA
of PHR using blockchain encryption to securely store and share personal health
records. DNA data were encrypted and stored on the
blockchain, ensuring the confidentiality and integrity of
sensitive health information
Ramaiah et al., 2021 DNA-based identity verification DNA samples were used for identity verification on a
using blockchain blockchain. Individuals authenticate themselves by providing
a DNA sample, which is then encrypted and stored on the
blockchain, enhancing security for digital identities
Chernomoretz et al., DNA-based genomic data The blockchain’s decentralized and immutable nature enables
2020 privacy and ownership using individuals to retain ownership and control over their
blockchain genomic data. The encrypted DNA sequences were stored on
the blockchain, and individuals could grant specific access
permissions to researchers, doctors, or institutions. Smart
contracts facilitated data sharing while ensuring privacy and
allowing data owners to revoke access anytime
Liang et al., 2023 DNA-based pharmaceutical Blockchain establishes an auditable and tamper-proof record
research and intellectual property of research milestones: the DNA sequences and intellectual
using blockchain property. The DNA encryption algorithms safeguard
proprietary genetic information while allowing secure
collaboration between different parties. Smart contracts
automate royalty distribution and licensing agreements,
reducing disputes and enhancing stakeholder trust.
178 Revolutionizing cybersecurity: An in-depth analysis of DNA encryption algorithms
Conclusion and recommendation GENis, an open-source multi-tier forensic DNA infor-
mation system. Foren. Sci. Int. Rep., 2, 100132.
The advancement of new technologies in the digi- Christidis, K. and Michael, D. (2016). Blockchains and
tal economy enables seamless operation. However, smart contracts for the internet of things. IEEE Acc.,
the security issues associated with this advance- 4, 2292–2303.
ment are alarming. However, the conventional secu- Dhawan, S. and Saini, A. (2012). Integration of DNA cryp-
rity approach has yet to handle these new advanced tography for complex biological interactions. Int. J.
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the capability of blockchain-based DNA encryption Erlich, Y. and Dina, Z. (2017). DNA Fountain enables a
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355(6328), 950–954.
rity of digital information systems.
Goswami, R. S., Swarnendu, K. C., and Chandan, T. B.
This paper adds value to the body of literature by (2016). A study to examine the superiority of CSAVK,
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In addition, the study proposed an algorithm and rithm. Iraqi J. Sci., 434–446.
presented case studies on integrating blockchain sys- Hao, Y., Qian, L., Chunhai, F., and Fei, W. (2021). Data
tems with DNA-based encryption algorithms. storage based on DNA. Small Struct., 2(2), 2000046.
Further, they highlighted the challenges of inte- Hazra, A., Soumya, G., and Sampad, J. (2018). A review
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Jacob, G. (2013). DNA based cryptography: An overview
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Kaur, Harleen, Roshan Jameel, M. Afshar Alam, Bhavya
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25 Exploring recession indicators: Analyzing social network
platforms and newspapers textual datasets
Nikita Mandlik1, Kanishk Barhanpurkar2, Harshad Bhandwaldar3,
S. B. Goyal4,a, Anand Singh Rajawat5 and Surabhi Rane6
Thomas J. Watson College of Engineering and Applied Science, Binghamton University, USA
1,2,3
2
Faculty of Information Technology, City University, Petaling Jaya, Malaysia
3
School of Computer Sciences and Engineering, Sandip University, Nashik, India
4
Ramrao Adik Institute of Te1chnology, Navi Mumbai, India
Abstract
In this research paper, the authors have focused on predicting indicators of recession conditions using public opinion-based
platforms and newspaper resources. A three-staged data science pipeline is created which involves data collection from vari-
ous platforms, data filtering, and data cleaning process. In the last stage of the pipeline, we analyzed the data and generated
insights from it. In the data collection process, we have collected real-time based data from public-opinionated social media
platforms like Twitter and Reddit. Additionally, New York Times articles have been collected for the purpose of a newspaper-
based platform We have performed natural language processing (NLP) methods like keyword analysis, word-frequency
analysis, and sentiment analysis to compare the change in the attributes of data over time. The results suggest that NLP
techniques tools can be used to prove the short- and long-term indicators of recession conditions and inflation reasons across
the globe on public-opinionated platforms and newspaper articles.
Keywords: Inflation prediction, natural language processing, New York Times, recession, Reddit, Twitter
1
drsbgoyal@[Link]
Introduction reactions to economic events, policy changes, and
market fluctuations, due to its vast user base and
In the modern digital age, the advent of social media
quick dissemination of information (Indaco Agustín,
platforms and online news sources has revolutionized
2021). Reddit, a network of specialized communities,
the distribution and consumption of information.
is an excellent source of deep insights into niche dis-
Among them, Twitter, Reddit, and The New York
cussions related to economic indicators and financial
Times are prominent platforms where users engage
market trends (Shaheer Ismail, 2022). On the other
in discussions, share opinions, and access news in
hand, the New York Times, as a leading news outlet,
real-time (Bianchi et al., 2023). In addition to their
reflects the broader narratives and analyses that influ-
communicative and informative roles, these platforms
ence public perception of economic matters (Khattar
have also garnered attention for their potential in pro-
et al., 2020; Maroko et al., 2022). The primary objec-
viding insights into economic trends, particularly in
tive of this research is to describe the influence of
identifying recession indicators (Norz et al., 2023).
the recession conditions based on public-opinions
The occurrence of economic recessions characterized
based social media platforms and newspaper articles.
by significant declines in economic activity has far-
Therefore, we are proposing following research ques-
reaching implications for individuals, businesses, and
tions are as follows:
governments (Irtyshcheva et al., 2022). Traditional
economic health indicators are often lagging, often RQ1: How does public-opinion-based social media
requiring months to manifest. However, the real-time platforms and sources of information are correlated
nature of user-generated content on platforms such as with each other for recession topics?
Twitter and Reddit, coupled with the rapid coverage
RQ2: How does the sentimental analysis score change
of news events by The New York Times, presents an
for the recession conditions over time?
intriguing opportunity to explore alternative, poten-
tially faster indicators of economic downturns. Twitter RQ3: How do social media platforms influence the
has the potential to reveal the public’s immediate recession conditions?
drsbgoyal@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 181
This study, in the context of the convergence of York Times newspaper articles are used to evaluate
machine learning (ML) and natural language process- the post-covid economic recession conditions across
ing (NLP) techniques, seeks to uncover potential pat- the globe. Barhanpurkar et al.’s study (2023) in
terns and relationships between online discourse and which the authors have performed sentiment analy-
economic trends. The entire paper is divided into 5 sis, entity recognition, and topic modeling. The sen-
sections and their content is as follows: Introduction, timent analysis and NLP processing techniques are
Related Work, Proposed Methodology, Results and used to gain insights from the corona Covid-19 pan-
Discussion and Conclusion and Future Work. demic outbreak on NY Times articles (Tunca et al.,
2023). In Table 25.1, the different studies show the
Related work use of Twitter, Reddit, and the New York Times which
shows the broad spectrum of domains in which the
Twitter is one of the important data sources for data is used.
analyzing several factors during corona Covid-19
pandemic situation since October 2019. A detailed
Proposed methodology
analysis of the Covid-19 vaccine been carried out
based on 4 million tweets and the parameter were In Figure 25.1, the research methodology employed
discovered as the number of tweets who are against during the research is described. In the initial step of
the vaccine (anti-vaccine) and who support the vac- data collection and storage, data is obtained from
cine (pro-vaccine) (e) (Yousefinaghani Samira et al.,
2021). Similarly, the key indicators of economic ten-
sions and war in Ukraine are analyzed using Twitter
Table 25.1 Comparative analysis of different studies
based on 42 million tweets. It also highlights the associated with Twitter, Reddit, and the New York Times.
impact of war on the US dollar value and crude oil
values across the globe (Polyzos, 2022). Twitter data Study Year Platform Domain
quality standards practices are one of the crucial fac-
tors which handle the further analytical process and Edo-Osagie 2020 Twitter Public Health
et al. care
correct results (Salvatore et al., 2021). Feng Yunhe
et al. (2023) have supplied the impact of chat-GPT Malik et al. 2019 Twitter Education
on streaming media using social media platforms Baker et al. 2021 Twitter Economics
such as Twitter and Reddit. The study has been col- Pirina et al. 2018 Reddit Public
lected on real-time analysis where the response time. healthcare
The Reddit forum data is used to gather the stu- Karpenko 2021 Reddit Personal
dents’ requirements for changes in the infrastructure et al. banking
requirement during corona Covid-19 pandemic out- Ireland et al. 2023 Reddit Employment
break (Feng et al., 2023). Additionally, the student’s sector
mental health parameters are also evaluated on the Alieva 2023 New York Times Government
loan debts using Twitter and Reddit platforms (Sinha Rodden 2021 New York Times Economics
et al., 2023). The Reddit posts are majorly used for Costola et al. 2023 New York Times Economics
topic modeling because the users post comments in
Ujewe 2023 New York Times Humanities
the sub-reddit group (Bonifazi et al., 2023). The New
Figure 25.1 Data flow diagram
182 Exploring recession indicators: Analyzing social network platforms and newspapers
three various sources, including tweets from Twitter collected, and the y-axis represents the number of
API, sub-reddit comments from Reddit API, and New tweets we have collected on dates. We have collected
York Times articles and headlines from New York 155,218 tweets, 240,079 sub-reddit articles (Figure
Times Archive API. The streaming data from the 25.2(b)) and 616,895 comments (Figure 25.2(c)) col-
sources is being stored in the MySQL database using lected using Twitter, New York Times, and Reddit,
the MySQL Connector. After the completion of the respectively.
data collection and storage phase, the data cleaning For recession tracking, the use of real-time data is
step is carried out to get the data ready for NLP oper- a fundamental step in the evolution of social media
ations. Punctuation removal, tokenization, and stem- platforms such as Twitter, Reddit, and The New
ming are some of the techniques used to refine the York Times. These benefits include quicker response
data. In the data visualization and analytics stage, the to economic events, early identification of sentiment
processed data is finally used to generate insights on shifts, capture unconventional indicators, interactive
the recession condition, economic crisis, and inflation analysis with the public, complementary insights to
markers. The methods used for generating insights traditional indicators, and fostering innovative data
consist of time series analysis, memory usage analy- analytics techniques. It shows the data collection steps
sis, word cloud analysis, word frequency analysis, and that are carried out from the different data sources.
lastly, the sentiment analysis. Time series analysis is We have used open-sourced platforms Twitter API,
used to identify trends in the data and cyclical pat- Reddit API and NYTimes API for data collection
terns that focus on how the nature of the data has (Table 25.2).
changed over time. Furthermore, memory usage anal- Figure 25.3 consists of a graph in which the x-axis
ysis optimizes data processing workflows by ensuring represents the number of days we collect the data
the scalability of computational resources. The word
cloud analysis simultaneously visualizes the major
themes in the data and growing trends are revealed by
word frequency analysis. Thus, word cloud analysis
and word frequency analysis are the two major steps
of keyword analysis for large scale textual datasets.
Results and discussion
The five parameters that were taken into consideration
for analysis of Twitter, Reddit and New York Times
are Time Series Analysis, Memory Usage Analysis,
Word Frequency Analysis, Word Cloud Analysis and
Sentiment Score analysis. Figure 25.2(a) consists of
a graph illustrating the data collected from tweets
related to the recession over the span of 21 days start-
ing from November 1st to 21st, 2023. The x-axis of Figure 25.2(b) Data collected for recession comments
the graph represents the dates when the data is being (Reddit)
Figure 25.2(c) News articles collected over time for
Figure 25.2(a) Tweets collected over time for recession recession
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 183
from the data sources. The y-axis represents the between 10 and 30. The word frequency analysis is
dataset size which is the size of data collected for the the first step of keyword analysis. It provides insights
corresponding days. This graph provides an insight about the number of keywords that can be extracted
into the memory usage done by each dataset as data from the entire dataset.
sources like Reddit, Twitter, and NYTimes produce Figure 25.5(a) consists of a word-cloud for the
hugely various kinds of data. data collected from the Twitter data. The words that
Figures 25.4 (a–c) consist of a graph representation are commonly used represent the words related to
in a tweet (Twitter), Reddit comment (Reddit API), the recession. Words like “government,” “inflation,”
and NYTimes article abstract, respectively where the
x-axis represents the number of words in each record
and the y-axis represents the number of occurrences.
In the Twitter data, maximum occurrences of words
can be obtained in the range of 20–40. The Reddit
data contains the maximum number of occurrences
in the range of 5–15.
Additionally, the NYTimes data collected in the
abstract form of the article also contains a range
Table 25.2 Comparison of number of records and
memory usage for various datasets.
S. No. Dataset Number of Memory
records usage
1. Twitter 155,218 tweets 40.58 MB
2. Reddit 616,895 reddit 62.59 MB
comments
3. New York Times 240,079 articles 49.58 MB
Figure 25.4(a) Number of words for each tweet
Figure 25.3 Memory-usage of each data source
184 Exploring recession indicators: Analyzing social network platforms and newspapers
Figure 25.5(b) Word-cloud for the Reddit data
Figure 25.4(b) Number of words for each Reddit com-
ment
Figure 25.5(c) Word-cloud for the New York Times
data (Khattar et al., 2020)
Figure 25.4(c) Number of words for every NYTimes
headline
“gas,” “recession,” and “priced” are the most familiar
words used in tweets by users. Figure 25.5(b) consists
of the word-cloud that is being created based on the
data that was collected from the NYTimes articles.
The keywords like “agreement,” “oppose,” “allied,”
“crude” and “indication,” and others are most used
in articles related to the recession. Figure 25.5(c)
consists of the word-cloud that is being created from
the data collected from the Reddit posts that were
related to the recession. Words like the “stock mar-
ket,” “worst decline,” “recession,” “financial crises”
and “consumer,” and others are the most used in the
posts for r/Recession on Reddit. In Figures 25.5(a)
and (b), the keywords are quite common as the results
are based on public-opinionated datasets (Twitter
and Reddit) whereas, in Figure 25.5(c), the keywords
are more simplified and less concentrated on reces-
Figure 25.5(a) Word-cloud for the Twitter data sion conditions.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 185
ranges of different Reddit posts related to the reces-
sion. The score range -0.2–0.0 has the highest occur-
rence in this graph. Figure 25.6(c) consists of a graph
in which the x-axis represents the sentiment analysis
score ranges of different NYTimes articles related to
the recession. The score range -0.2–0.0 has the high-
est occurrence in this graph. In Figure 25.5(a), the
Twitter data polarity is evenly distributed in which
extreme positive and negative patterns are observed.
The Reddit data contains moderately negative corre-
lations and strong positive correlation. Additionally,
we observed that NYTimes data shows properties of
low positive, low negative, high positive, and high
Figure 25.6(a) Sentiment score of the tweets negative attributes.
Conclusion
In result and discussion section, we have determined
the major insights which we have obtained from the
data during data collection, data pre-processing, data
filtration and data visualization steps. Because of these
results, we have drawn some conclusions for the pro-
posed research question (RQ) this has been mentioned
in the introduction section. In response to research
question 1 (RQ1), we have performed the keyword
analysis based on the word cloud and character fre-
quency analysis. We have found that public opinion-
ated datasets (Twitter and Reddit) keywords changed
more frequently as compared to the NYTimes articles
data. More political and geographical significance has
Figure 25.6(b) Sentiment score of the Reddit posts been observed in the information in the news articles
dataset as compared to the Twitter and Reddit data.
Additionally, the frequency of the characters per sum-
marized news article is more as compared to public
opinionated datasets.
For the RQ2, the authors analyzed this research
question based on the sentimental analysis score cal-
culated for each tweet, subreddit comment, and news
article summary. We have used the sentimental analy-
sis correlation scale for the analysis. The sentimental
score ranges from -1 to +1 where -1,0 and +1 sig-
nify negative, neutral, and positive, respectively. The
New York Times article data show extreme negativ-
ity and positivity compared to the public opinionated
dataset. In the Twitter dataset, the sentimental score
shows normal distribution which concludes that the
user provides several types of opinions on the reces-
Figure 25.6(c) Sentiment score of the Reddit posts
sion topic. In the Reddit data, we have observed
that Reddit users follow the trend of an extremely
negative score and positive comments are uniformly
Figure 25.6(a) consists of a graph in which the distributed on the recession topic. The research ques-
x-axis represents the sentiment analysis score ranges tion 3 (RQ3) particularly focused on the influence of
of different tweets related to the recession. The score the social networking sites (Twitter and Reddit) on
range 0.0–0.25 has the highest occurrence in this topic or entity. The filtered data result shows that the
graph. Figure 25.6(b) consists of a graph in which user response rate and user-engagement increased on
the x-axis represents the sentiment analysis score recession topic.
186 Exploring recession indicators: Analyzing social network platforms and newspapers
Future scope IEEE 31st International Requirements Engineering
Conference Workshops (REW), 76–84. IEEE. DOI:
Firstly, a more comprehensive understanding of pub- 10.1109/REW57809.2023.00021.
lic sentiment and economic indicators can be achieved Sinha, G. R., Christopher, R. L., Ian, B., and Ugur, K. (2023).
by expanding data collection to include various social Comparing naturalistic mental health expressions on
media platforms, news sources, and alternative data. student loan debts using Reddit and Twitter. J. Evid.
Additionally, the development of predictive models Soc. Work, 1–16.
based on evolving sentiment patterns could enable Bonifazi, G., Corradini, E., Ursino, D., and Virgili, L. (2023).
accurate forecasts of recession indicators. Finally, the Modeling, evaluating, and applying the eWoM power
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26 NIRF rankings’ effects on private engineering colleges
for improving India’s educational system looked at using
computational approaches
Ankita Mitra1, Subir Gupta2, P. K. Dutta3, S. B. Goyal4,a, Wan Md. Afnan
Bin Wan Mahmood4 and Baharu Bin Kemat5
1
Dr. B. C. Roy Engineering College, Durgapur, West Bengal, India
2
Swami Vivekananda University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
3
Amity University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
4,5
City University, Petaling Jaya, 46100, Malaysia
Abstract
This study explores the impact of outcome-based accreditation and assessment, encompassing the National Board of Ac-
creditation (NBA), National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC), and National Institutional Ranking Frame-
work (NIRF), on engineering education. These bodies aid students in achieving excellence in higher education standards,
with each entity utilizing distinct criteria for evaluating engineering programs’ credibility. The primary aim of this research
is to assess the effectiveness of these ranking methods in enhancing education quality, particularly in aiding private engineer-
ing institutions to improve their reputation. The study tests the null hypothesis, assuming no effect, against the alternative
hypothesis. Evaluation metrics include teaching, learning and resources (TLR) scores, research and professional practice
(RPC) scores, graduation outcome (GO) scores, outreach and inclusivity (OI) scores, and perception score for individual
colleges. The model’s efficiency is determined using the standard strategic indicator: root mean square error. A low value of
this indicator implies efficient NIRF rank prediction by the model. The p-value for the research project was determined to be
0.0466922, whereas the p(x) F-value was 0.953308. Therefore, a revised explanation that considers this is appropriate, such
as the speculation that the NIRF rating will significantly impact schooling.
Keywords: ANOVA, confidence interval, F-distribution, NIRF
Introduction standard of excellence is met. Every higher education
institution likely operates under the supervision of a
The National Institute Ranking Framework (NIRF)
governing board that ensures a standard of excellence
serves as a system of methodology for ranking col-
is upheld. This is achieved through an accreditation
leges throughout India. This framework is built on
system, a practice that is prevalent in several coun-
several evaluation criteria including graduation out-
tries, which provides a benchmark against which vari-
comes and research productivity. NIRF rankings play
ous higher education options can be evaluated. This
a significant role in enhancing the educational system
accreditation process comprises self-assessment, site
in India by prompting colleges to excel in areas such
inspection, evidence review, and the formation of rec-
as teaching, research, and public perception. In this
ommendations centered on quality.
context, private engineering colleges in India can uti-
In the context of educational institutions, there
lize the NIRF rankings to enhance their performance
exist three primary certification and evaluation
in the areas that NIRF considers when ranking insti-
bodies. These include the National Accreditation
tutions. In most nations, an accreditation mechanism
Assessment Council (NAAC), the National Board of
is in place to ensure maintenance of educational stan-
Accreditation (NBA), and the National Institutional
dards by higher education institutions. This process
Ranking Framework (NIRF). This study focuses on
involves self-assessment, site investigation, evidence
the impact of NIRF rankings’ on private engineer-
evaluation, and the development of quality-based
ing colleges in India, with the aim of improving the
recommendations. To reach this goal, it was impor-
country’s educational system, employing computa-
tant for the country to keep up the high education
tional approaches (Vasudevan and Sudalaimuthu,
standards it had set for itself. Each higher educa-
2020; Nassa et al., 2021). The investigation was
tion institution probably has a governing board that
primarily based on the NIRF rating. When used
monitors what is happening and ensures a minimum
to evaluate educational institutions, the NIRF
a
drsbgoyal@[Link]
188 NIRF rankings’ effects on private engineering colleges for improving India’s educational system
methodology is based on a standard set of indicators Related work
whose development is the method’s primary goal.
Evaluations of the performance of universities have
These criteria have been organized into five broad
become commonplace in industrialized nations, but
groups, and within each of those groups, they have
they are uncommon in developing ones. Using fron-
been sub-divided into smaller, more specific group-
tier approaches, a researcher looked at the factors
ings wherever it makes sense to do so. The NIRF
affecting the cost of higher education in India (Bhat
ranking framework uses various parameters to rank
et al., 2020). The individual examines extra costs,
engineering colleges in India, such as teaching, learn-
must return to scale, and returns to scope. They
ing and resources (TLR), research and professional
found that economies of scale have been used up to
practice (RP), graduation outcomes (GO), outreach
a large extent, but the results are still very different
and inclusivity (OI), and perception (PR). Each
from those in more developed countries (Jadhav et al.,
wide head comes with a pre-determined amount of
2020). Researchers also found that even though there
bulk. There is also a possibility that the subheadings
are a lot of students, universities and colleges are
beneath each topic will have a healthy balance with
spending less on teaching and learning activities. In a
one another. The first step in this study involves the
few studies, the authors discussed various issues with
aggregation of all relevant information, which pro-
university education and proposed policy recommen-
vides a foundation for the identification of an effec-
dations for research financing, joint research projects,
tive metric system that can assign values to various
and the research assessment council to enhance aca-
areas. The research will initially focus on selecting a
demic practices and standards. In the realm of educa-
precise method to determine the value of each cat-
tional ranking systems, several prominent ML models
egory. By giving each sub-heading a numerical value,
have been employed.
it becomes possible to calculate a total score for the
Principal component analysis (PCA), a statistical
main heading by adding up the points of its sub-
technique aimed at reducing data dimensionality, is
headings. It is crucial to allocate equal weight to each
among these models. Its application has been instru-
heading within the discourse for accuracy in calcu-
mental in determining the appropriate weightage for
lation. The industry’s growing significance is due to
optimal forecasting results in the NIRF rankings of
its embrace of advanced technologies like high-level
engineering colleges in India.
machine learning (ML), image processing, and com-
Another utilized model is linear regression (LR), a
putational engineering. These technologies are also
statistical method that models relationships between
becoming increasingly (Gupta, 2019; Khattar et al.,
two variables. It has been effectively used to construct
2020; Mondal et al., 2022; Sengupta et al., 2022)
a ML model capable of predicting an institution’s
important as ranking system by NIRF and publica-
NIRF rank.
tion is held in high esteem by all educational establish-
In addition, recommendation systems, a ML sub-
ments. This ranking reflects the institution’s standard
class, have been deployed to predict future university
in terms of teaching, infrastructure, research, student
or college rankings. These systems also design noti-
placements, engagement with industries, and recog-
fications to institutions regarding possible improve-
nition from various elite groups and educators. In the
ments in factors that could enhance their rankings.
present context, graduate outcomes and inclusivity
Additionally, learning to rank methods, which har-
have a significant impact on student employability.
ness ML models to predict a document’s relevance
The three key parameters are peer PR, RP, and TLR.
score, have also been employed. These methods are
When adding up the total, it’s important to give each
categorized into three groups: point-wise, pair-wise,
heading in the discourse the same amount of weight.
and list-wise. The utilization of these ML models in
This will ensure that the amount is accurate. Using
educational ranking systems has greatly facilitated
techniques from computational engineering, espe-
the forecasting of rankings, prediction of scores, and
cially ANOVA, the NIRF ranking will be tested to
evaluation of ranking models. These models provide
see if it is applicable. This will be done by figuring
institutions with the opportunity to enhance their
out what the NIRF ranking means in the first place
performance in several sectors, including teaching,
(Anoop and Kumar, 2013). This aspect of the case
research, and perception. The ultimate result is an
will be the investigation’s primary emphasis. The fol-
improved educational system and better rankings.
lowing sections of the study have been organized so
According to the research, the United States has the
that the material is as explicit and straightforward
most documents that have been cited in “all subjects.”
as feasible. At the start, there is a brief summary of
China is ranked second, the United Kingdom is third,
the relevant literature. The methodology then pro-
and India is ninth.
ceeds, which describes how the study was conducted.
Regarding international university rankings and
The study will discuss the results and wrap up the
research criteria, Indian universities lagged far behind
investigation.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 189
Chinese universities. Researchers say that education, Methodology
significantly higher education institutions (H.E.I.s), is
In this computational model, the analysis of variance
essential for promoting and achieving the sustainable
(ANOVA) test was utilized. The ANOVA test is used
development goals of the United Nations (UN-SDGs)
to assess whether the group means differ statistically
(Nancy et al., 2020). Most institutions, though, do not
significantly. Examining the sample data to deter-
always use the best frameworks, curricula, pedago-
mine if there is a substantial difference between the
gies, and governance rules for promoting sustainabil-
groups accomplishes this. Since the two-tailed aggre-
ity through H.E.I.s. Globally, engineering education is
gated variance t-test and the right-tailed ANOVA test
moving from a teacher-centered to a student-centered
produce the same result when applied to data from
teaching-learning process, from a content-based to
only two groups, the analysis of variance with mul-
an outcome-based teaching-learning (OBTL) model,
tiple comparisons is usually used when examining at
from knowledge predation to knowledge sharing,
least three groups. A “one-way ANOVA” is the most
from teachers to facilitators, from traditional sci-
fundamental sort of ANOVA. This is because it only
entific disciplines to multi-disciplinary courses, and
supports one categorical variable. This is because it
from chalk-and-whiteboard knowledge acquisition
was the first version of the ANOVA to be designed.
to technology-driven learning. In India, though, many
Complex ANOVA experiments may involve two or
schools and colleges still use old ways of teaching and
more category variables (calculator for two-way
learning with little hands-on instruction (Surekha et
ANOVA). A one-way analysis of variance is necessary
al., 2020; Møller-Skau and Lindstøl, 2022). A nation,
to evaluate if the differences between the groups are
once a leader in engineering, medicine, the arts, music,
due to differences within each group (ANOVA). Here
etc., is currently lagging in technical education. The
is a list of the mathematics underlying ANOVA, or
writers analyzed the perspectives of students, parents,
analysis of variance:
academic faculty, and business professionals regard-
ing engineering education and its future.
Focus groups were used for consultations with a (1)
limited sample of respondents. When the data were
examined, it was discovered that the students had
a favorable opinion of engineering education but a
negative view of the function of engineers in society. (2)
Teachers believe that pupils’ thoughts are evolving and
that social media influences people’s general thinking.
Industries say that there are not enough engineers who (3)
know how to use new technologies and can be hired.
Most respondents supported adding courses from
other sectors to fulfill future demands (Bedi et al., where, ANF is ANOVA co-efficient
2020; Pavai and Uma Mageswari, 2020). According STA is the mean sum of all the squares for treatment,
to a few studies, education is the key to developing and
human resources. The Ministry of Human Resource SEA is the mean sum of all the squares for error
Development (HRD) in India has tried many ways to A is a data point
get students to college and get their bachelor’s and a–j is the mean of data points
master’s degrees. These include scholarships that pro- fca is the degree of freedom of data points within a
vide financial assistance to low-income students with range.
good grades. The federal and state governments have The F statistic is the ratio of the difference between
set up several scholarships to help students pay for groups to the difference within each group. This ratio
their education. The Ministry of HRD devised NBA can alternatively be viewed as the average difference
and NAAC accreditation to encourage and recog- between groups. The F statistic indicates that the
nize excellence in technical education in universities likelihood that the averages are identical increases as
and colleges and the NIRF rating scheme to quantify the statistic’s value decreases. This is the opposite of
excellence in the teaching and learning process. Now, what most other statistical tests demonstrate, which
these rankings and accreditations are tightly related is that the probability that the averages are identical
to scholarships since some scholarship-granting orga- decreases as the statistic’s value increases. Since the
nizations have stated that they are only available to beginning of the study’s inquiry, the researchers have
students who graduate from NIRF-ranked courses assumed that both H0:XXX and H1:YYY are accu-
or institutions and NBA and NAAC-accredited pro- rate portrayals of reality. For the research to achieve
grams or institutes (Reddy et al., 2016; Kumar et al., its objective, it needs to rely on various already estab-
2021; Johnes et al., 2022). lished beliefs about how the world functions. Here
190 NIRF rankings’ effects on private engineering colleges for improving India’s educational system
are some instances of assumptions: the selection of equal opportunities, leading to positive perceptions
samples has nothing to do with chance. The popula- of institutions implementing them. Outreach and
tion from which the sample was drawn is assumed to inclusivity can be improved by promoting diversity,
have a normal distribution, and each standard devi- equity, and inclusion on campus and engaging with
ation should be equal (1 = 2 =... = k). Two further the local community. Computational approaches can
assumptions have been made about what is occurring. be used to analyze the NIRF rankings and their effects
When there is a significant difference between the two on private engineering colleges in India. For example,
groups being compared, the assumption plays a more data mining techniques can be used to identify pat-
significant part in the research. terns and trends in the rankings over time. First, the
The outcome-based education (OBE) framework study obtains test data from the open-source Kaggle
emphasizes student outcomes, promoting research, to validate and analyze the model’s accuracy. Then,
and improving graduation outcomes while fostering the study analyzed the test data using the instruc-
inclusivity. Continuous quality improvement (CQI) tions provided by the same open source from which
focuses on ongoing enhancements in teaching and we obtained the test data. Table 26.1 depicts the data
learning, ensuring quality education accessible to all, set, while Figure 26.1 illustrates how the research was
which positively influences NIRF rankings. Six Sigma’s conducted.
quality control and TQM’s continuous improve-
ment efforts enhance teaching, research, graduation Results
outcomes, and inclusivity, favorably impacting the
rankings. In summary, these frameworks contribute This study aims to determine how effective the numer-
to elevating NIRF rankings by emphasizing quality, ous education rules and accreditation systems, such
research, and outcomes while ensuring inclusivity and as NIRF, are at enhancing the overall performance
Table 26.1 Comparative analysis of different learning outcomes.
Aspect Description
Outcome-based education Emphasizes on the importance of student outcomes through the curriculum, teaching
(OBE) methods, and assessments, thus improving the teaching, learning, and resources.
Promotes research as a part of the curriculum, encouraging students to apply knowledge
professionally. Main focus is to produce graduates who can meet specific outcomes,
leading to improved graduation outcomes. Encourages diversity and equal opportunities
for all students, improving outreach and inclusivity
Continuous quality Focuses on continuous improvement in teaching and learning resources by regularly
improvement (CQI) assessing and updating them framework
Promotes research by focusing on continuous improvement and innovation in
professional practice
Continuous improvement approach ensures better graduation outcomes
Ensures that quality education is accessible to all, thus improving outreach and
inclusivity
The perception of an institution implementing CQI is generally positive due to its focus
on quality improvement
Six sigma framework Aims to improve teaching and learning by reducing defects and variability in educational
processes
Encourages research by promoting the use of data-driven methodologies in professional
practice
Total quality management TQM focuses on improving the quality of teaching and learning resources through
(TQM) framework continuous feedback and refinement
TQM promotes research and professional practice by fostering a culture of continuous
improvement and learning
TQM’s focus on quality management leads to improved graduation outcomes
TQM encourages a culture of inclusivity and equal opportunity, thus improving outreach
and inclusivity
The perception of an institution implementing TQM is generally positive due to its focus
on total quality management
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 191
Figure 26.1 Methodology
Table 26.2 H hypothesis.
Source DF Sum of square Mean square error F statistic p-Value
Groups (between groups) 5 454.5454 90.9091 2.2983 0.04669
Error (within groups) 192 7594.5456 39.5549 - -
Total 197 8049.091 40.8583 - -
of private engineering educational institutions. A 2.2983 falls outside the 95% confidence interval [-:
one-way analysis of variance was performed utiliz- 2.2611], which we already know. The force of the
ing the F distribution and a df value of 5,192. This hit and the magnitude of the observed effect, both
allowed for comparing how the NIRF ranked all 33 denoted by f, are regarded as the average value (0.24).
states from 2016 to 2021 (being on the correct path). This indicates that the difference between the means
Before examining the test findings, it is assumed that is comparable to a moderate difference. The variable’s
both the null hypothesis H0, stating that the ranking value was determined to be 0.056. Consequently, the
system has no effect, and the alternative hypothesis group accounts for 5.6% of the total standard devia-
H1, stating that the NIRF schooling system has a sig- tion (similar to R in the linear regression). Upon
nificant effect, are true. The ranking system has no learning about the Turkey HSD and the Turkey
influence, as the null hypothesis H0 states. According KRAMER, it becomes apparent that this is the case.
to the alternative hypothesis H1, the NIRF education When comparing the means of two groups, there is no
system has a significant impact. discernible difference between them. The average of
Examining Table 26.2 reveals that the results sup- multiple groups can be significantly different from the
port the validity of the H hypothesis. Hypothesis H average of a single group or from any other collection
cannot be valid given the low p-value. It has been of means. This is not the same as claiming that the
brought to our attention that the averages of some of average of any set of means cannot have a significant
the groups are significantly different from those of the value difference. With a test power of 0.7696 and a
others. In other words, there is a substantial differ- medium a priori power, it is possible to demonstrate
ence between the means of some categories, and this that the null hypothesis H0 is false during the vali-
difference could be considered statistically significant dation phase. We can compare the test power to the
due to its magnitude. In Table 26.2, the study can see priori power to accomplish this goal.
that the p-value for the study project is 0.0466922 In contrast, the investigation results led the
and that [p(x F)] is 0.953308. In other words, the researchers to conclude that variances are equal when
likelihood of committing a type 1 error, which in variance equality is considered. The tool utilized
this instance would be incorrectly excluding an H, is Levene’s test to determine whether the differences
relatively low: 0.04669 (4.67%) When the p-value is were comparable. We are operating on the assump-
smaller, it indicates that there is more evidence that tion that disparities in population means are, for the
H exists. In addition, the evidence implies that F = most part, comparable. The value of p is 0.103. When
192 NIRF rankings’ effects on private engineering colleges for improving India’s educational system
it does not assume that all groups have the same level
of variation. This is true when the group sizes being
compared are identical (the difference between the
larger and smaller groups is 1). It seems plausible to
conclude that the study’s conclusions are accurate. In
the framework of the presumption of normality, the
Shapiro-Wilk test was utilized to support the premise
of normality (α=0.05). It is anticipated that at least
30 individuals would comprise each category’s sam-
Figure 26.2 Confidence intervals ple. Each sort of analysis has a distinct visualization
technique. In addition to the more typical confidence
intervals, the F distribution curve, the histogram, and
the power F distribution are all examined. The fol-
lowing section depicts a Figure 26.2 depicts the con-
fidence intervals, whereas Figure 26.3 depicts the F
distribution curve, histogram in Figure 26.4 and the
power F distribution curve shown in Figure 26.5.
Conclusion
The NIRF rankings have been shown to affect India’s
private engineering colleges significantly. The authors
Figure 26.3 Distribution curve of this work use different computer methods to learn
more about this. The Indian Ministry of Human
Resource Development established the NIRF rank-
ings. In particular, tests derived from statistical varia-
tion analysis are utilized in the inspection process.
NIRF is being thought about because outcome-based
accreditation and assessment have helped engineering
education professionals in the past (Khatoon et al.,
2022). In addition, they assist students in meeting the
Excellence in Higher Education program’s standards.
Several criteria, such as those utilized by the NBA, the
NAAC, and the NIRF, determine the most trustworthy
engineering programs. The main goal of this study is
to find out if and how this ranking method could help
Figure 26.4 Histogram improve the education system as a whole. The NIRF
was developed to enhance the standing of privately
funded institutions that offer engineering degree pro-
grams. The project’s objective was to enhance these
institutions as a whole. This was the most significant
objective of the project. The “null hypothesis,” which
states that there is no impact, is given the benefit
of the doubt during scientific inquiry. On the other
hand, it is demonstrated that the alternative hypoth-
esis that there is an effect is wrong. Due to previous
findings, this conclusion may be plausible. We now
know that the p-value for this study is 0.0466922,
the F statistic is 2.298, and the p(x) F value for this
Figure 26.5 Power F distribution curve study is 0.953308. These are the values that the study
established. The study can also view images depicting
the outcomes of this inquiry. Users can access various
utilizing Levene’s test, it is prudent to presume that graphical tools, such as confidence intervals, distribu-
the force is modest (0.77). It is simple to compare the tion curves, histograms, and the power F distribution
categories because their sizes are comparable. Since curve. All of these tools are designed to help them
the ANOVA test employs a distinct statistical model, interpret the data.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 193
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new explanation that considers this is the idea that approach in modern education system. Proc. Comp.
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the type of acceptable explanation.
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Khattar, N., Singh, J., and Sidhu, J. (2020). An energy effi-
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27 Analysis of soil moisture using Raspberry Pi based on IoT
Basetty Mallikarjuna1, Sandeep Bhatia2,a, Amit Kumar Goel3,
Devraj Gautam4, Bharat Bhushan Naib5 and Surender Kumar6
1
Department of Information Technology, Institute of Aeronautical Engineering, Dundigal, 500043
2,5
School of Computing Science and Engineering, Galgotias University Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
3
School of Engineering and Technology, Apeejay Stya University Sohna Gurugram, India
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Dr. Akhilesh Das Gupta Institute of Technology and
4,6
Management, New Delhi, India
Abstract
Agriculture accounts for a large portion of India’s economy However, farmers often lack access to essential farming equip-
ment. They are confronted with issues, for example, a lack of soil fertility or insufficient soil water treatment hydration and
others. The internet of things (IoT) is an interconnection of devices which have unique identity and able to share data in real
time. An autonomous farming system can be constructed using IoT to reduce water waste and boost crop yields. Using a soil
moisture sensor with a Raspberry Pi, Pico module and node MCU, the water level is monitored and recorded. The soil retains
information about its moisture levels over time. The node MCU takes data in analog values and analyze it before sending it
to the Raspberry Pi Pico via the telegram program, where the user can observe the current moisture level. This is crucial as
plants require adequate water. For a decent yield, it needs to be watered at a precise time. The developed system able to send
information to a remote location related to soil in real time by using Raspberry Pi module. Optimization of the information
related to soil received from Raspberry Pi will be carried out to enhance productivity.
Keywords: Internet of things, soil moisture sensor, Raspberry Pi Pico, node MCU, agriculture
Introduction and the water is siphoning incessantly even though
it is raining (Gutiérrez, 2013). As a result of this
India is the world’s largest freshwater consumer, and
overflow of water, we are deploying an application
the country’s total water consumption exceeds that observing framework based on climate conditions to
of any other landmass. The agricultural sector, fol- combat this issue (Terkar, 2019). This technology is
lowed by the residential and mechanical sectors, uses known as a wireless device network and is related
the most water. Groundwater supplies over 65% of to wireless technology (WSN) (Bhatia et al., 2023)
the country’s total water demand and is critical to the which monitors the activity and keep track of one or
country’s economic and social development. Building more physical parameters and use a communication
a robotization framework for a workplace or house is model to send radio signals using transmitters with
becoming more and more necessary (Holliday et al., the ability to convert physical quantities into radio
1990). Mechanization saves time and money by using signals (Anand et al., 2015). The receiver or instru-
power and water and reducing waste. Water is used ment picks up the radio wave and transforms it to
wisely in a clever water system framework. With the the desired output. Wireless device technology is fre-
help of devices like the Raspberry Pi Pico, this study quently used every day to make a difference in peo-
proposes a smart water system framework for agri- ple’s lives by assisting them in obtaining information
cultural ranches (Knight et al., 1992). It is written in more quickly and correctly by (Prasad et al., 2018).
the C programming language. This paper contributes This method might be used to apply soil moisture sen-
a competent and truly low-cost framework for water sors. This gadget may provide information related to
system robotization. Integration of IoT-WSN plays soil moisture level while also assuring yield through
important role in optimization of soil quality and innovative approaches (Li et al., 2020). The IoT has
effective soil management. The framework requires evolved alongside the rapid advancements in internet
less support once it has been implemented, and it is technology (Gulshan et al., 2022). Furthermore, data
not difficult mobile devices and characteristics such sharing has been acknowledged through the aspects
as soil moisture (Attema, 2007). For example, soil of identity, acceptance, positioning, and detection
moisture, it is more valuable than traditional business when it comes to connecting goods and people to
strategies. We’re already making use of the moisture the internet (Mallikarjuna, 2022). At one end, it can
in the dirt management by employing certain sensors, lead to an increase in monetary benefits and minimize
sandeepbhatia1711@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 195
expenditure with more feasibility. Contrarily, it may information unit (WIU) and wireless sensor unit
have the ability to provide technological momentum (WSU) (Holliday et al., 1990). Zigbee-based wire-
for the revival of the world economy (Mallikarjuna, less sensor networks (WSN) are used to accom-
2020). IoT innovation is now being used in a variety plish this. There is a standard at Western Illinois
of industries, it also addresses several challenging sub- University (WIU) for providing data to online
jects (Mallikarjuna, 2022). IoT and agriculture will services. Even though this technology succeeds in
be a winning combination and definitely contribute automating tasks, there are drawbacks (Knight et
to the resolution of present horticulture framework al., 2017). The solenoid valve in this study regu-
inefficiency issues, as well as the rapid and efficient lates the opening and closing of the valve, while the
enhancement of farming. The water level is monitored microcontroller manages the signal in the sensor-
using the Raspberry Pi Pico module and node MCU in based IoT irrigation system. The water process is
conjunction with a soil moisture sensor (Mallikarjuna, initiated and the water flow is regulated in response
2020). Agrarian data may also be obtained through to changes in the ambient temperature and humid-
the crops, related resources, and equipment being sci- ity. When the humidity is low, water your plants;
entifically monitored using IoT and Big Data process- when the moisture content is back to normal, stop
ing technology to optimize better crop management watering. Microcontrollers and GSM are interfaced
(Mallikarjuna, 2022). via MAX232 (Knight et al., 2015). Although auto-
There is a monitoring of the water level and matic water use is the desired outcome, this tech-
Raspberry Pi Pico module and node MCU with a soil nology accomplishes it in a more sophisticated
moisture sensor were used to record this video. The manner (Marthaler et al., 2023). In order to opti-
soil carries information on the moisture state of the mize agricultural water use, this study presents an
soil over some time (Mallikarjuna, 2022). The node automatic water management and field monitoring
MCU takes data in analog values and analyses it system (Knight et al., 1992). The automatic systems
before sending it to the Raspberry Pi Pico via the tele- are based on WSN (Brar et al., 2022). A wireless
gram program, where the user can observe the current network of temperature and humidity sensors that
moisture level (Srinivasan et al., 2022). This is signifi- are placed in the field is a feature of the system.
cant since the plant needs water at a precise period to Data is transferred from the sensor to the microcon-
produce optimum yield outcomes. Manually measure troller (Khattar et al., 2020) via the Zigbee protocol
soil dampness since mistreating this tensiometer might (Attema, 2007). Farmers receive information via a
take a long time (Sandeep et al., 2023). We would PIC 18F77 microcontroller with GPRS support and
therefore need a system that can track the amount of a GSM modem (Singh et al., 2020). The PIC micro-
water (moisture) in the soil in a very short amount of controller’s usage of RISC determines how long the
time while also being simple to operate (Supriya et al., program will run (Gutiérrez, 2013).
2022). increased yields; increased accuracy by reduc- The author Teka (2019), has developed an intelli-
ing “skipping” (omissions) and “doubling” (repeated gent drip irrigation system that is controlled by an
applications – overlaps) between adjacent rows in the ARM9 processor and is automatic. The soil’s pH and
field (Sathish et al., 2021). nitrogen content are continuously shifting through-
out this process. GSM modules are employed for situ-
• Enhanced productivity: faster working speeds are ational monitoring and control (Anand et al., 2015,
feasible; 2017). In this instance, the soil’s moisture content
• Increased safety; and the capacity to work at is estimated using an acoustic-based technique. This
night and in low-light conditions. strategy’s primary goal is to speed up the measure-
ment of soil moisture (Prasad et al., 2018). According
The current publication builds on the work of the to Li et al. (2016) and 2020, the two primary vari-
aforementioned authors by attempting to verify and ables in this process are soil water saturation and
quantify the predicted economic savings. sound speed. It was thus discovered that the speed
The following is how this research article is struc- of sound varies with soil type and that it diminishes
tured: A brief overview of prior studies is presented; with increasing soil moisture. Farmers are unable
the proposed approach is described in depth; the to use this technique, despite the fact that it can be
experiment is implemented, and the results are dis- used to quickly determine the moisture content of a
cussed; and finally the proposed work is concluded. soil sample (Mallikarjuna et al., 2022). The system
was developed using an automated irrigation system
Literature review equipped with a soil moisture sensor and a smart-
phone or tablet (Mallikarjuna, 2022). With the help
This unit transmits temperature and humidity of this technology, people can conserve water and
data via a radio transceiver-equipped wireless increase water duration control. For calibration, the
196 Analysis of soil moisture using Raspberry Pi based on IoT
model was tested with a range of crops and soil sam- this paper comes from a questionnaire survey as well
ples at varying soil moisture levels. as a FADN agricultural product. Based on their busi-
Nevertheless, by utilizing more soil samples from ness structure, the businesses studied can be classified
various locations and climates, this outcome could be as natural persons or legal entities. Natural person
enhanced. We’ll look at other soils in addition to soil businesses made up 14.3% of the agricultural enti-
moisture. Singer et al. (2021) investigates electronic ties studied. Legal entities accounted for 85.7% of the
gadgets that gather and transmit physical data to users total.
via IoT. Finding quick fixes for issues and presenting System starts with deployment of sensor circuitry
workable solutions are the goals of this project. IoT- consist specific set of sensors and Raspberry Pi Pico
based smart agriculture can make use of 4G to 8G collect data from farming land, if data gathered suc-
communication (Sandeep et al., 2023). According to cessfully then it is transmitted to remote location.
Kai et al. (2022), security-enhanced features are cru- After that there is optimization of the crop data to
cial for safeguarding sensitive data in IoT-based smart increase crop yield and finally important information
farming. It is possible to use heterogeneous nodes to regarding published data published on telegram as
gather data from agricultural fields (Shabana et al., shown in Figure 27.1.
2023). The plant part is the first section, and it has sensors
for detecting the environment around the plant. The
Objectives DHT11 soil sensor is a cheap soil moisture sensor that
can be used to track soil moisture, just like other soil
This paper is aimed to design a framework for the moisture sensors. The moisture sensor outputs a high
analysis of soil moisture using Raspberry Pi-based level when the soil is dry, and a low level otherwise.
on IoT. The objective of paper is to construct a sys- In contrast to other soil moisture sensors, this one has
tem which can be utilized to optimize soil parame- a variable sensitivity and gives the IoT hub raw data.
ters, reduce water waste and boost better crop yield.
Another objective is to published data on telegram IoT hub
which enable farmers to increase crop yield. You can connect your devices to the internet via IoT
hub service which has devices to communicate in both
Proposed methodology directions. The IoT hub connects various services to
the real world. The data from the sensors is updated
Numerous technologies are at one’s disposal, such on a regular basis. The primary function of the IoT
as video smart working, code management systems, hub is to monitor and connect all connected IoT
smart home offices, electronic products, and more. devices.
External assistance has a lot of advantages. Such as
being RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) labeled, Analytics in streams
being shrewd, and so on. Background information for The IoT hub offers the service of stream analytics,
which is necessary for data transmission from the IoT
hub. Basically, this service’s fundamental character-
istic is its capacity to stream millions of records per
second, or millions of pieces of data, in real time.
Figure 27.2 shows the system execution in which
system starts collecting data and transmit it to remote
location for optimization and then published on tele-
gram. Also, Figure 27.2 shows the system descrip-
tion, the Raspberry Pi Pico, node MCU, and soil
moisture sensor are among the components used in
this system.
Figure 27.1 Flowchart of soil moisture detection mon-
itoring system Figure 27.2 The proposed system’s component parts
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 197
Raspberry Pi The node MCU (ESP8266) contains 4MB of
Figure 27.3 explains Raspberry Pi which is a little flash memory and 128KB of RAM for storing pro-
computer. Simply described, the Raspberry Pi is a grams and data. The node MCU maintains the code
robust and portable computer with an ARM proces- (ESP8266). The data that the node MCU (ESP 8266)
sor. Moreover, the Raspberry Pi 3 Model B includes receives from various sensors is compared to data that
HDMI, Ethernet, USB ports, and Wi-Fi modules. has already been saved on the device.
RISC OS Pi is one of the Raspberry Pi’s operating sys- It transmits pulses to the relay module, which
tems. It supports multimedia applications and has a functions as a switch to turn the pump on and off,
compact computer-like appearance. This is true due based on the data that has been recorded. The node
to HDMI and graphics support. Yet, as a result of its MCU (ESP8266) has an operating frequency range of
instead of an HDD or a solid-state drive, we can uti- 80–160 MHz and a voltage range of 3–3.6V.
lize a micro SD card to start the OS of the Raspberry
Pi Pico soil moisture sensor (SSD). System development
Soil moisture sensor Figure 27.6 show the farming automation system can
The IoT system cannot function without sensors, be constructed using the IoT to reduce water waste
just like the human heart cannot without blood. It and boost crop yields. Using a soil moisture sensor
receives physical parameters from the outside envi- with a Raspberry Pi Pico module and node MCU,
ronment, converts them into electrical systems, the water level is monitored and recorded. The soil
and sends them to a primary controller, such as a
Raspberry Pi. The soil moisture sensor was one of the
sensors employed in this system. The soil level may
be determined with this sensor. The signal produced
from this sensor can either be analogue or digital. It
features two copper electrodes that are used to moni-
tor soil moisture. Figure 27.4 show the Soil moisture
sensor Esp8266.
Node MCU (ESP8266)
The ESP8266 (Node MCU) is a microcontroller with
an integrated Wi-Fi module, as depicted in Figure
27.4. It is a 30-pin device with 17 GPIO pins. To
receive data and transmit it to the associated devices, Figure 27.4 ESP 8266 with sensors
these GPIO pins are linked to a range of sensors as
shown in Figure 27.5.
Figure 27.3 Circuit details of Raspberry Pi Figure 27.5 Node MCU (ESP 8266)
198 Analysis of soil moisture using Raspberry Pi based on IoT
stores information about the soil’s moisture status Figure 27.7 depicts the yield and response graph
throughout time. The Node MCU takes data in ana- displaying water and yield information. A signal is
logue values and analyses it before sending it to the sent to the Raspberry Pi Pico board from the out-
Raspberry Pi Pico via the telegram program, where put. The Raspberry Pi is the system’s brain. The
the user can observe the current moisture level. This Raspberry Pi now boasts a plethora of updated fea-
is significant since the plant requires a lot of water. tures. Utilizing the sensor attached to the Raspberry
For a decent yield, it needs to be watered at a precise Pi board, determine the resistance difference. The
time. humidity is determined by the cold signal circuit
with potentiometer if the comparator’s output is
Test strategy high. The Raspberry Pi board receives the output
All objects are connected to the IoT network in order signal. The Raspberry Pi is the system’s brain. The
to achieve interconnectivity and data transmission Raspberry Pi now boasts a plethora of updated
capabilities over the internet and traditional media. features. The Raspberry Pi board receives the out-
Following that, it was perceived as a wide range of put signal. The Raspberry Pi serves as the system’s
high-end devices and workplaces that were unaf- brain.
fected by the district. “External enablement” and
“internal intelligence” were included. Examples of
devices used to cultivate inner wisdom include digi-
tal control systems, smart home offices, smart video
roles, mobile devices, technology systems, meters, etc.
Outside enablement refers to a wide range of benefits,
such as items branded with RFID (Radio Frequency
Identification), as well as smart people and cars
equipped with wireless terminals.
Results and discussion
The Raspberry Pi Pico is the system’s brain. The
Raspberry Pi Pico has undergone numerous updates
and added new functionality. Make use of the sensor
attached to the Raspberry Pi Pico board to determine
the difference between the outputs. The Raspberry Pi
board receives the output signal. The Raspberry Pi
is the system’s brain. The Raspberry Pi now boasts
a plethora of updated features. ARM-based comput-
ers are more powerful and lighter due to additional
features like increased connectivity, increased I/O,
and improved power efficiency. Use a sensor that is
Figure 27.7 Field chart with irrigation of data
attached to the Raspberry Pi board to determine the
attack’s variance. The humidity is determined by the
cold signal circuit with potentiometer if the compara-
tor’s output is high.
Figure 27.8 Chart with population of different coun-
Figure 27.6 Test result tries
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 199
adjusted for various plant species thanks to a range
of options in his software and mobile app. This gives
the user the option to identify the kind of plant being
produced and get a threshold number that is more
accurate.
A common and useful application for agricultural
and environmental monitoring is the analysis of soil
moisture using a Raspberry Pi based on the IoT. The
standard components of this system are sensors to
gauge soil moisture, a Raspberry Pi for data process-
ing, and IoT tools to allow for remote monitoring and
management.
An effective strategy to manage agricultural
resources and make data-driven decisions is to imple-
ment an IoT-based soil moisture monitoring system
using a Raspberry Pi. This will ultimately result in
Figure 27.9 Different output representations as per the higher crop yields and more environmentally friendly
given data
farming methods. For real time collection and tran-
sit, system should be more continuous in terms of
internet, this is the limitation of our system. Another
Figure 27.8 shows the chart with population of differ- limitation is high cost of Raspberry Pi as compared to
ent countries. Human population is increasing at a very Arduino UNO.
fast rate. To meet the growing food demands of people,
we need to optimize soil quality for better and enhance
crop production. Applications of our work
Many enhancements and new functionality have Our work finds several applications:
been added to the Raspberry Pi. Improved charac-
teristics include better power consumption, higher • Smart agriculture
connection, and expanded I/O, resulting in a more • Soil moisture management for better crop yield
powerful, tiny, and light ARM-based computer. • Irrigation management
Utilizing the sensor that is attached to the Raspberry • Plants and crop disease detection using soil data.
Pi board, determine the resistance difference. The
comparator receives the signal, and a signal condi-
Future enhancements
tioning circuit (potentiometer, for example) deter-
mines the humidity. The Raspberry Pi board receives Several researchers have found via considerable
the output signal if the comparator’s output is high. fieldwork that the area and productivity of agricul-
As a result, water systems use water resources as ture are decreasing daily. We can boost productivity
effectively and efficiently as possible to support agri- in the agricultural industry while minimizing physi-
culture. Air is what the outlet is for, and it needs to cal labor by using a variety of technologies. The
be forced far down into the ground. Figure 27.8 dem- usage of the Raspberry Pi and the IoT in agriculture
onstrate chart with population of different countries. is demonstrated in this study. Sande et al. (2021)
Figure 27.9 shows different output representations as proposed a cheap smart grid system. Watering sys-
per the given data. tem control. It is made up of several wireless sen-
sors dispersed over the entire agricultural land. The
Conclusion development board receives the data from each
sensor using a wireless networking device that is
It is advised to use smart monitoring to automate attached to it. Raspberry Pi is used to communicate
the area’s major crops and cut down on water waste. various forms of data to the microcontroller pro-
The technology monitors variations in soil moisture cess via internet connectivity, such as text messages
and assesses the impact on plant water requirements. and photos. Singh et al. (2021) presented a wireless
The farmer receives a notice on his smartphone, and sensor network used in an automated irrigation sys-
with a single button press, he can check the water tem. and a Raspberry Pi to efficiently regulate drip
level. Furthermore, the system includes an app that irrigation activities. Terker et al. (2019) offered a
can be used by the farmer to view Sensor data is ana- study on the water distribution system in which he
lyzed statistically, and changes in sensor readings are presented results for decomposing the original non-
tracked over time. In addition, the system may be linear optimum control issue (OCP). An automatic
200 Analysis of soil moisture using Raspberry Pi based on IoT
watering system was developed without the usage Surya Prasad, P. and Prabhakara Rao, B. (2016). Curvelet
of a Raspberry Pi and instead made use of a wire- transform based statistical pattern recognition sys-
less sensor network and GPRS module. Surya et al. tem for condition monitoring of power distribution
(2018) proposed the automatic irrigation system is line insulators. Innov. Elec. Comm. Engg Proc. Fifth
ICIECE 2016, 311–317.
the subject of a review study.
Li, Kunlong. (2020). WITHDRAWN: Gymnastics training
This device, which is based on the RF module, is
action recognition based on machine learning and
used to send or receive radio signals between two wireless sensors. Microprocessors and Microsystems
devices. It has a complicated design due to the sensi- Available online 24 November 2020, 103522. doi:
tivity of radio circuits and the precision of the com- [Link] With-
ponents. A proposal was made by Ganai et al. (2022). drawn Article
A rain gun pipe with one end connected to the water Singh, Saravjeet, Jaiteg Singh, and Sukhjit Singh Sehra.
pump and the other to the plant’s root is used in this (2020). Genetic-inspired map matching algorithm for
sensor-based autonomous irrigation system with IoT. real-time GPS trajectories. Arabian Journal for Science
It does not use a sprinkler to deliver water and instead and Engineering. 45(4): 2587–2603.
relies on a soil moisture sensor. Anand et al. (2015) Mallikarjuna, B., Gulshan, S., and Meenakshi, S. (2022).
Blockchain technology: A DNN token-based ap-
demonstrated an Arduino-based IoT-enabled smart
proach in healthcare and COVID-19 to generate ex-
irrigation system. The researcher used an Arduino
tracted data. Exp. Sys. 39(3), e12778.
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soil moisture sensors. management in IoT-based-cloud. Int. J. Fog Comput.
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28 Drowsiness detection in drivers: A machine learning
approach using hough circle classification algorithm for
eye retina images
J. Viji Gripsy1,a, N. A. Sheela Selvakumari2, S. Sahul Hameed3 and
M. Jamila Begam4
1
Department of Computer Science, PSGR Krishnammal College for Women, Coimbatore, Tamil nadu, India
2
Department of Computer Science, Sri Krishna Arts and Science College, Coimbatore, Tamil nadu, India
3
Department of Information Technology, Syed Hameedha Arts and Science College, Kilakarai, Tamil nadu, India
4
Department of Computer Science, Syed Hameedha Arts and Science College, Kilakarai, Tamil nadu, India
Abstract
Driving has become one of the most important routine works in our everyday life. For many people it is difficult to imagine
a life without driving. Accidents are a persistent and inevitable part of driving. Hence automatic drowsiness detection has
become a major challenge in research perspective. In this research work, drowsiness detection technique has been imple-
mented using machine learning (ML) techniques. In this methodology, a preprocessing, segmentation, feature extraction and
classification steps to perform. This work proposed hough circle (HC) classification algorithm for detecting drowsiness of the
eye retina images. The primary objective of this study is to evaluate the performance of the suggested hierarchical clustering
method through the utilization of diverse metrics. According to the results of the performance evaluation, the suggested HC
algorithm demonstrated a 90.8% accuracy rate, along with a minimal execution time and a lower error rate compared to
existing algorithms.
Keywords: Drowsiness detection, machine learning (ML), segmentation, feature extraction, classification, NB, SVM, k-NN
Introduction knowledge and object detection (Alsaad and Hussien,
2021).
Data mining has emerged due to the incredible
Figure 28.1 depicts the process of image mining.
development of the huge database. The tremendous
Image stored in numeric database and relational data-
increase in the information flow and the enormous
base. Primary storage space capacity data needs low
amount of data generation are considered as the key
storage space. Further image information is being
aspects of evolving novel data mining techniques.
gathered with standard statistics. There is extremely
Data mining indicates extracting or mining the hid-
considerable knowledge of image\picture informa-
den knowledge and valuable information from a large
tion that might be learn a new and understanding
volume of data (Al Redhaei et al., 2022). It is an inno-
knowledge of images (Sparrow et al., 2016; Singh et
vative technology with tremendous prospective to
al., 2019). Image is pre-process image data within a
explore the important information which is available
figure of function of image mining (Dua et al., 2021).
in databases and data warehouses. Being a multi-dis-
The rest of the paper is organized as follows:
ciplinary subfield of computer science aims to develop
Current state of image mining research; The appli-
the tools and the methods for examining the valuable
cations of image mining; The related works; The
information from the huge volume of data (Hardeep
general methodology for Drowsiness Detection; The
Singh, 2011).
conclusion.
Image mining is one of the growing fields in all
research domains. Various research works are done Current state of image mining research
in the research data. Image mining study is used to Image mining deals with extraction of understandable
analyzing and detecting the image data. Image min- data. Image mining issues and current development
ing is larger than an expansion of image domain in image mining. Framework of image mining, state
(Sane and Rokade, 2016). Image mining techniques of the art techniques and further research of image
main key areas are image information extractions, mining (Khaleefa Al Hammadi, 2016). Image mining
substance base image recovery, capture recovery, research steps of current state are mentioned here.
video chain study, adjust detection, reproduction They are as follows:
vijigripsy@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 203
Figure 28.2 External eye structure
pre-processing knowledge 5 company image sets for
security.
Image mining in detection: Detection information is
using in our life like facial expression image sets, head
image sets, yawn image sets, and eye image sets for
Figure 28.1 Image mining process safety.
Drowsiness detection
Driving is the riskiest job because while driving the
• Image indexing: image indexing method is used physical and psychological position must be paying
to expand the spatial position data. Spatial infor- attention. When there is required for attentiveness,
mation is stored in the rational databases. awareness, and non-sleepiness will not cause danger
• Database integration: The profitable dependency to the driver life’s (Sri Mounika et al., 2022). Although
normally generates 2 to 3 images of a specified of this sleepiness there are numerous reasons for
position every day and the expanded positions of motor vehicle crashes such as climate situation, path
each picture. situation, motor vehicle state, or less of driving ability.
• Spatial clustering: The cluster make of each spot There are three kinds of the category are been declare
is obtained after apply the clustering method. drowsiness that is joint restiveness, non-quick eye
• Semantic cluster concept generation: Semantic progress, and quick eye progress. Sleepiness acts as
cluster concepts such as middle cluster, left clus- the middle awakens is led to serious accidents. The
ter, intense cluster, sparse cluster, big cluster and mistake occurs when the person is drowsy or ignorant
small cluster. of the environment and not capable to make a perfect
• Trends and patterns mining: These trend and pat- decision on the path before colliding damage of the
tern are helpful for enhanced understanding of motor vehicle (Hardeep Singh, 2011).
the performance of the patterns mining (Hamzah The main idea behind this concept is to prevent
Al Najada, 2016). the drowsiness of the driver. Sleepiness is caused by
extended time driving which directs to highway area
Applications of image mining accidents (Gomathy et al., 2022). Up to 78% of car
Image mining is an upcoming development area, accidents are caused by sleepiness. The main cause for
while it is a latest research area, its expansion shown this is the lack of drowsiness chaos and being physi-
huge process. Image mining is using different area cally tired 20% is appropriate to drink and drive and
like medical, biometric, object or image detection 2% is of speed driving (Kundinger, Sofra, and Riener,
(Hamzah Al Najada, 2016). 2020). They are two kinds of identification approved
that is driver’s vehicle finding and driver’s facial recog-
Image mining in medical: Medical information is nition. To evade sleepiness the driver’s sequent check
using in our everyday life like C-T image sets, cardio- of the eye is essential; since in the extended journey,
gram image sets, MRI image sets, mammogram image the driver needs to position them self on the seat, if
sets, X-ray image sets and ultrasound image sets for not driver is patient through the driving and also with
finding problems. the authority and control the sleepiness (Moujahid
Image mining in biometric: Biometric informa- et al., 2021). Figure 28.2 illustrates the external eye
tion is using in our everyday life like school image structure.
sets, military image sets, hospital image sets, and There are complexities in the range of sleepi-
Image database evaluation mining feature extraction ness-connected accidents in the present day is no
204 Drowsiness detection in drivers
easy-to-predict, dependable approach for an exami- been observed but still, there is a problem with the
nation to decide whether sleepiness is an issue in the large vehicle (Rasna and Smithamol 2021). Reducing
accidents’ and, point of sleepiness the drivers’ physi- sleeping through crashes is a serious term of damage
cal and mentally painful. Most sleepy driving is a “not and loss of lives. There is an enlarged in the growth of
completely attentive” or “drowsy driving while he/she the detection system using the automotive application
is exhausted”. Numerically, the driver’s sleepiness is to make your fear of this difficulty.
Related works
Source- materials Drowsiness evaluate Detection methods Feature_extraction Classification
(Albadawi, Takruri, and Gaze-look, Head-pose SVM Gabor-wavelet- SVM
Awad, 2022) Generalized-
regression
neural-networks
(Dua et al., 2021) Mouth-opening Viola-Jones- Connection CNN
algorithm coefficient outline
identical
(Hardeep Singh, 2011) Head-pose Geometrical Steerable filter’s, SVM
method histogram of leaning-
gradients (H.O.G),
(Liu, Hosking, and Eye’s closure methods SVM classification, Maximum- Threshold-based
Lenné, 2009) Haar-features probability
algorithm’s ghostly
Regression
(Moujahid et al., 2021) Yawning method Kalman-filter L.B. P SVM
(Al Redhaei et al., Eye-closure duration, Hough-transforms D.W. T Neural- classification
2022) Frequency of
eye- closure
(Sparrow et al., 2016) Eye closure- duration Viola-Jones- Viola-Jones- SVM
algorithm algorithm’s
Methodology noise reduction, sharpness, contrast, and brightness
techniques to enhance the eye retina image quality.
Therefore, the sharpness brightness, noise reduction,
and contrast features were calculated from and given
for the better gray scale image to the next stage detail
of the eye retina images.
Segmentation
This work used E_GRUNS a predictable algorithm
for segmenting the eye retina picture. Originally, the
picture center region is separated into three blocks:
left, center, and right. A comparatively huge center
region is measured in organize to take into explana-
tion cases where the retina is a little shift up or down
while passable field definition is unmoving maintain.
The E_GRUNS algorithms analysis the picture 0
inspects simply these three-block base on the follow-
Figure 28.3 System architecture ing two explanations:
Figure 28.3 illustrates system architecture • The retina has a huge figure of over control eye
beginning it. Thus, the block’s clear visible area
Pre-processing purpose is predictable to have the maximum in-
The pre-processing algorithm is used only for attri- formation of the three measured block drowsy
bute division because of eye images. This work used level stage.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 205
• The retina picture is noticeable by its high con- in the classification process. Furthermore, the per-
centration to generate segmentation. Hence, the formance of the eye drowsy decision is compared to
block containing the curve area is predictable conclusion.
to have the stage in order to find better drowsy This work proposed hough circle (HC) algorithm
detection three block drowsy levels (Gera et al., for classification. The proposed HC algorithm evalu-
2021; Gomathy et al., 2022). ates retina picture clearness and satisfies superiority
issues like clear visible area in the eye. The HC algo-
This work used the gray scale image as changes into rithm classification is full of eye retina images exposed
the optimized technique segmentation. Eye image is and using supervised classification. This research ret-
easy to find the drowsiness line curve and is also help- ina drowsy method is specially fit for retina pictures
ful for the next stage to find and concluded drowsi- to find sleepiness. The planned drowsy HC algorithm
ness using the black and white region of the eye. is calculated as the most of the retina drowsy value in
Segmentation was implemented to guarantee the ret- white and black region space color. The conclusion
ina picture clear visible area information during the of the HC algorithm creates an improved suitable
different procedures. Segmentation checks and inner method (Kundinger, Sofra, and Riener, 2020). Based
quality ratio (IQR) were used. The image connected on the HC algorithm, to find sleepiness is calculated
to the overall and standard point of every picture as the retina region for the classification to give better
boundary, correspondingly. results.
To exact classification the retina picture estimate
Feature extraction decision as it reveals the information content inside
Feature extraction reduces the amount of informa- the picture information. The picture of every stage is
tion that must be processed, while still precisely and calculated as the standard of the left, right, up, and
telling the unique data set. Feature extraction natural down as given by the following equations.
measures like sleepy eye are extremely entity and dif-
fer from one person/subject to the next person/sub-
ject uniqueness for further analysis. The procedures
used in this research are obtained from the drowsi-
where the white region images have larger in the non-
ness detection dataset. This dataset includes non-
drowsy. The planned retina picture estimate decision
physiologic information, acquire in an investigational
as it reveals the information contained inside the pic-
field study in a real lab. This work used the FBSG
ture information. The picture of every stage is calcu-
algorithm to extract each driver’s sleepiness stage is
lated as the standard of the left, right, up, and down
also accessible in the dataset (Dua et al., 2021). The
as given by the following equations.
original set of unrefined data is reduced to a further
convenient group for the process. A feature of this
outsized dataset is a huge number of variables that
need a lot of computing resources for the procedure.
Feature extraction is the forename for a method that
selects and/or combines variables into feature extrac- Algorithm for HC
tion, efficiently the total of records that should be
processed, to improve precision and entire unique Multi-stage range of R-curve
datasets. Step 1. Circle Selection: Fit a circle to the locate of
the person bend bi and bright pixels in The
dark state
Classification
Classification of sleepy recognition issues in eye pic- Step 2. Select the bend lie in the environs of this
circle for the point
tures was the major cause of identifying the problem.
Details and non-finding problems inside the retina Step 3. Superior Selection: the bend into two
categories: a) black, b) white
picture result due to means will not proceed to the
next step so it needs an achievable algorithm method Step 4. Calculate the close relative vessel-segment
direction bθi For each bend bi
to find the drowsiness in the classification. Albadawi,
Takruri, and Awad (2022) observed process recogni- Step 5. Examine each picture in steps of 90°
tion method and proper classification retina picture Step 6. if circle/curve (s) exist then
process are helpful to lead the anther stage to find the Step 7. if bi
drowsiness to guide the classification result (Hardeep Step 8. is right then
Singh, 2011). The proposed algorithm is introduc- Step 9. if numerous then
ing that method based on the classification process.
Step 10. choose r- bend with the least bend angle
Numerous studies and comparisons were performed
206 Drowsiness detection in drivers
Algorithm for HC
Step 11. else
Step 12. choose r- bend
Step 13. end if
Step 14. end if
Step 15. else
Step 16. carry on
Step 17. end
Results and discussion
As a measure of sleepiness, the proportion of eye
level and eye sleep was measured throughout the Figure 28.4 Pre-processing using noise reduction,
session using the MATLAB program only for data sharpness, contrast, brightness
purposes.
Dataset
The approach is illustrated through drowsiness detec-
tion, utilizing a carefully selected dataset derived from
the MRL eye dataset. This dataset serves as a special-
ized subset designed for efficient categorization tasks.
It encompasses a diverse range of infrared images of
human eyes, encompassing both low and high-quality
photographs obtained under varying lighting condi-
tions and using different imaging devices. This dataset
is ideally suited for evaluating a multitude of features
or trainable classification models. To facilitate algo-
rithmic comparisons, the images are categorized into
multiple classes, making them highly suitable for both
training and testing classification algorithms. In total,
the dataset comprises 216 photographs, with 194
depicting non-sleepy subjects and 22 depicting indi-
viduals experiencing drowsiness.
Performance measures
Various performance metrics are employed to thor-
oughly assess the effectiveness of both the proposed
and existing algorithms. The evaluation of the sug-
gested algorithm’s performance encompasses an Figure 28.5 Pre-processing result using noise reduc-
array of comprehensive measures, including PSNR tion, sharpness, contrast, brightness
(Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio), recall, mean absolute
error (MAE), precision, execution time, accuracy
and F-score. These metrics provide a holistic and in- the brightness provides better pre-processing results
depth examination of the algorithm’s performance in among the other approaches in this work.
diverse aspects, ensuring a robust assessment of its
capabilities. Segmentation
Figure 28.6 depicts segmentation comparisons for
Pre-processing right eye image thresholds 1.5, 1.6, 1.8, and image
Figure 28.5 represents the PSNR result graph using threshold 1.7 using the E_GRUNS algorithm.
noise reduction, sharpness, contrast, and brightness
of the right eye image for noise reduction, sharpness, Performance of the classifier
contrast, and brightness. Figure 28.4 shows the pre- Based on the HC outcome, the attribute-derived con-
processing comparison between proposed pre-pro- clusion is to fill with better performance. In the seg-
cessing images. From this analysis, it is observed that ment, every different image attribute set is estimated
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 207
and independently tested, and calculated. The overall
quality attribute will be composed of described data
set used for the quality attribute image good excel-
lence picture changeable results. Furthermore, the
better picture quality subject counting drowsy value
to find the drowsy stage, above below nonsleepy,
sleepy picture. HC algorithm classification outcome
compared with existing NB, k-NN, and SVM tech-
niques. The HC algorithm implemented in this chap-
ter was utilized in the next chapter for comparison of
drowsy value with other existing techniques method.
Table 28.1 presents the performance analysis of
classification.
Figure 28.7 depicts the performance analysis Figure 28.7 Performance analysis of classifiers
of classifiers. From the result observation, it is
Figure 28.8 Mean absolute error
noticed that the proposed HC algorithm produces
high precision, accuracy, F-score, and recall rate
than other classification algorithms. Figure 28.8
illustrates mean absolute error. From the experi-
mental result, it is observed that the proposed HC
algorithm gives a minimum mean absolute error
than other classification algorithms. Figure 28.9
shows execution time. From the result observation,
Figure 28.6 Segmentation comparisons for right eye it is noticed that the proposed HC algorithm gives
image threshold 1.5, 1.6, 1.8 and image threshold 1.7 a minimum execution time than other classifica-
using E_GRUNS algorithm tion algorithms.
Table 28.1 Performance analysis of classification.
Classification algorithms Pre. Rec. F-Sc. Acc. MAE Execution time
NB 77.39 79.49 78.42 75.16 0.168 2084
SVM 83.64 85.74 84.67 86.79 0.152 1831
KNN 87.07 89.17 88.1 89.32 0.139 1725
Proposed HC 89.65 91.75 90.68 90.12 0.109 1407
208 Drowsiness detection in drivers
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29 Optimizing congestion collision using effective rate
control with data aggregation algorithm in wireless sensor
network
K. Deepa1,a, C. Arunpriya2 and M. Sasikala3
Department of Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence, SR University, Warangal, Telangana, India
1
Department of Computer Science, PSG College of Arts and Science, Coimbatore, Tamil nadu, India
2
Department of Computer Science (PG), PSGR Krishnammal College for Women Coimbatore, Tamil nadu, India
3
Abstract
Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) offered promising opportunities for the development of ubiquitous and pervasive comput-
ing. However, the implementation of WSNs encountered many barriers and problems. These included the dynamic nature of
network topology and the occurrence of congestion, both of which had a detrimental impact on network capacity utilization
and overall performance. In WSN systems, the transmission of packets occurs from nodes with low congestion levels to nodes
with high congestion levels, resulting in a decrease in energy levels for nodes located in close proximity to the sink nodes. The
effective rate control with data aggregation (ERCDA) strategy employs an efficient data aggregation technique to enhance
the equitable utilization of battery power across all nodes involved. The proposed methodology is executed on the NS2.35
platform and evaluated in terms of throughput, packet loss, end-to-end delay, and source data transmission rate adjustment.
According to simulations, it has been shown that the use of ERCDA exhibits a higher degree of efficacy in comparison to
conventional congestion-handling approaches.
Keywords: Wireless sensor networks, congestion control, data aggregation, rate control, ERCD
Introduction WPDDRC algorithm next hops between transmitter
and receiver routing pathways might increase WSN
WSNs are developed by connecting several sensor
unintentional energy usage. Overhearing diminishes
nodes with little energy. Each sensor may provide
emission sensor network efficacy (Kafi et al., 2014).
neighboring data through a wireless network at its dis-
In a WSN network, packets transfer from low-
tribution center. Because of its flexibility and authen-
to high-congested nodes, lowering energy near sink
ticity, it uses correct information(Kafi et al., 2017). nodes. The suggested effective rate control with data
Thus, a reliable data exchange system was created. aggregation (ERCDA) technique optimizes battery
This network is utilized in medical practices, agricul- power utilization across all participating nodes using
tural models, catastrophe monitoring, and more, and an effective data aggregation methodology. Network
it depends on effective stability measures. Each sen- coding data aggregation reduces transmission delays
sor node has the essential data transfer capabilities and energy waste, increasing network performance.
(Wang et al., 2019). Even when nodes use full capac- The transmission frequency is the number of data
ity, congestion may cause data loss, integrity issues, packets a node sends in one communication cycle
and unpredictable performance. (Cheng et al., 2013). Sensor nodes should not transmit
Ten years of study have concentrated on specialized more than one packet every round(Wang et al., n.d.).
protocols and effective strategies to manage huge data However, reduced transmission frequency boosted
and limited bandwidth. Getting the signal from source network channel capacity and throughput.
to sink node with low loss is crucial (Yaakob and The network coding route combines data for trans-
Khalil, 2016). Many researchers are interested in pre- mission to the next hop, enhancing channel use and
venting network congestion, which is a major cause minimizing packet redundancy(Tan et al., 2019).
of data loss. Reduced congestion extends node life. When congestion develops, the packet dropping rate
Rate control is one of several traffic delay methods in is raised and the node sends data via network coding.
the literature (Kafi et al., 2014). After discovering that The parent node switches networking coding ON or
RT traffic requires low latency and high consistency, OFF depending on packet precedence, node residual
it must be prioritized. Packets from a low-congested energy, and delay, according to adaptive network
node to a highly-congested node in a WSN network coding. Network coding uses random linear network
reduce energy usage near the sink node. Variations in coding(Swain and Nanda, 2019).
a
[Link]@[Link]
210 Optimizing congestion collision using effective rate control
Related work To optimize throughput, REFIACC (reliable, effi-
cient, fair, and interference-aware congestion control)
(Sarode and Bakal, n.d.) DDRC approach exploits
was developed (Kafi et al., 2014). This method mini-
divergent rate variation between the sink and supplied
mized interferences and ensured bandwidth fairness
nodes. This technique calculates a node’s rate using
among nodes. Considering the variation between mul-
global precedence and sink-node traffic rate changes.
tiple path’s infrastructure while scheduling reduced
The traffic class’s weighted priority and a node’s diverg-
inter- and intra-route restrictions(Tshiningayamwe,
ing rate variance are used in WPDDRC. This method
Lusilao-Zodi, and Dlodlo, 2016). The greatest band-
handles real-time and non-real-time data. This algo-
width was most efficiently used using linear pro-
rithm ranked legitimate traffic first(Ahmad Jan et al.,
gramming. However, traffic priority was ignored and
2018). Balanced traffic class priorities between nodes.
average throughput remained poor(Farsi et al., n.d.).
The second technique relied on increased priority and
derivative rate control. Rate control lowered packet
loss and capacity utilization by controlling network Proposed methodology
congestion(Sumathi and Srinivasan, 2012) . Effective rate control with data aggregation (ERCDA)
Monowar and Bajaber(2017) conducted a study in A graph G(V,E) may define the system model, where
which they assigned priority to different traffic types N is the number of nodes and E is the number of
and calculated the generalized processor (GP) for each connections. E describes the communication con-
node (Batra et al., n.d.). The aforementioned con- nection between a V and b V, with sink node as the
cept has also been used to monitor the provision of final receiver(Xie et al., 2018; Khattar et al., 2020).
patient care in real-time. The protocol demonstrated The link e(a, b) E represents the transmitter (Tr) and
enhanced quality of service (QoS) because to its high receiver (Rr) nodes a and b. Links are formed when
data transfer rate; nevertheless, it did not effectively the distance between nodes is less than the transmis-
address the network’s hotspot problem. A rate man- sion range (Swain and Nanda, 2019). The sensor
agement method for implanted wireless body area node sent application field data to the following node.
networks (WBANs) reduces congestion and hotspots, Data aggregation reduces transmission delays and
according to Monowar and Bajaber(Mazunga and energy use while increasing network performance.
Nechibvute, 2021).Health-monitoring network queue The transmission frequency is the number of packets
occupancy and traffic intensity data-controlled traf- a node delivers in one cycle. A sensor node should not
fic congestion. Swain and Nanda (2019)prioritized transmit more than one packet every round. However,
packet transmission and hop-by-hop flow manage- reduced transmission frequency boosted network
ment in their research. channel capacity and throughput (Mazunga and
Sarode and Bakal (UC Santa Cruz UC Santa Nechibvute, 2021). The network coding route com-
Cruz Electronic Theses and Dissertations. Adaptive bines data for transmission to the next hop, enhanc-
Network Coding In MANET, (n.d.)) discussed pri- ing channel use and minimizing packet redundancy.
ority node transmission in a long WSN and three In response to congestion, the packet dropping rate
congestion management techniques. The suggested is raised and the node aggregates packets using the
methods ignored the network’s node scheduling proposed algorithm.
mechanism (Rezaee, Yaghmaee, and Rahmani, 2014). The source node switches networking coding ON
Rezaee and co-authors(2014),used queue manage- or OFF depending on file size, projected hub joins
ment to reduce congestion in the healthcare system termination time, and network data flow, according
using WSN. They provided an AQM-based technique to the suggested method. Turn off networkcoding
for stationary patients, but later developed a health- for nodes that deliver file packets directly if the file
care-aware optimized congestion avoidance and con- size is less than the connection’s maximum data rate
trol protocol (HOCA) to prevent traffic congestion and predicted link expiry time. The threshold value is
during critical patient transfer. Swain and Nanda pre- utilized when data rate exceeds(Zhuang et al., 2019;
sented traffic class preference-based adaptive rate reg- Singh et al., 2020).
ulation to reduce WSN congestion(Ghaffari, 2015). According on the packet rate, the nodes in the pro-
The algorithm uses unequal differences. The traffic posed technique determine whether to turn network
class priority system prioritizes RT traffic. To identify coding ON or OFF. The transmission of data occurs
requirements (Yin, Gui, and Zeng, 2019) presented in a direct manner between nodes. Nodes facilitate the
a priority-based routing technique that combines RT implementation of network coding and are respon-
and NRT traffic. Yaakob and Khalil used relaxation sible for transmitting encoded data within networks,
theory and max-min fairness to prevent congestion as stated in reference. Packets are encoded and trans-
while transmitting critical medical data in real-time ferred as linear combinations of the original packets.
(Swain and Nanda, 2019). The receiver node decodes encoded packets to retrieve
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 211
the originals. The total bytes of all packets to transmit to decrease latency. Artificial neural network
are packet size. (ANN) training and testing for high-bandwidth
traffic of variable burstiness. Time(p,q) is packet
(1) flow time, k(p,q) is packet transmission, n(p,q) is
packet count, BWreq(p,q) is desired bandwidth,
(2) and DR is DataRate.
(3) Algorithm 1: Effective rate control with data aggrega-
tion (ERCDA)
(4)
Input: Set of path
To build optimum paths with possible coding nodes,
Output: Selected path
nodes must meet network coding requirements. Let’s
Step 1: Initialize the parameters: service time (STnsink),
define certain notations before discussing network
bdµ, are the traffic class priorities.
coding. Node an in data flow df routing is determined
Step 2: Compute the mean service time n™ virtual
by source nodes and sink nodes sn. The single-hop
queue in the sink node as:
neighbor set of node an is Ns(a). Forwarding and
backward nodes in data flow df routing are shown
by Forward(a, df) and Backward(a, df). Thus, if two
flows meet at intermediate sensor node c, the inter-
vening node may encrypt and send the data if the net- Step 3: Calculate the rate variance nt” virtual queue
work condition is satisfied. The network packet flow in the sink node using the formula
is O1 and O2. The important and suitable require-
ments for system coding should be specified initially
to identify coding possibilities. Network coding is
achievable until the flows df1 and df2 intersect at Where,is the output rate of the kth connected child
node. Network coding collision occurs when different node of the sink.
flows interfere. The input rate of the kth parent node is
Step 4: Calculate the updated output rate of nth vir-
Condition: tual queue in the kth parent node
1: Existing noden1 ∈ Backward (a, df1) while n1 ∈ Step 5: Calculate the update rate of nth virtual queue
Ns(m2) Lm2For(e,f2) or n1 ∈ For(e,f2). in the kth parent node propagated tothe Ith
2: Existing node n2 ∈ Backward (a, df2) while n2 ∈ child node
Ns(m1) Λm1 For(e,f1) or n2 ∈ For(e,f1).The network Step 6: Continue Steps 2–Steps 5 until completion of
with many flows picks the route with the greatest the specified simulation period.
coding possibilities that fits the condition. How- Step 7: Node has information to share.
ever, excessive coding at several conflicting nodes Step 8: if
may prohibit the destination node from de- {
crypting a native packet. At some time, flow df3 Step 9: Check for active neighboring nodes then
(black line) connects to the network. Node C1 Step 10: Check if the data rate is higher than the max-
meets the network coding requirement with df1 imum data rate.
and df3 based on node C, and Node C2 meets it If packet (sizeinbits) ≥ MDT
with df2 and df3. C1 receives O1♁O3 packets {
by encoding and delivering them over route df3. Execute network coding All packets into one coded
Additionally, node C2 encodes and sends packets Block or Frame are
O1♁O2♁O3 to L3 and N2 through pathways represented by Ol, 02, 03,......0n
f3 and f2. As it overhears packets O1 and O2 B(k) = O1♁O2♁O3…..n
from source nodes S1 and S2, destination node
L3 decodes O3 from O1♁O2♁O3. If packets Else
arrive at target node E2, it can decode packet O3 Compute Traffic Load Intensity
but not O2. Node C2 cannot be used as a cod- End
ing node, as shown. Due to significant route cod- Step 11: When flow dfl and df2 intersect at the node e,
ing, f3 affects the coding collision issue. Limits Network coding is feasible only
should be added to prevent code collisions. Ma- if
chine learning-based bandwidth allocation meth- Existing node m € Backward (a, dft) while m1 €
od adapts to high-bandwidth traffic patterns Ns(m2) L m2For(e,f2) or me For(e,f).
212 Optimizing congestion collision using effective rate control
Existing node nz € Backward (a, df2) while n2 € techniques. This phenomenon occurs as a result of the
Ns(m1) L m1) For(e, fi) or nz € For(e, fi). allocation of priority levels to traffic classes at each
} virtual queue and the equitable distribution of band-
Step 12: Eliminate Coding collision width across all nodes in the network.
// Training using ANN
Step 13: xp,g = {k(p.q). n(p.a). a(p.q). BWreq(p.q). Packet loss
duration(p.q)} It is the amount of data dropped or missed during
Step 14: duration(p+1.q) transfer.
Step 15: y=ANN (xp,q)
(7)
Simulation results
In this section, the ERCDA technique is executed Figure 29.2 illustrates the percentage of packet
in network simulator version 2.35 (NS2.35) and loss for the HOCA, DRCDC, CCR, and ERCDA
1000×1000m2 simulation area with 50 nodes, 5GHz approaches over different simulation durations,
operating frequency, and 120 s simulation time. Its measured in seconds. The findings suggest that the
effectiveness is analyzed compared to the Health- ERCDA approach has a lower incidence of packet
care-aware Optimized Congestion Avoidance and loss in comparison to other strategies. If the simula-
Control protocol (HOCA), Differentiated Rate tion duration is 120 s, the ERCDA algorithm has a
Control Data Collection (DRCDC), and Congestion- packet loss rate of 20%, which is the lowest among
aware Clustering and routing (CCR) techniques. The the other methods. Therefore, the ERCDA exhibits
analysis is conducted based on throughput, packet little packet loss as a result of its implementation of
loss, end-to-end (E2E) delay, and source data transfer virtual queues and equitable allocation of bandwidth
rate adjustment. among nodes to effectively manage congestion inside
the WSN.
Throughput
It is the amount of data accepted by the target within End-to-end delay
a time.
It is the time taken for a data to be broadcasted from
an origin to the sink.
(6)
Figure 29.1 illustrates the throughput (measured (8)
in kilobits per second) for the HOCA, DRCDC, and
CCR methods throughout different simulation dura- In this equation is the time at the sink while accept-
tions (measured in seconds). It is observed that the ing the data and is the time at the origin while for-
ERCDA produces a greater throughput compared to warding that data.
previous approaches. When the simulation duration is Figure 29.3 illustrates the end-to-end (E2E) latency,
set to 120 s (seconds), the throughput achieved by the measured in milliseconds (ms), for the HOCA,
ERCDA algorithm is measured to be 525 kbps(kilobits DRCDC, CCR, and ERCDA approaches over differ-
per second), surpassing the performance of other ent simulation time intervals, measured in seconds (s).
Figure 29.1 Throughput Figure 29.2 Packet loss
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 213
to the starting transfer rate of the nodes. Therefore, it
is essential to ensure that the traffic classes with the
greatest priority are effectively disseminated without
experiencing any congestion prior to decreasing the
transfer rate.
Conclusion
This research introduces the ERCDA approach, which
takes into account factors such as energy usage, bat-
tery power, and power management. Network cod-
ing is used in situations when the data rate exceeds
a predetermined threshold value, taking into account
Figure 29.3 E2E delay the stated threshold value for the data rate. To opti-
mize the equitable utilization of battery power, a
proficient approach is implemented, including the
aggregation of data, coding conditions, and coding
collision mechanisms. In conclusion, the simulation
results demonstrate that the efficacy of the ERCDA
approach is superior to that of traditional congestion
management strategies.
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30 DDoS attack detection methods, challenges and
opportunities: A survey
Jaspreet Kaura and Gurjit Singh Bhathal
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Punjabi University, Patiala, India
Abstract
A concept labeled“cloud computing”enables online, on-demand access to a shared pool of computing resources. It offers
scalability, flexibility, and cost-efficiency to organizations, allowing them to focus on their core business functions. However,
the popularity and widespread adoption of cloud computing also make it an attractive target for cyber-attacks. Distributed
denial of service (DDoS) is one such threat, where a network or service is overwhelmed with an excessive amount of mali-
cious traffic, rendering it inaccessible to legitimate users. DDoS attacks may affect cloud-based services’performance and
availability, resulting in severe loss of revenue and damaging their reputation. To combat these attacks, various classification
methods have been developed to categorize DDoS attacks based on their characteristics and attack vectors. These classi-
fications aid in understanding attack patterns, developing effective defense mechanisms, and enhancing incident response
strategies. Furthermore, attacks using DDoS are often planned to utilizebotnets, which are networks of compromised com-
puters under the direction of one administrator. Botnets amplify the impact of DDoS attacks by harnessing the combined
resources of multiple compromised devices. Understanding the operation and behavior of botnets is crucial for mitigating
DDoS attacks effectively. This paper provides a description of cloud computing, a look at attacks via DDoS, a method to
categorize them, and the role of botnets in carrying out these attacks focusing on the significance of having strong security
mechanisms set up in cloud systems in order to protect against these types of risks.
Keywords: COVID-19, advanced face shield, temperature sensing face shield
Introduction which are virtualized as a consequence of IaaS. SaaS
provides users with online access to software pro-
Technology is constantly evolving and advancing
grams, without needing local installation. Users can
at an incredible pace. New inventions and discov-
select the level of control and flexibility required for
eries are being made every day. Cloud computing
is a key technology that is part of the large field of their particular use case by choosing one of these lay-
information technology (IT). Cloud computing is the ers, each offering a different level of abstraction and
delivery of computing resources like storage, process- functionality. Many cloud computing deployment
ing power, and software applications through the methods, including public cloud, private cloud, and
Internet. It is a paradigm for providing shared com- hybrid cloud, figure out who controls and operates
puter resources and related services with on-demand the underlying infrastructure. Security is a major con-
access and little services with on-demand access and cern in cloud computing, as data and applications are
little administration work. Instead of using their local stored on remote servers and accessed over the inter-
devices, users can store and access their data and net. Here are some key security considerations for
projects on remote servers. Cloud computing offers cloud computing data protection, Identity, and access
several benefits such as scalability, cost-effectiveness, management, network security, compliance and gov-
and accessibility. Without spending money on costly ernance, incident response, and disaster recovery.
gadgets and infrastructure, businesses and individu- Cloud security protects cloud-based resources, appli-
als can easily scale their computing capabilities up or cations, data, and other security concerns such as
down according totheir needs. Furthermore, cloud theft, unauthorized access, and data breaches. Cloud
computing can be less expensive than traditional security requires a comprehensive and proactive
computing on-site because customers only pay for approach involving technical controls, policies and
the services they really utilize. Platform as a service procedures, and ongoing monitoring and assessment.
(PaaS), software as a service (SaaS), and infrastructure Cyber security experts are taking precautions against
as a service (IaaS) are instances that represent each of cloud assaults because these attacks affect their finan-
the three primary categories of cloud computing ser- cial status, resource management, and level of service
vices. While PaaS gives customers a platform to cre- (Abusaimehet al., 2020). Additionally, cloud comput-
ate, launch, and manage their applications, they are ing has turned into an essential part of the internet,
provided with access to server and storage resources thus cloud providers must continue to make them
a
jasspreet87270@[Link]
216 DDoS attack detection methods, challenges and opportunities
accessible. It’s distributed nature has made it very easy temperature of healthcare workers as and when
to attack (Alanazi etal.,2019). Here are a few cloud required that too any hassle of removing hand gloves
computing applications or services that can help you or PPE kits. Another objective is to make this face
fulfill your corporate, academic, and general business shields reusable (Figure 30.1).
goals (Kati etal., 2020).
DDoSattacks and their classifications
The architecture of cloud computing
Several types of security attacks can threaten the secu-
The structure and features that make up a cloud com- rity of cloud computing environments. Attacks such
puting system are known as the cloud computing as DDoS create a serious security risk for cloud com-
architecture. It typically involves multiple layers of puting infrastructures. A DDoS attack involves the use
abstraction and various hardware and software com- of multiple computers or other devices to bombard
ponents, which are written below. a targeted system with requests or traffic, overload-
Physical infrastructure layer– This layer consists of ing it and keeping it unreachable to authorized users.
physical servers, storage devices, networking equip- Cloud-based services are especially vulnerable to
ment, anddata centers that provide the foundation for DDoS attacks because they rely on the internet to con-
cloud computing. nect with users and other services, which makes them
Virtualization layer– This layer allows the ability to more susceptible to traffic floods and network conges-
generate and keep track of virtual machines (VMs), tion. Strong security measures like firewalls, intrusion
and virtual resources, such as virtual CPUs, memory, detection and prevention systems, and other tools
and storage. It allows multiple VMs to run on maxi- should be considered by organizations, and content
mizing the use of hardware resources. delivery networks (CDNs) to protect against attacks
Platform layer–Developers may design and deploy involving DDoS in the cloud. They should also regu-
their software on this layer without having to be con- larly monitor their network traffic and be prepared
cerned about managing the underlying infrastructure. to respond quickly to any suspended or confirmed
Application development, testing, deployment, and DDoS attacks. Host may include virtual machines,
scalability tools are included. computers, laptops, or zombies in this attack. They
Application layer–Applications and services that come with a remote. Multiple computers are used in a
are provided to end users via the internet are included threatening attack, or DDoS (Abusaimeh etal., 2020)
in this layer. It includes cloud computing services. (Figure 30.2).
Management layer–This layer provides tools and
services for monitoring, managing, and securing the Classification of DDoSattack
cloud computing environment. It includes tools for
managing VMs, storage, networking, security, and DDoS attacks are very difficult to stop or identify since
compliance services. they spread easily over the internet (Kesavamoorthy
This paper is aimed to design a technologically etal., 2020). There are some different classifica-
advanced 3D face shield capable of monitoring body tions based on threats such as attacks on lower rate
Figure 30.1 Architecture of cloud computing
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 217
Figure 30.2 DDoS attack
requests the infected machine sends fewer requests at ICMP floods –Internet control message protocol
a higher session rate than normal users, and the ses- (ICMP) floods send a number of packets to the tar-
sion rate can fluctuate at random. In lower session geted network or server by taking advantage of vul-
attacks per second, a breached computer utilizes the nerabilities in the ICMP protocol.
requests at higher rates but at a lower session rate UDP floods –UDP floods are similar to volumetric
than usual, and the session rate can change at random attacks, but they target the UDP protocol, which is
(Kumar etal., 2016). The two categories of DDoS are, used for real-time applications such as video stream-
firstly, a fraudster uses an attack known as DDoS that ing and online gaming.
consumes a lot of bandwidth to flood network equip-
ment, bandwidth allocations, and communication Based on application level flooding attacks
channels with a huge number of packets. Second,in
application-layer DDoS attacks an attacker hijacks HTTP floods –A lot of HTTP requests are overload-
the computing resources of the computer web host- ing the web server. The volumetric attack is unique to
ing the victim of the attack and prevents it from pro- spoofing techniques (Dong etal., 2019).
cessing genuine transactions and requests by taking SIP flood attack –When used for communication,
advantage of the behavior of services and applications voice over IP (VoIP) uses SIP for call signaling. SIP
as well as that of computer communication protocols telephones can effectively be overloaded with mes-
(TCP, HTTP, etc.). sages, making it impossible for them to deal with
valid requests (Dong etal., 2019).
Reflective/amplified attacks –Reflected DDoS or
Based on the attack traffic characteristics DRDoS attacks operate at the application level using
Volumetric attacks – The most common DDoS attack TCP, UDP, or a combination of the two (Kshirsagar
is a volumetric attack. These attacks aim to take over etal., 2021). In these attacks, the attacker requests
a network or server with a flood of traffic, usually servers vulnerable to overflow of amplified traffic on
using botnets (networks of compromised devices) to the target system, causing the target system to crash.
generate a high volume of traffic. TCP-based resembled DDoS attacks include those
that use Microsoft SQL server (MSSQL) and the
Protocol attacks simple service discovery protocol (SSDP). Character
TCP SYN floods –TCP SYN floods exploit the TCP generator protocol (CharGen) attacks and simple
protocol’s three-way handshake process to consume file transfer protocol (TFTP) attacks are examples of
server resources and prevent legitimate traffic from UDP-based directed DDoS (Kshirsagar etal., 2021).
reaching the server. CGI request attack – The victim’s computer stops
DNS –Domain names must be turned into IP responding to requests as a result of the attacker’s
addresses in cloud-based settings with the domain large number of CGI requests utilizing the victim’s
name system (DNS). Attacks affect the DNS infra- computer’s CPU resources (Dong etal., 2019).
structure that is DDoS-related and has an effect on Slowloris attacks–Slowloris attacks are a type
the accessibility of cloud services. Examples include of DDoS attack that exploits vulnerabilities in web
DNS query floods or DNS amplification attacks that server software by sending a high number of slow
overwhelm DNS servers or deplete their resources. HTTP requests to consume server resources.
218 DDoS attack detection methods, challenges and opportunities
Fraggle attack –The Fraggle attack is a particular that can then be used to launch DDoS attacks on a
kind of DDoS attack that sends a lot of UDP traffic to server (Sanjeetha etal.,2021; Brar et al., 2022).This
the switch’s transmission organization. This is similar section provides an overview of the botnet’s archi-
to a Smurf attack that uses UDP rather than ICMP tecture and the tools used to perform DDoS flooding
(Mohmand etal., 2022). attacks. If an attacker uses botnets or zombies, devel-
oping an effective and efficient defense mechanism
LDDoS (low-rate) and HDDoS (high-rate) becomes more difficult. This is primarily due to two
causes. First, many zombies would be participating in
High-rate DDoS (HDDoS) and low-rate DDoS the attacks to increase their size and disruptiveness.
(LDDoS) (Daffu etal., 2017), which are often referred Second, it is clear that zombies operating under the
to as brute force and semantic attacks (Liu etal., 2019), attacker’s command use faked IP addresses, making
respectively, are two categories into which denial of it very difficult to track them back (Kesavamoorthy
service (DDoS) attacks typically fall. The high-rate etal., 2020) (Figure 30.3).
attack is capable of a volume of more than 500 Gbps IRC Botnet –Most bots are useful and safe and essen-
and attempts to either prevent actual users from con- tial to the performance of the internet. The earliest
necting, which is referred to as a recourse depletion internet bots enabled classroom activity using the inter-
attack is a type of bandwidth depletion attack that net relay chat (IRC) protocol (Wainwright etal., 2019;
make cloud services unavailable (Radain etal., 2021). Singh et al., 2020). Some operates of the IRC botnet.
Attackers use a brute-force attack, also known as a Compromising devices –Are often operated via an
flooding attack or a high-rate DDoS attack, to send IRC botnet. The attacker uses malware or vulnerabili-
enormous malicious requests that completely absorb ties to infect a significant amount of devices, including
the network capacity of the targeted cloud server computers, servers, and IoT devices.
(Alanazi etal., 2019).On the other hand, vulner- IRC communication –On the infected devices, the
abilities in protocols can be accessed using semantic bot virus creates a connection to an IRC server.
attacks, also known as vulnerability attacks, rather Command and management –Using an IRC server,
than by consuming any available network or cloud the botnet operator gives orders and directives to the
computing resources. To specifically target a certain bots.
protocol or application, the attacker creates a small Activity on a botnet –The bots execute the given
amount of malicious traffic. These types of attacks actions after receiving instructions from the IRC
are also referred to as low-rate attacks on distributed server.
denial of service. Low-rate attack traffic approaches Update andmaintaining –The IRC botnet can com-
legal traffic in appearance. As a result, low-rate DDoS municate with the botnet operator via the IRC server
attacks consequently are harder to identify than high- to get updates or new instructions.
rate DDoS attacks(Alanazi etal., 2019). Web/HTTP botnet –A drive-by download, spam,
and other similar methods are typically used to down-
Based on botnet-attack load an HTTP-based bot at first. Consequently, a par-
ticular constant-size transmission between an infected
Botnets can be used as part of a DDoS attack. host and a new target is [Link] botnets only
Malware can be installed on servers to build botnets communicate with their C&C servers sometimes to
Figure 30.3 Botnet-based DDoS
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 219
obtain requests, rather than maintain a continuous Mohmand, M.I., Hameed, H., Ali Khan, A., Ullah, U., Za-
connection (Letteri etal., 2020).Web-based bots can karya, M., Ahmed, A., Raza, M., Izaz Ur, R., and Hal-
be set up and run and managed via complicated PHP eem, M. (2022). A machine learning-based classifica-
scripts, which also implement encryption over the tion and prediction technique for DDoS attacks. IEEE
Acc.,10, 21443–21454.
HTTP (port 80) or HTTPS (port 443) protocols for
Wainwright, Polly, and Houssain Kettani. (2019). An analysis
communication (Kesavamoorthy etal., 2020).
of botnet models. In Proceedings of the 2019 3rd Inter-
national Conference on Compute and Data Analysis.
Conclusion 116–121. [Link]
Daffu, P. and Kaur, A. (2016). Mitigation of DDoS attacks
The basic information about cloud computing and in cloud computing. 2016 5th Int. Conf. Wire. Netw.
its layer-based design, including the risks of DDoS Embed. Sys. (WECON), 1–5.
attacks, was covered in this paper. DDoS attacks, Liu, X., Jiadong, R., He, H., Wang, Q., and Song, C. (2021).
which try to overload a target system by flooding it Low-rate DDoS attacks detection method using data
with overwhelming traffic or resource requests, are compression and behavior divergence measurement.
well-known as an extreme risk to online services and Comp. Sec., 100, 102107.
networks. DDoS attacks can be categorized according Dong, Shi, Khushnood Abbas, and Raj Jain. (2019). A sur-
to the characteristics of the attack flow, application- vey on distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks in
level flooding attacks, and Botnet-based DDoS attacks SDN and cloud computing environments. IEEE Ac-
cess. 7: 80813–80828.
are one particular kind of DDoS attack. In these
Radain, D., Almalki, S., Alsaadi, H., and Salama, S. (2021).
attacks, an attacker is in control of a botnet, which is a
A review on defense mechanisms against distributed
network of compromised devices. By commanding the denial of service (ddos) attacks on cloud comput-
bots to flood the target system with traffic, the attacker ing. 2021 Int. Conf. Women Data Sci. Taif University
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Organizations need to have strong security measures Kshirsagar, Deepak, and Sandeep Kumar. (2021). A feature
set up if they want to reduce the risks imposed by the reduction based reflected and exploited DDoS attacks
context of cloud computing, and attacks using DDoS. detection system. Journal of Ambient Intelligence and
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31 A review of privacy-preserving machine learning
algorithms and systems
Utsav Mehtaa, Jay Vekariya, Meet Mehta, Hargeet Kaur and Yogesh Kumar
Department of CSE, School of Technology, Pandit Deendayal Energy University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
Abstract
There is an enormous amount of data being gathered, and great scope of information-based learning is possible through
this data, termed machine learning (ML). Along with this, there is a larger concern for the privacy of the users whose data is
being gathered and used for model training purposes. This recent scenario has set the base for advancement in the research
field of privacy preserving in machine learning (PPML). This technique focuses on designing systems and algorithms that
can perform information-based learning, keeping the data of the user protected. This paper reviews and provides concise
information on the several algorithms and systems proposed to achieve the goal of PPML. A background of works pertain-
ing to learning on both the type of outsourced as well as distributed data systems are covered in this paper followed by a
description of the proposed algorithms that aim to preserve privacy and are modifications to existing algorithms like SVM,
kNN and neural networks are presented in this paper.
Keywords: Privacy-preservation, machine learning, supervised learning, deep-learning, information security
Introduction recently in their learning conference “re:Invent” cov-
ered the advancement of PPML. Following AWS,
Machine learning (ML) and data-driven decision-
many other organizations inclusive of Microsoft have
making have gained a lot of popularity due to
also covered the topic of PPML in their research and
their widespread applications in various domains
educational content.
(Micheal et al., 2015). The technology of ML can
This work aims to provide concise information
be used in several domains like defense, agriculture,
on the several ML algorithms developed through-
the development of recommender systems, and facial
out the years that aims to reduce this privacy loss.
recognition. The comparatively advanced branch of
The background section highlights the majorly used
ML known as deep learning has been used exten-
terminologies followed by a description of several
sively in the last decade. The deep-learning models
algorithms in the “Review of the proposed algo-
imitate the human mind and have the capability of
rithm” section.
producing models with high accuracy (Rocio et al.,
2017).
With the advantages of ML technology, there is Background
also a privacy concern attached to it (Nicholas et al., An introduction of the foundation terms in this
2018). Machine learning algorithms have a tendency domain is provided in this section. Along with this,
to memorize the data (Tom, 1995). This is the main the necessity is also highlighted.
concern, especially for data store owners and compa-
nies with user data who are looking to outsource the Machine learning
data, as sometimes the information owned by these Machine learning is the term used for the develop-
organizations is confidential in nature. This concern is ment and training of the model using mathematical
not only limited to the companies but the users who and statistical techniques, in order to make it capa-
are a part of a system working on the crowd-sourced ble of making information-based decisions. The ML
data. model’s outcome along with the algorithm being
Hence, the researchers have developed several algo- implemented depends on the quality of data on which
rithms and system architectures that focus on the it is being trained.
privacy preservation of the data while training the The ML has its sub-branch like deep learning hav-
model. The domain of privacy preserving in machine ing the capability to imitate the human brain through
learning (PPML) has been in constant discussion in neural networks. Neural networks have been used
the last few years (Ehsan et al., 2018; Arya et al., extensively in the industry and for research purposes
2021). Amazon web services (AWS), a well-renowned and require a large amount of data for being trained
MNC that has been providing IaaS, SaaS, and PaaS, (Bing et al., 1994).
utsavmmehta17@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 221
Dataset types Only making the data anonymous in nature is not
With the enormous amount of data being generated enough in order to make it private. An instance in
every day, there is also variety in how this data is the real-time shows an example of this where the
being used for the purpose of training ML algorithms. researchers combined the anonymous user data of
The data or the dataset, in general, can be attributed Netflix’s recommender challenge with the IMDb user
to main types in the industry, one is crowd-sourced review data to perform de-anonymization (Arvind et
or distributed and the other is outsourced (Jingting al., 2008).
et al., 2019).
In crowd-sourced or distributed data, the indi- Literature review
vidual users act as a source of data points. The data
tuple of the user is considered as a separate tuple and Several works have been published related to the
every time it is added to the repository separately on development of privacy preservation while training
which the model is being trained on. The schematic ML algorithms on the two dataset types, crowd-
representation of the distributed system is shown in sourced and outsourced, and some of the work
Figure 31.1. addresses the general issue apart from the two main
The outsourced dataset are those in which any dataset types in the domain.
organization or firm that has the data of various users, Abadi et al. (Martin et al., 2016) have proposed
reveals or grants the data to some external organiza- a DP-SGD (differentially private-stochastic gradi-
tion that can provide the work related to consultancy ent descent) based on the differential privacy scheme
to the firm. The schematic representation of the out- that focuses on the amount of privacy loss during the
sourced system is shown in Figure 31.2. training of the model. Differential privacy focuses
on the impact of the presence of a single user’s data
Privacy concerns in the collection. The privacy loss during the model
Even some of the world’s most important ML problem training in a mechanism “M” can be represented as
requires access to confidential data. Such data that is in Equation 1.
being crowd-sourced or outsourced has a problem of
data leaks among themselves.
In crowd-sourced data, the concern lies with the
data of one user being exposed to the other users,
leading to the possibility of data leakage among the Here D and D’ are datasets that differs only in one
peers of the crowd-sourced data. record and S is the set of outcomes.
In outsourced data, the privacy of the users, whose The aim is to keep the value of privacy loss as
data is present in the firm’s database is a risk. low as possible. The authors have proposed the
development of a stochastic gradient descent for
each computation focusing on minimizing the pri-
vacy loss value. This can be achieved by clipping the
maximum gradient norm, in order to limit infor-
mation-based learning and limit privacy loss. This
is followed by adding noise to the data in order to
induce randomness in it. The values of the maximum
gradient norm and the noise are assumed to be the
hyperparameters and tuned in order to limit the pri-
vacy loss. The authors applied this algorithm to two
datasets the MNIST and CIFAR-10 to demonstrate
Figure 31.1 Schematic representation of distributed the results.
system Papernot et al. (2016) proposed PATE (private
aggregate of teacher ensembles) that works on
improving the concept of DP-SGD by adding the con-
cept of ensemble learners. In the DP-SGD noise has
been added in order to protect privacy. However, it
was ambiguity about the models, whether the model
has memorized the data or it has learned from the
general trend. Henceforth in “PATE”, disjoint train-
ing datasets were derived from the original dataset,
Figure 31.2 Schematic representation of outsourced then followed by training through separate models,
system followed by the maximum voting. This ensures that
222 A review of privacy-preserving machine learning algorithms and systems
each model has not memorized the data but rather end server that performs computing on the obtained
has learned from the general pattern. data. This work proposes the usage of a homomorphic
In order to make the vote of each learner private a encryption technique for sharing the data securely
Laplace noise is added to the votes, the Laplace noise between the users and performing computations
is given as Equation 2. using encrypted data. A general representation of the
encrypted form of the data is shown in Equation 6.
This paper uses fully homomorphic encryption (FHE)
for the encryption similar to what is mentioned in
(Zvika, 2014) and (Dan, 2005).
Papernot et al. (2018) have improved the PATE in
the order it scale capable over large size of data. This
work modifies the system for the original PATE archi-
tecture by changing the noisy max computation. where,
The classical Laplace noise max is given as shown D* = User data attributes
in Equation 3 pk* = Public key
Following the pre-processing, this work imple-
mented three protocols under the POS system,
. kernel matrix protocol, SVM model setup, SVM
classification.
The Gaussian noise max is given as shown in the Samanthula et al. (Bharath et al., 2014) have
Equation 4 proposed a kNN method for semantically secure
encrypted outsourced data, termed PPkNN. This
. focuses on the security related to the usage of user A’s
data for identifying user B’s output class using kNN.
The above-mentioned works majorly focuses on This work proposes the architecture of the kNN algo-
the approach that is general for the privacy-preserv- rithm in the outsourced data using two cloud serv-
ing. However, the following discussed works are spe- ers C1 and C2 which are semi-honest, in such a way
cific in nature for distributed and outsourced data that neither the data of user A nor the query and
(Cynthia, 2008). class labels of user B are revealed to each other. This
Hwanjo et al. (2006) developed an SVM that paper proposes two schemes SSkNN and SCMCk for
focuses on privacy preserving in the distributed data achieving the goal of neighbor identification and class
model. Conventionally in the linear kernel to draw prediction in a secure manner.
separating boundaries between the data points. The Ping et al. (2017) have proposed a PPDL model.
individual data points are used for the derivation of This work again focuses on a PPML through an
the kernel using the kernel matrix. This work pro- outsourced data system. This work proposed an
poses the development of SVM with non-linear ker- advanced schema for cloud computations using neu-
nels using the gram matrix given in Equation 5 ral networks. The pre-processing using double encryp-
tion techniques using BCP (Emmanuel, 2003) and
MK-FHE. Adriana et al. (2012) set up on two plat-
. forms, one is the cloud C and the other is an autho-
rized center AU. The users are needed to upload the
Secure set intersection cardinality was used for data, by encrypting using the BCP scheme, followed
gram matrix computation as suggested in Vaidya et by blinding of the same through C, the same blinded
al. (Jaydeep et al., 2005). The equation proposed in cipher-text is shared to AU which contains the master
this work is focused on horizontally separated data. key to decrypt the cipher-text and then re-encrypt it
Following the work for non-linear kernels for hori- using MK-FHE before sending it back to C. The cloud
zontally partitioned data, Yunhong et al. (2009) pro- plays the role to compute the model using a neural
posed modifications in the gram matrix in order to network on the re-encrypted data.
develop both linear and non-linear kernels for ver-
tically separated data in multiparty or distributed
systems. Analysis and results
Fang et al. (2015) have proposed the SVM with Abadi et al. (2016) have proposed a DP-SGD presents
PPML in outsourced data systems. The term used a range of notable advantages, including pioneering
for this system in this work is POS (protocol for out- algorithmic approaches for training deep neural net-
sourced SVM). This work proposed a mechanism for works under privacy constraints, which stands as a sig-
the chain of supply of data between the users and the nificant contribution to the field of privacy-preserving
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 223
machine learning. Furthermore, the paper introduces measures like encryption and decryption, which may
a refined framework for assessing privacy costs using increase processing time and resource requirements.
differential privacy, enhancing our ability to ensure In terms of applications, this technique holds prom-
data privacy in model training. These innovations ise in various domains that demand secure data han-
have versatile applications, particularly in image dling, including medical diagnosis, financial analysis,
classification and language representation, offering and fraud detection. It enables a wide range of pri-
enhanced privacy without sacrificing model utility. vacy-conscious data mining and ML tasks, ensuring
Beyond these domains, the techniques introduced in that sensitive data remains protected while valuable
the paper hold promise for safeguarding sensitive insights are extracted.
information in various sectors like healthcare, finance, The technique discussed in the Vaidya et al. (2005)
and government, where large datasets are prevalent. offers several significant advantages. Firstly, it excels
Moreover, they open doors to privacy-preserving ML in preserving data source privacy, enabling data min-
solutions in critical areas such as recommendation ing while rigorously protecting sensitive information.
systems, fraud detection, and autonomous vehicles, Additionally, it boasts proven security properties,
where data privacy remains paramount. However, ensuring the confidentiality of data during the min-
it’s important to acknowledge the inherent trade-off ing process. The paper introduces efficient protocols
between privacy protection and model quality, and for generating association rules from disparate parties
the need for rigorous evaluation and risk assessment holding private information about the same individu-
in sensitive applications due to the complexity of als, facilitating collaborative data mining while pre-
interpreting deep neural network representations and serving privacy. Furthermore, it presents a vision of
potential fine-grained data encoding. a versatile toolkit for privacy-preserving data mining
Papernot et al. (2018) proposed PATE approach approaches, potentially enhancing the adaptability of
offers significant advantages in the realm of pri- privacy-conscious data mining techniques. However,
vacy-preserving ML. One of its notable strengths there are notable limitations to consider. The tech-
is its ability to enhance privacy protection through nique may be susceptible to collusion among parties,
the introduction of selective and less noisy aggrega- which could compromise data privacy protections. It
tion mechanisms for teachers’ answers. This robust may not be applicable in fully malicious settings where
approach provides strong differential-privacy guar- some parties actively attempt to undermine privacy
antees, effectively safeguarding individual privacy in safeguards. Maintaining security properties when
scenarios involving sensitive data. However, there are combining different secure computations, especially
potential drawbacks to consider, such as the possibil- in iterative data mining scenarios, can be challenging.
ity of utility trade-offs. Like many privacy-preserving The paper also highlights an open issue related to re-
techniques, PATE may lead to a reduction in the accu- running algorithms after minor data changes, which
racy of the student model, potentially necessitating could impact its practicality. In terms of applications,
increased computational resources and longer train- the technique demonstrates its practicality in privacy-
ing times. This limitation could be a concern in appli- preserving association rule mining by securely com-
cations where model accuracy is critical. Nonetheless, puting the intersection cardinality of distributed sets.
the broad applicability of the PATE approach in tasks It also hints at potential uses in constructing decision
involving sensitive data, such as personal messages or trees, EM clustering, and managing association rules
medical records, is a significant advantage. It enables in vertically partitioned data between two parties,
the extraction of valuable insights while preserving highlighting its potential as a foundational compo-
individual data privacy and improving model accu- nent for creating a comprehensive toolkit supporting
racy through innovative aggregation mechanisms. various privacy-conscious data mining techniques.
The technique discussed by Hwanjo et al. (2006) The privacy-preserving outsourced SVM (POS)
offers several notable advantages. Firstly, it excels technique (Fang et al. 2015) offers a robust solution
in the preservation of data privacy while still deliv- for safeguarding individual privacy while enabling
ering accurate results, making it invaluable in situ- collaborative operations on encrypted and outsourced
ations where privacy and security concerns are data. It’s versatility shines through in its capability to
paramount. Secondly, it is particularly effective for maintain data privacy across various data partition-
scenarios involving horizontally partitioned data, ing schemes, encompassing horizontal, vertical, and
facilitating distributed knowledge discovery while arbitrary divisions, making it adaptable to a wide
upholding robust privacy protection. However, there array of scenarios. However, it’s worth noting that the
are some potential drawbacks to consider. One sig- paper does not explicitly address all potential privacy
nificant limitation is its relative computational inef- concerns, particularly those related to securely pro-
ficiency when compared to traditional SVM methods. cessing and storing encrypted and outsourced data
This inefficiency arises from the additional privacy in cloud environments, leaving room for additional
224 A review of privacy-preserving machine learning algorithms and systems
privacy considerations beyond its scope. In terms scenarios involving multiple data owners with dif-
of applications, POS proves particularly valuable in ferent datasets. One specific application highlighted
the realm of secure support vector machine (SVM) in the paper is privacy-preserving face recognition, a
classification on outsourced and encrypted data. Its prominent biometric authentication technique used in
versatility extends its utility across diverse domains, real-life scenarios. Furthermore, the generic nature of
including healthcare, finance, and social networks, the proposed solutions allows for their application in
where preserving data privacy is of paramount impor- various other ML tasks that share the same privacy-
tance. Furthermore, it complements other privacy- preserving setting and requirements.
preserving SVM methods, especially in the context
of distributed models. This emphasis on maintaining
Conclusion and future scope
user data confidentiality, integrity, and auditability
within cloud environments enhances privacy protec- The paper provides a concise review of several works
tion in collaborative data analysis and classification and research done in the field of PPML to the readers.
tasks, offering a promising approach to secure and Several works focusing on privacy concerns in differ-
privacy-conscious ML. ent environments of data flow are presented in their
Samanthula et al. (2014) introduces a k-NN pro- paper. Modifications into several existing algorithms
tocol with several notable advent ages. Firstly, it like SVM, kNN, and neural networks are also high-
provides robust data confidentiality and privacy pro- lighted. A few techniques based on DP were discussed
tection, ensuring the security of user input queries. that focused on the privacy of data while the training
Additionally, the protocol incurs negligible compu- of the model, followed works that focused on the pri-
tation costs on the end-user, enhancing its efficiency vacy of distributed and outsourced data.
and user-friendliness. However, there are several chal- These models however developed and proposed,
lenges and concerns to consider. The protocol differs there is still a scope for them to make easy to use for
from existing privacy-preserving classification tech- several consultancy firms as well as several general
niques by hosting encrypted data on the cloud, poten- freelancing users in order to achieve the goal of PPML.
tially introducing unique operational challenges. A part of it can be achieved by making libraries in
While it aims to address accuracy issues that can arise commonly used programming languages like python
in existing methods due to the introduction of statis- in popular ML libraries like sckit-learn. The exist-
tical noise, it may also face challenges in mitigating ing works focus on modifying existing algorithms to
data access pattern leakage. In terms of applications, achieve privacy, however, a lot of room exists for the
the proposed k-NN protocol holds relevance in data development of specific models having the capability
mining contexts, with specific use cases mentioned in of achieving the goal of privacy.
fraud detection in the financial sector and tumor cell
level prediction in healthcare. This suggests practical
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32 Optimization techniques for wireless body area network
routing protocols: Analysis and comparison
Swati Goel, Kalpna Guleriaa and Surya Narayan Panda
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
Abstract
Wireless body area networks (WBANs) are a type of wireless network used to monitor and collect data from various sensors
attached to the human body. WBAN has enormous applications like assisted living, healthcare, sports, defense, entertain-
ment, military, and many others. The successful deployment and operation of WBANs come with several challenges, includ-
ing energy efficiency, on-time data transmission, reliability, scalability, security, and network lifetime. Routing is a critical
and important aspect of WBAN communication, and several optimization techniques have been proposed to improve the
routing performance in WBANs. Optimization techniques plays a crucial role in optimizing and improving the performance
of WBANs routing protocol. These techniques aim to optimize various parameters such as power consumption, data rate,
energy efficiency, throughput, network bandwidth, delay, network lifetime etc. This paper provides an overview of the op-
timization techniques used for routing in WBANs in recent years (2014–2023). These optimization techniques can signifi-
cantly improve the performance of WBAN routing protocols and enable them to be used for various applications related to
medical and non-medical domains. The paper discusses the various optimization techniques proposed in the literature, their
strengths, weaknesses and simulators used to evaluate WBAN routing performance. By analyzing and summarizing existing
research, this paper aims to provide valuable insights into the current state of optimization techniques in WBAN routing and
identify potential research gaps for future exploration.
Keywords: Wireless body area networks, technology, optimization techniques, sensors, WBAN, routing, energy
Introduction efficiency, packet delivery ratio, etc., (Shokeen and
Parkash 2019; Qadri et al., 2020). Before the advance-
WBANs emerged as a promising technology for the
ment of optimization algorithms, the traditional
last few decades as they found their applications
approaches were used to perform routing in WBAN.
in a vast number of sectors both related to medical
But with advancements and awareness towards the
and non-medical fields. These networks have very
optimization techniques in the last few decades, the
small, low-powered sensors attached to the human
various routing parameters can be optimized result-
body to monitor various physiological parameters.
ing in enhanced network performance. Optimization
The sensor’s collected data is wirelessly transmit-
techniques play a crucial role in addressing the vari-
ted to a central monitoring station for analysis and
ous challenges, making them an indispensable part of
diagnosis. It has gained significant attention in recent
WBAN (Rani et al., 2021). Traditional routing meth-
years for its potential applications in healthcare. To
ods may be simple but often lack adaptability, energy
ensure efficient data transmission; routing in WBAN
efficiency, and QoS guarantees required in WBANs,
plays a very crucial role (Negra, Jemili, and Belghith,
especially for healthcare applications (Guleria and
2016). A good routing protocol helps to achieve reli-
Verma, 2019). Optimization techniques, on the other
able and timely communication among the various
hand, offer dynamic, energy-efficient, secure, and
medical sensors and devices. However, the design
adaptable routing solutions that are better suited to
of WBANs poses several challenges, such as limited
the challenges posed by WBANs, making them effi-
power, bandwidth, interference, processing capabili-
cient for the routing process (Mahmoud, Fadel, and
ties, etc., (Shunmugapriya et al., 2022). To overcome
Akkari, 2020).
these challenges, nowadays optimization techniques
Optimization techniques play a pivotal role in
have been proposed to improve the performance of
overcoming the challenges associated with WBAN
WBANs routing protocol. There are a lot of param-
especially related to WBAN routing. From enhanc-
eters that are used to evaluate the WBAN routing pro-
ing energy efficiency to ensuring data reliability, and
tocol performance. The various metrics that can be
optimizing spectrum allocation to safeguarding secu-
used to evaluate WBAN routing protocol performance
rity and privacy, these techniques are essential for
are temperature rise, delay, scalability, throughput,
the successful deployment and operation of WBANs
stability, reliability, security, network lifetime, energy
in healthcare, medical, and non-medical applications
[Link]@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 227
(Guleria, Kumar, and Verma, 2019; Bhola et al., 2022). Article organization
As technology continues to advance, ongoing research The paper’s organization is shown with the help of the
and development in optimization will further improve road map provided below as shown in Figure 32.1.
the performance and capabilities of WBANs, ultimately Initially, a brief introduction about WBAN, WBAN
benefiting both healthcare providers and patients. routing, and the need for optimization followed by
research questions are defined which is named as an
Objective of the paper introduction followed by the methodology adopted
To be used as a foundation for future study and the for article selection. Following this the background
creation of more sophisticated WBAN routing proto- is discussed and provides answers to our first two
cols, the goal of this work is to provide insight into research questions RQ1 and RQ2 which corresponds
the optimization approaches currently employed in to our RQ3 and provides state-of-the-art work related
WBAN routing with the help of a systematic review to WBAN routing using optimization techniques. A
and to outline the various advantages and limitations comparative study of various WBAN routing proto-
of the various optimization techniques used to per- cols based on optimization techniques highlighting
form efficient WBAN in recent last decade i.e., from the main objective, advantages, disadvantages, and
2014 to 2023. simulation tool used. Finally the paper is concluded
with a focus on future work.
Contribution
In this article; a systematic study is conducted to pres- Methodology
ent the current state of art of the optimization tech-
niques used in WBAN routing. The importance of The study deals with the work done in the field of
optimization algorithms for WBAN routing protocols WBAN routing using optimization techniques for the
is highlighted. The recent published research papers years 2014–2023. The different research questions
between the years 2014–2023 for routing protocols are framed to provide a systematic review which is
using optimization techniques are presented in this termed as RQ1, RQ2, RQ3, and RQ4. The articles
review article. The systematic review methodology is were searched from various databases including
followed to select the high-quality research articles to Scopus, Google Scholar, Dimensions, Web of Science
justify the work. Four research questions (RQs) are (WoS), IEEE Xplore, and ScienceDirect. The aim of
framed and addressed to conduct the review in an effi- the survey is to help the researchers to develop new
cient way for better understanding and to organize routing algorithms using optimization techniques
the review. The research questions are defined below by working on the limitations of the existing rout-
named as RQ1 to RQ4. ing protocols in future. The review was done in vari-
ous stages which is illustrated in Figure 32.2. The
RQ1. What is the annual trend of growth in the articles were selected having effective information
WBAN domain? in the domain of optimization techniques in WBAN
RQ2. How is the routing associated and important routing. Various combinations used for searching
in WBAN? the articles from the databases were – “Wireless
Body Area Network or WBAN and routing proto-
RQ3. Which state-of-the-art optimization techniques cols”, “Optimization techniques in WBAN”, and
are used in the WBAN domain to perform efficient “Wireless Body Area Network or WBAN and opti-
routing? mization techniques and routing protocols”. Over
RQ4. What are the limitations and challenges involved 1065 articles were shown for the above-mentioned
in WBAN routing protocols? search strings. Thirty-three articles were removed due
Figure 32.1 Organization of paper
228 Optimization techniques for wireless body area network routing protocols: Analysis and comparison
Figure 32.2 Systematic review structure
Table 32.1 Inclusion and exclusion criteria. selected for further refinement. Again, the exclusion
of the articles was done based on the abstract, con-
Criteria Description
clusion, and methodology resulting in 31 articles.
Inclusion Papers from recent years (2014–2023) Finally, 18 articles that concentrates on high quality
research work in the field of WBAN routing using
Papers that focused on recent research
trend, opportunities and challenges related optimization techniques were shortlisted that corre-
to WBAN routing using optimization sponds to our review criteria. Figure 32.2 shows the
techniques systematic structure followed to refine the articles:
Papers written in English language only Table 32.1 provides an insight on the inclusion and
Papers that mention the clear methodology exclusion criteria on the basis of which the articles
were selected and eliminated to be included in the
Papers from reputed journals and
conferences study:
Exclusion Duplicate papers/identical titles
Papers in which methodology is not
Background
present or unclear WBANs contains sensors attached to the human body
Papers that are not open-access to monitor various human body vital parameters like
Papers that do not entail WBAN heart rate, sugar-level, pH level, BP, temperature, etc.
optimization techniques as primary study The sensors communicate with a central node called
as sink or sink node, which aggregates the data and
sends it further to base station. Medical WBANs pro-
to duplications resulting in 1032 articles for the next vide an evolutionary shift from illness to wellness,
step. After applying the exclusion criteria based on with a focus on early identification and detection of
the year (2014–2023), language (English only), and disease which can reduce global healthcare expendi-
title of research 748 papers were excluded. Then ture by over $400 trillion annually. The global BAN
the articles from the reputed journals and confer- market growth rate is predicted to grow at a CAGR of
ences having state-of-art techniques were analyzed 22.3% for the year 2022–2032. It is estimated to be
and segregated from the remaining articles. On this valued at about US$229.8 Bn by 2032, going up from
basis; 107 articles were found to be relevant and was US$30.8 Bn in 2022.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 229
The data packets in WBANs are small in size and and GA together for choosing the optimal routing.
have a limited transmission range. Therefore, the rout- GA is used to generate the initial pheromone distribu-
ing of these data packets in WBANs is a challenging tion and ACA is used to convert pheromones distribu-
task due to their limited transmission range and small tion into pheromones; positive feedback from ACA is
packet size. Energy-efficient routing, temperature- used for finding the optimal solution. It has reduced
based routing, cluster routing, QoS-aware routing the energy consumption according to the simulation
and cross-layer optimization are some of the routing results for every sensor node. The main limitation is
categories that are widely used in WBANs (Kour and that it has not considered node degree and multi-path
Kang, 2019) (Bhatia, Panda, and Nagpal, 2020). The routing which can be part of future work to enhance
aim of the routing protocols in WBAN is to increase the overall performance.
efficiency, improve reliability, enhance security, mini- A cluster-based energy-efficient optimization algo-
mize delay, increase throughput, enhance stability, rithm called modified ANT colony was proposed by
and network lifetime making them suitable for vari- the authors Rakhee and Srinivas (2016) to find the
ous applications, particularly healthcare. Routing next hop in an optimal way using probabilistic func-
protocols in WBANs facilitate the intelligent and tion based on residual energy and pheromones in each
optimal routing of data packets among sensors and node. OMNet++ simulator is used by the authors for
sink nodes. Various routing protocols were designed the implementation and the result shows that the
in the past based on traditional routing approaches proposed system performed better when compared
to enhance the overall network performance (Abidi, in terms of latency, energy, jitter, and throughput. It
Jilbab, and Mohamed, 2020; Goyal et al., 2023). But helps to choose the optimal path for data delivery in
nowadays in the past few years; optimization tech- indoor environments of the hospitals for continuous
niques come into existence that help to optimize the monitoring of patients in BAN. The proposed algo-
routing algorithms to provide a better and enhanced rithm ensures better network connectivity using a
performance as compared to traditional routing breadth-first search algorithm as it uses a modified
approaches. Numerous studies have been published CH rotation process.
in the past that use optimization to increase the effec- Kaur and Singh (2017), in their work introduced
tiveness of energy use, power consumption, reliabil- a multi-objective cost function for selecting the for-
ity, congestion and QoS requirements for a WBAN. warder node which is optimized using a GA. A reli-
This study includes a review paper for optimization able and energy-efficient routing have been proposed
techniques used in WBAN to perform efficient rout- to process the important data based on optimal cri-
ing such as genetic algorithms (GA), fuzzy-logic, bio- teria. The forwarder node is chosen based on the
inspired techniques, etc. that enhances lifetime of cost function’s minimum value. Except energy con-
networks in terms of duty cycle and QoS criteria. The sumption, reliability model, and path-loss model,
need for optimization techniques to enhance routing the proposed work offers GA-based optimization to
efficiency WBANs is paramount due to several key perform efficient routing. The proposed model per-
reasons that contribute to enhanced network perfor- formed better and consumed less energy due to the
mance as these optimization techniques support vary- use of multi-hop communication. The network model
ing signal strengths; provide higher energy efficiency, can be expanded in future work to take into account
support mobility, and control temperature rises by more complex network circumstances, including the
enabling seamless communication and optimized various network topologies accountability and cross-
routing (Seth, Panda, and Guleria, 2021). layer interactions.
To obtain less energy usage and shorten transmis-
sion times, the suggested framework optimizes the
Review on optimization techniques used in
shortest path at various phases of data collection. In a
WBAN routing
study by Ali and Al Masud (2018), the bees algorithm
In the related work, the various papers that uses opti- is employed as an optimization technique to help
mization techniques such as cuckoo search optimiza- with WBAN deployment and improve WBAN trans-
tion, spider monkey optimization, ant lion algorithm, mission efficiency during Hajj. To overcome these
dragonfly optimization, lion optimization, grey wolf difficulties and identify the shortest path for data in
optimization, whale optimization algorithm, etc., the least amount of time during the congested Hajj
which are used in the literature by the researchers to environment, the bees algorithm is used. The bees
perform the efficient routing have been presented. The algorithm exhibits good performance in MATLAB
review consists of the latest studies of the last 10 years simulations when it comes to lowering transmission
from 2014 to 2023. time, energy consumption, latency, and throughput.
The authors, Xu and Wang (2014) have used the Additionally, bees algorithm, employed as an opti-
hybrid approach by using ant colony algorithm (ACA) mization tool to choose the shortest path in several
230 Optimization techniques for wireless body area network routing protocols: Analysis and comparison
phases, ensures that data reaches its destination in making appropriate CH selections. One of the key
the shortest amount of time with the least amount of elements that contribute to a longer network lifespan
energy and delay. is the head node selection process, which takes into
The author’s main goal (Bilandi, Verma, and Dhir, account the energy that is still available. Additionally,
2019) is to implement a routing mechanism that it lowers the no. of duplicate packets sent and received,
uses the PSO optimization technique in conjunction conserving the entire network’s energy. Future energy
with relay node selection based on distances and optimization and node balancing techniques could
residual energy. According to findings, the suggested make use of the cuckoo search optimization (CSO)
protocol perfectly balances the need for fewer relay and grey wolf (GW) algorithms.
nodes with the energy-saving WBAN. The fundamen- WBAN’s constant monitoring and data transmis-
tal drawback of the study is that nodes are static in sion system secures the patient’s life. The most used
this and moreover the link is bi-directional. The sug- method in WBAN for load balancing is clustering that
gested approach increases the network’s lifetime and offers an effective approach for the energy optimiza-
improves the WBAN’s reliability. tion of sensor nodes. In the paper by Mehmood and
The authors, Panhwar et al. (2020) used the GA for Aadil (2021), the authors proposed an optimization
the selection of the best routing path. Unlike previ- technique for cluster formation using evolutionary
ously available direct techniques; this approach cal- algorithms. The authors recommend the dragonfly
culates the distance between the nodes under multiple method (DA) as the most effective method since it
scenarios while considering factors like the energy creates the fewest optimized, and long-lasting clus-
used by sensor nodes, the number and position of ters, hence extending the network lifetime where CHs
sensor nodes, the distance between the deployed sen- are chosen based on fitness value. The primary draw-
sors, and the number of rounds. The use of GA drops back of the study is that the temperature of the sensor
fewer packets as compared to a traditional approach. nodes in WBAN is not considered.
It also outperforms in terms of the dead nodes and Within a WBAN, a body node coordinator (BNC)
energy that increased the WBAN lifetime significantly. is in charge of organizing and receiving data transmis-
For future work the sensor nodes can be increased sions from bio-sensor nodes. Therefore, it is essential to
in number and the cloud can be used for storing the position BNC in WBAN in an ideal location to reduce
data. energy consumption of the network during data trans-
The author’s objective is to develop an energy opti- mission. This research (Choudhary, Nizamuddin, and
mization technique for inter-BAN communications Zadoo, 2022) presents a full data routing approach
based on evolutionary algorithm and cluster-based for WBAN that integrates a cluster routing protocol
routing. In work by Aadil et al. (2020); the authors with a multi-objective particle swarm optimization
proposed an optimization technique named GOA (MO-PSO) based BNC placement technique. The sug-
which is a metaheuristic approach to solve the opti- gested method makes use of a particle structure with
mization problem. The clustering process is optimized three variables, the first two of which give the BNC
in WBAN which helps to improve the overall network coordinates and the third of which specifies the CH
life as it consumes less energy. The shorter cluster for- node. The fitness of MO-PSO particles is estimated
mation means a high frequency of re-clustering those using a multi-objective fitness evaluation operator
results in high network computational cost and over- using the average bit error rate (BER) and network
head in communication. energy consumption. The model develops into an ideal
A metaheuristic method for choosing the best clus- BNC location that simultaneously reduces average
ters in WBANs was put out by the Saleem et al. (2021) BER and network energy consumption. Additionally,
to implement an energy-efficient routing protocol for a lower BER results in a significant boost to the net-
monitoring livestock behavior and health. The sug- work throughput rate. A network architecture that is
gested method uses ALO to choose the best clusters optimized by the proposed MO-PSO model establishes
for various pasturage sizes with various transmission the best position for BNCs. The reduced BER and net-
ranges while taking into account user preferences work energy consumption objectives are effectively
for cluster density. To assure the best CH selection met by the optimized network design. The network
in the livestock industry and to increase the lifetime throughput rate significantly increases as a result of
of WBANs, the proposed protocol provides a major the decreased BER those results.
contribution. The created network is said to have a An adaptive cuckoo search (ACS) algorithm is pre-
mesh topology; however, because the animals in this sented by Samal, Patra, and Kabat (2022) to minimize
network are dynamic, it is challenging to maintain network energy consumption and locate relay nodes.
this topology. In this, the number of optimal relay nodes placement
The whale optimization (WO) algorithm approach problem in the WBAN scenario is formulated. The
was suggested by Li and Jiang (2022) as a means of ACS is used for the selection of relay node that uses
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 231
the fitness function considering energy consumption, and energy and the simulation results shows that the
coverage of sensors, distance, cost, etc. The proposed proposed system using ACO technique performs bet-
scheme suffers from relay locating problems, unreli- ter than conventional systems. The major limitation
able transmission, and direct transmission. of the work is that various important parameters
According to Arafat, Pan, and Bak (2023), the that can affect WBAN routing performance are not
authors presented a distributed routing protocol ignored like node temperature, reliability, delay, etc.
called DECR that is based on a two-hop method. It So, further enhancements can be made in the future
is based on a clustering process, where during the to overcome the problems occurring due to network
cluster formation phase, information about neighbor partitioning and topology change.
nodes is received within a two-hop range. For CH When compared to other routing protocols the sim-
selection and optimization, MGWO, a meta-heuristic ulation results shows that the use of GA optimization
optimization algorithm inspired by nature, is used. By makes the network more energy efficient. The packets
lowering the transmission distance to each CH, the dropped and dead nodes are parameters taken into
hierarchical grey-wolf optimization technique assists account while it ignored the cross-layer interactions
in data transfer based on residual energy and node and network topologies.
connection in each cluster. As it employs energy-effi- Ali and Al Masud (2018) considered various
cient clustering and an ideal CH selection process, the parameters such as transmission time, throughput,
network lifetime is increased. energy consumption, and delay based on the objec-
It can be analyzed from the literature that several tive to overcome many challenges faced by pilgrim
routing protocols are implemented using different during Hajj.
optimization techniques to optimize the various per- The authors Bilandi, Verma, and Dhir (2019) used
formance metrics to enhance overall WBAN’s per- PSO for selecting optimized relay node. The major
formance. The literature review helps to lay a strong parameters considered in the work are energy, dis-
foundation for the concepts, the optimization tech- tance of nodes, stability period and throughput.
nique, and the simulation tool used in existing work The use of GA by Panhwar et al. (2020) achieved
for optimizing the WBAN routing protocols. better PDR, lesser number of dead nodes, and reduced
energy consumption but in this path loss factor
Comparative analysis of routing protocols using parameter is ignored which can result in delayed data
optimization techniques in WBAN transmission.
Aadil et al. (2020) uses various parameters like
An analytical comparison of different optimization direction, density, speed, grid size for CH selection.
algorithms used in WBAN routing protocols was car- Saleem et al. (2021) considered energy and tempera-
ried out. A comparison table is made that highlights ture of the nodes for selecting the CH but they have
the objective of each routing protocol focusing on not considered the dynamic nature of WBAN’s.
the optimization technique used to achieve the speci- The proposed scheme (Ibrahim, 2021) used
fied objectives. The table also discusses about advan- Dragonfly optimization technique that enables forma-
tages, disadvantages and lists the simulation tool used tion of efficient clusters thus focusing on the network
to implement the routing protocol and the impact lifetime parameter.
of optimization techniques in WBAN routing. The Choudhary, Nizamuddin, and Zadoo (2022), the
authors provided the drawbacks of existing optimiza- parameters like energy efficiency, network throughput
tion algorithms so that it can help future researchers rate and bit error rate (BER) are considered to enhance
to design a more efficient routing protocol by elimi- the overall network performance. The ACS scheme is
nating the limitations of the existing routing protocols used to find the optimal set of relay nodes based on
by using efficient optimization techniques. The com- energy parameter. The proposed algorithm by Samal,
parison is carried out based on several QoS metrics Patra, and Kabat (2022) selects a set of relay nodes to
such as network stability, reliability, security, network make the optimal selection of cost, energy consump-
lifetime, throughput, packet delivery ratio, residual tion from the candidate sets considering the coverage
energy, no. of packets dropped/received, number of of sensors. Cost, energy consumption, coverage, and
dead nodes/alive nodes, end-to-end delay, etc. distance are the factors that are utilized to calculate
The different parameters considered by the authors the fitness function in the algorithm for selecting the
Xu and Wang (2014) to enhance the routing quality optimal number of relay nodes.
is by optimization of energy consumption focusing on The grey wolf optimization algorithm is used by
time and quality. But the parameters such as residual Arafat, Pan, and Bak (2023) to ensure energy-efficient
energy, multi-path routing, node degree are not consid- data packet delivery. The node connectivity and the
ered. The authors Rakhee and Srinivas (2016) consid- residual energy parameters are considered for select-
ered various parameters like jitter, latency, throughput ing the CH in each cluster.
Table 32.2 Comparative analysis of routing protocols using optimization techniques
232
S. Reference and Optimization Objective Simulation Advantages Limitations
Optimization techniques for wireless body area network routing protocols: Analysis and comparison
No. year technique used tool used
1 Xu and Wang, GACA (Genetic To enhance routing quality and - It combines the benefit of both GA Certain factors like residual
2014 Ant Colony prolong network lifetime by and AC thus improving the time energy, multi-path routing, and
Algorithm) optimizing energy consumption duration and quality of the network. node degree are not considered
It balances and reduces the energy
consumption to prolong the network
lifetime
2 Rakhee and ACO (Ant To choose an optimal path OMNeT++ The proposed system has better This system is designed and is
Srinivas, 2016 Colony for monitoring vital signs for performance in terms of latency, jitter, limited to indoor environments of
Optimization) continuous data delivery of energy, and throughput than the the hospital for data delivery. It
patients in indoor environments conventional systems can be further extended to work
in hospitals in outdoor environments
3 Kaur and Singh, GA (Genetic To perform energy-efficient MATLAB Selection of the best optimal routing Packets dropped and dead
2017 Algorithm) routing and selecting optimal path is done using GA and energy- nodes are only considered for
forwarder nodes using GA based efficient routing is provided in this performance evaluation. In
on a multi-objective cost function work future work, more complex
network scenarios like cross-layer
interactions and network topologies
can be taken into account
4 Ali and Al BA (Bees The objective is to optimize the MATLAB The use of bees algorithm to select In this work, only the energy
Masud, 2018 Algorithm) path by using bees optimization the shortest path in multiple phases consumption factor is taken
algorithm to achieve low energy helped to reduce the delay by enabling into account; other network-
consumption and reduced the data to reach the destination in the related QoS parameters are not
transmission time shortest possible time and reducing the considered
energy consumption significantly
5 Bilandi, Verma, PSO (Particle To develop an energy-efficient MATLAB The proposed protocol minimizes the Low throughput and poor
and Dhir, 2019 Swarm mechanism of routing that uses number of relay nodes for energy- network stability. Future research
Optimization) PSO with the relay node selection efficient WBAN. It performs better in can consider the analysis of
for heterogeneous WBAN terms of residual energy as compared multiple BANs and can focus on
to state-of-art protocols reliable and secure data delivery
6 Panhwar et al., GA (Genetic To select the best routing path MATLAB It saves the energy significantly of Pathloss is high. The number
2020 Algorithm) and to select the nearest node the WBAN to increase the network of sensors can be increased and
using GA optimization for lifetime. It also has a better PDR, a cloud data storage can be used to
calculating distances between lesser number of dead nodes, and enhance the performance in the
the nodes for energy-efficient reduced energy consumption which future
transmission significantly saves energy
7 Aadil et al., Goa Algorithm To develop an energy MATLAB Increase in network efficiency due The computational cost
2020 optimization technique for inter- to the use of intelligent and optimal is increased and also the
BAN communications based clustering techniques communication overhead due to
on evolutionary algorithms and shorter cluster lifetime resulting in
cluster-based routing high frequency of reclustering
S. Reference and Optimization Objective Simulation Advantages Limitations
No. year technique used tool used
8 Saleem et al., ALO (Ant Lion To design an energy-efficient MATLAB The temperature of the nodes remains The constructed network is
2021 Optimizer) routing protocol by selecting controlled due to the association of defined to be in mesh topology,
optimal clusters in WBANs for the limited number of nodes with less the animals in this network
livestock health and behavior energy for forming CH are dynamic and hence the
monitoring maintenance of this topology is
difficult
9 Li and Jiang, WO (Whale To intelligently select the CH to MATLAB The proposed scheme produces results The number of clusters is
2022 Optimization) increase network’s lifetime and with high accuracy. It consumes low predicted randomly which results
Algorithm reduce the duplicate packets thus energy and enhances network lifespan. in an unbalanced number of
saving the network’s energy It is also capable of finding the nodes in each cluster
targeted location in less time
10 Ibrahim, 2021 DA (Dragonfly To design a cluster formation - The proposed technique reduced The temperature of the sensor
Algorithm) technique to make efficient and network overhead and increased nodes is not considered which
minimum number clusters to cluster lifetime by forming efficient is one of the most important
make the network long-lasting and long-lasting clusters with great parameters that needs to be
energy efficiency considered in WBAN
11 Choudhary, MO-PSO To obtain minimum node MATLAB The optimal BNC location helps The issues related to cross-
Nizamuddin, (Multi- energy consumption and higher to minimize the network average channel interference in a multiple
and Zadoo, Objective network throughput during data BER and energy consumption WBAN scenario are not taken
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 233
2022 Particle Swarm transmission simultaneously thus bringing a into account that results in
Optimization) significant increase in network unreliable communication
throughput rate
12 Samal, Patra, ACS (Adaptive To minimize the cost and for MATLAB The proposed algorithm lowers the It results in delay as it takes
and Kabat, 2022 Cuckoo uniformly distributing load on energy consumption while taking into time for the algorithm to find an
Search)-based the relay nodes for low energy account the load on relay nodes. It optimal number of relay nodes
algorithm consumption also minimizes the cost and enhances
the network lifetime
13 Arafat, Pan, and GWO To ensure and enable energy- MATLAB The proposed model optimizes More optimal solutions can be
Bak, 2023 (Grey Wolf efficient delivery of data packets energy for inter and intra-cluster applied in the future to get more
optimization from CH to sink communication. It forms an optimal energy-efficient routing
algorithm) number of clusters and distributes
energy among the nodes significantly
which prolongs the network lifetime
234 Optimization techniques for wireless body area network routing protocols: Analysis and comparison
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33 Securing the boundless network: A comprehensive analysis
of threats and exploits in software defined network
Shruti Keshari1, Sunil Kumar2, Pankaj Kumar Sharma3 and
Sarvesh Tanwar4,a
Amity University Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
1,2,4
3
ABES Engineering College, Ghaziabad, India
Abstract
Software-defined networking (SDN) is a new paradigm to increase scalability, dynamic, flexible, and programmatically
efficient configuration of networks to revolutionize network control and management via separation of the control plane
and data plane as compared to traditional networking. But this change of networking also brings some new challenges and
security issues. This research offers a comprehensive analysis of wide range of attacks faced by SDN. It starts by explaining
the detailed architecture of SDN along with their work flow which leads to the possible security challenges and threats. It
also provides detailed analysis of numerous attacks, such as data plane attack, controller centric assaults and possible vulner-
abilities in each plane that helps attackers to inject malware or exploit the weaknesses in SDN. Every threat is scrutinized in
depth by defining each attack methods with their tools. It further discusses how SDN security risks are changing, taking into
account possible new risks and developments. To sum up, this study provides an invaluable tool for researchers, practitioners,
and network security experts who want to comprehend potential weaknesses and their implications at various degrees. It
seeks to support ongoing efforts to strengthen the security of SDN infrastructures in an ever-evolving cybersecurity ecosys-
tem by thoroughly examining the threat landscape and their impact.
Keywords: Software defined network, security challenges, attacks, tools and techniques used by attacker, vulnerabilities
Introduction the controller with a comprehensive view of the
network.
Software-defined networking (SDN) has been
Through the use of SDN, network managers are
regarded as latest approach to network architecture
able to dynamically configure and manage network
by separating the control plane from the data plane
resources, put policies into place, and enhance traffic
that aims to provide more flexible, scalable and man-
flows. This adaptability and programmability makes
ageable network. In traditional networking, network
it simpler to enhance network performance, enable
devices such as switches and routers handle decision-
cutting-edge network applications, and react to shift-
making (decision regarding the route of packet) and
ing network requirements. SDN is also a cost effective
data forwarding function (decision regarding packet
infrastructure by optimizing resource utilization and
order) i.e., control function and data forwarding
reducing hardware. Figure 33.1 gives the structure of
function both.
this paper.
SDN introduces a new model which separates
the control plane from data plane and makes it
centralized and independent to other plane. In an SDN architecture and components
SDN architecture (Jimenez et al., 2021), the con- The decoupling of network control and packet for-
trol plane resides in a centralized controller, which warding tasks, which essentially refers to the migra-
manage and handle the entire network. Whereas the tion of all network intelligence from its original
data plane is only responsible for forwarding data location in hardware infrastructure to a logically
packets based on instructions received from the centralized software-based entity while all forward-
controller. ing devices become simple packet forwarding ele-
Decoupling network control and data forward- ments, is the most defining feature of software
ing, which is accomplished through open and stan- defined networking. Decoupling the control and
dardized protocols like OpenFlow, is the main tenet data planes in SDN means logical centralization of
of SDN. Through a centralized software interface, all network forwarding device control and manage-
OpenFlow (Benabbou et al., 2019) enables the ment, which in turn encourages network manage-
network administrator to command and program ment as a network-wide activity. Decoupling and
the behavior of network devices while providing
s.tanwar1521@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 237
Figure 33.1 Paper’s roadmap
Figure 33.2 SDN architecture
software programmability also benefited networking is giving a detailed view of SDN architecture (Singh
by making implementation of complex system with et al., 2019; Jimenez et al., 2021), with its services.
simple software routine and algorithm. Figure 33.2 Figure 33.3 is defining work flow of SDN, as how
238 Securing the boundless network: A comprehensive analysis of threats and exploits in software
uses two interface northbound application program-
ming interface (API) for communication between
data plane and control plane and southbound API for
communication between application plane and con-
trol plane.
Data plane
In SDN architecture, the data plane is responsible for
data packet forwarding in accordance with instruc-
tions from the SDN controller. The forwarding fea-
ture is implemented by data plane devices, which are
usually switches or routers, and flow tables are kept
up to date to control how traffic is handled. For the
purpose of receiving flow controls and reporting net-
work information, they speak with the SDN control-
ler by using northbound API.
Southbound interface
The communication channel between the data plane
devices and the SDN controller is known as the south-
Figure 33.3 Work flow of SDN bound interface. It gives the controller the ability to
communicate with network devices, set up flow rules,
and gather network state data. OpenFlow is the most
decoupling of control plane and data plane is mak- popular southbound protocol used in SDN, however,
ing network more efficient. A detailed discussion of P4 (Liatifis et al., 2023) and NETCONF (Kunz et al.,
involved interfaces with aforementioned three layers 2017) are also employed.
is provided in this section.
Northbound interface
Application plane The northbound interface allows for communica-
Application plane is also known as application layer. tion between higher-level network applications
Application plane is responsible for utilizing the capa- or orchestration systems and the SDN control-
bilities provided by the SDN controller to implement ler. Applications can use it to set network policies,
specific network services or policies. These applica- ask the controller for network state information,
tions can be developed by network administrators, and request network services. The northbound
third-party developers, or vendors. They leverage interface allows application developers to connect
the programmability of the SDN infrastructure to programmatically with the network infrastruc-
dynamically configure network behavior, optimize ture by abstracting away the underlying network
traffic flows, or implement network security mea- complexity.
sures. Application layer also handle orchestration and
service chaining with service innovation.
Security challenges in SDN
Control plane Analysis of security attacks will become easier if
Control plane is responsible for management and the objective of that attack is clear. Intention of the
control of whole network. The core element of SDN attacker is key point for detecting and preventing
architecture is the SDN controller, which resides in network system from these attacks. Just like flooding
this plane. Controller is the heart of SDN architec- of false messages, shows the intention of attacker to
ture. Controller is in charge managing and controlling affect the performance of system and also the avail-
network devices like switches, router and firewall. ability of the resources. Understanding the security
Controller gives a centralized view of the network issues makes it easier to spot and address these prob-
and enforces network policies. The controller also lems. This section is describing the issues and threats
configures flow rules and controls network traffic by of network security in SDN context (Chica et al.,
interacting with network devices using protocols like 2020).
OpenFlow. Control plane is responsible for managing Data privacy and confidentiality: Massive amounts
network state database, network application and con- of sensitive data are handled in SDN setups. This
trol protocol. Control plane plays an important role includes user data, financial information, medical
for communication between two other two planes. Its information, and intellectual property. It is essential
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 239
to protect this data’s privacy and confidentiality in
order to adhere to legal requirements, keep users’
trust, and stop illicit use or data breaches.
Distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks:
DDoS assaults, which can obstruct network activity
and impair the performance of vital services, can tar-
get SDN. DDoS attacks on SDN infrastructure can be
prevented and their effects reduced by being aware
of the attack vectors and creating practical mitigation
measures.
Malicious control plane manipulation: A prime
target for attackers in SDN is the centralized control
plane. Unauthorized flow rule updates, network mis-
configurations, or unauthorized network access can
all result from unauthorized access, manipulation, or Figure 33.4 Flow of analysis
compromise of the control plane. Implementing mea-
sures to safeguard the control plane from malicious
activity is made easier by having a better understand-
ing of the security challenges. The review paper aims to serve the consolidate
Insider threats and privilege abuse: To combat knowledge about different attacks that pose threats to
insider threats, where authorized workers may abuse SDN, classify attacks in terms of attacked plane, tech-
their credentials to compromise the network infra- niques, target and impact on SDN environment. This
structure or get unauthorized access, it is crucial to paper will also identify possible vulnerabilities and
understand the security difficulties in SDN. Effectively exploitable weaknesses which can make it susceptible
detecting and mitigating insider risks can be achieved to attacks. Figure 33.4 is defining the flow of analy-
by putting in place access controls, monitoring sys- sis which aims to explain attacks vectors with their
tems, and user behavior analytics. tools and technique to get the knowledge of network
Compliance and regulatory requirements: limitations. It also highlights the impact and conse-
Organizations that engage in regulated sectors are quences these attacks including disruption of network
required to abide by a number of compliance and services and compromised security mechanism.
legal requirements for network security, data protec- This study intends to provide researchers, practitio-
tion, and privacy. In order to ensure compliance with ners, and policymakers with a useful tool for under-
these standards and implement the requisite security standing the security environment of SDN, spotting
controls and auditing methods, it is helpful to under- possible threats, and putting in place the necessary
stand the security difficulties in SDN. defenses. It adds to the body of knowledge by com-
Trust and adoption: The trust of stakeholders, piling and analyzing prior studies, highlighting gaps,
including end users, organizations, and service pro- and offering predictions about the direction of SDN
viders, is increased when security issues in SDN are security.
addressed. A wider use of SDN technology, more user
confidence in the technology, and a faster pace of Taxonomy of attacks in SDN
value realization are all facilitated by improved secu-
rity measures. Attacks are categorized in SDN taxonomy according
to their target, effect, method, or position within the
SDN architecture. Although the precise taxonomy
Purpose and scope of paper may change according on the viewpoint and focus
The purpose of this paper on attacks in SDN is to of the analysis. In this paper attacks are classified
provide a panoramic analysis and synthesis of exist- in terms of their targeted plane (Abd Elazim et al.,
ing research, literature, and knowledge related to 2018; Iqbal et. al., 2019; Arya et al., 2021). Tables
all possible attacks in SDN environments and their 33.1–33.3 are defining attacks according to their
impact. This paper’s focus covers a range of topics, targeted planes i.e., application plane, control plane
including attack paths (Yoon et al., 2015; Chica et al., and data plane, respectively. Tables are also giving a
2020; Rahouti et al., 2022), attack types (Abd Elazim view of affected security aspects with target compo-
et al., 2018; Iqbal et al., 2019), attack vector along nent of each plane (as defined in Figure 33.1). Some
with their tools, vulnerabilities (Lin et al., 2017; Deb attacks directly aim to particular component of SDN
et al., 2020; Pradhan et al., 2020) and the effects of architecture to get unauthorized access and disrupt
attacks on SDN infrastructure. the operations. Some attackers focus on maximum
240 Securing the boundless network: A comprehensive analysis of threats and exploits in software
Table 33.1 Attacks in application plane
Attack Target component Affected security aspects
Confidentiality Integrity Availability
Intrusion attack Network services
Anomaly attack Services and application
Illegal attack Programmable control
Trust model Network application
Chained application Orchestration and service chaining
Altering SDN database Network application
Third party application Policy enforcement
Misuse of resources Services and application
Table 33.2 Attacks in control plane
Attack Target component Affected security aspects
Confidentiality Integrity Availability
DOS/DDOS attack Controller
Intrusion attack Northbound API
Anomaly attack Network abstraction
Threats on distributed Controller
multi-controller
Threats from application Control application
Packet in attack Northbound API
Side channel attack Control protocol
Scanning attack Controller
Spoofing attack Flow table
Hijacking attack Network state database
Tampering attack Southbound API
Table 33.3 Attacks in data plane
Attack Target component Affected security aspects
Confidentiality Integrity Availability
Man in the middle attack Forwarding tables
DOS/DDOS attack Data packet forwarding
Spoofing attack Network devices
Intrusion attack Packet processing engines
Scanning attack MAC layer
Tampering attack Forwarding tables
Hijack attack Network devices
Side channel attack Packet buffer
Anomaly attack Traffic classification and filtering
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 241
Table 33.4 Categorization of attacks, affecting multiple planes
Attack Plane Attacked area Affected Example
attacked functionalities
Man-in-the-middle Control SDN Manipulate flow An attacker intercepts communication
(MitM) (Anusuya, plane controller rule, unauthorized between the SDN controller and a switch,
2021) attacks control modifies the flow rules being installed, and
redirects traffic to their own malicious
network
Data plane Switches Inject malicious An attacker performs ARP spoofing
content, impersonate to intercept traffic between two SDN
network devices switches, allowing them to intercept and
modify the traffic exchanged between the
switches
Protocol- Control OpenFlow Manipulate An attacker sends forged OpenFlow
level attacks plane protocol northbound API control messages to manipulate flow rules
(Sjoholmsierchio et or inject malicious commands into the
al., 2021) SDN network
Data plane Routing Traffic manipulation, An attacker injects false OSPF
protocols network routing updates to redirect traffic to a
e.g., OSPF misconfigurations compromised network segment under
(Rego et al., their control, enabling them to intercept or
2019), BGP manipulate the traffic
(Manzoor et
al., 2020)
DDoS attacks (Yue Control SDN Disrupt its An attacker overwhelms the SDN
et al., 2020) plane controller operation, render it controller resources by initiating a flood
unavailable of flow setup request which leads to make
unable to establish or modify flows as
intended, causing a denial of service
Data plane Switches Performance The attacker’s goal is to exhaust the
Router degradation, flow tables’ capacity in SDN switches by
unavailability overwhelming them with a large number
of flow entries
Information Control Northbound Revealing network, The attacker collects sensitive information
disclosure attacks plane API vulnerabilities about the network, flow tables, traffic
(Patwardhan et al., patterns, or topology and analyzes the
2019) gathered information to identify potential
weaknesses or vulnerabilities in the SDN
infrastructure
Data plane Flow tables Revealing network An unauthorized user or a malicious actor
configuration, attempting to exploit vulnerabilities in the
revealing policy SDN switches
details
Time-of-check All planes Network Unauthorized TOCTTOU attacks take advantage of the
to Time-of-use resources manipulation, window of opportunity that exists between
(TOCTTOU) interception of the checking of a resource’s state and the
attacks (Xu et al., traffic utilization of that resource, allowing an
2017) attacker to manipulate or abuse it during
that interval
impact on network, where as some attackers use pre- classified based on different factors, but it is not an
defined techniques which are also useful in other net- exhaustive list. The evolving nature of SDN technol-
work also. ogy may introduce new attack vectors and techniques
It’s important to note that attacks can often fall that may require further categorization and analy-
into multiple categories, and the classification of sis. There are some attacks which are affecting mul-
attacks may vary depending on the specific context tiple planes (Abd Elazim et al., 2018; Hegazy et al.
and perspective of the analysis. This categorization 2021; Alhaj et al., 2022) simultaneously. Table 33.4
provides a high-level overview of how attacks can be is giving the view of these types of attacks with their
242 Securing the boundless network: A comprehensive analysis of threats and exploits in software
attacked area, plane and affected functionality. For Hegazy et al., 2021). Knowledge of these vectors and
better understanding of these attacks, Table 33.4 is techniques helps to improve security of the system.
also giving brief view about these attacks with one Table 33.5 is giving summary about these attack
example. vectors with their method and technique. For better
These examples illustrate how each attack type can understanding of this, Table 33.5 is also giving brief
be carried out in an SDN environment. Attackers can about their effect and latest tools used by the attacker.
employ variations and combinations of these attacks, Disease may be transferred from patients to doctors
and the specific techniques used may vary depending and vice-a-versa.
on the attacker’s goals and the vulnerabilities present
in the SDN infrastructure. Vulnerabilities and exploitable weaknesses
Analysis of attacks and their various attacking
Attack vectors and techniques
tool, conclude that SDN network is not immune
Attack vectors and techniques is a pathway or method to the vulnerabilities. Strong points of SDN i.e.,
used by the attackers for illegal access of network programmed network devices, central control
and launch attacks in SDN (Mahajan et al., 2020; point and dynamic adaptability of this network
Table 33.5 Attack vectors with their tools and techniques
Attack vector and techniques Techniques Consequences in SDN Used tools
Network reconnaissance • Network scanning • Reveal potential • Nmap ,
• Enumeration vulnerabilities • Zmap
• Probing • Reveal potential entry • Masscan
points
Social Engineering (Gallegos- • Phishing • Unauthorized access • Maltego
Segovia et al., 2017) • Impersonation • Network manipulation • Social engineering kit
• Deception (SET)
• Wifiphisher
• MetaSploit MSF
• MSFPC
Malware injection • Inject malicious code • Data exfiltration • SQL injection
• Inject malicious SQL • Traffic interception • Cross-site scripting (XSS)
• Unauthorized flow rule
modification
Exploiting weak authentication • Brute-forcing • Unauthorized access • OpenDaylight
passwords exploitation framework
• Exploiting weak (ODEF)
encryption • Floodlight exploit
• Leveraging insecure framework (FEF)
authentication
protocols
Zero-day exploits Target unknown • Unauthorized access • Metasploit
vulnerabilities or • Compromise systems • ExploitDB
weaknesses before they • Manipulate network
are discovered and behavior
patched by vendors
Forged or faked traffic Flooding the network • Unavailability • Hping
resources • Performance degradation • LOIC (Low Orbit Ion
• SYN floods Cannon)
• UDP floods • Xerxes
• ICMP floods
Man-in-the-middle (MitM) • Interception • Modify traffic • Ettercap
attacks • Manipulation • Inject malicious content • Wireshark
• Altering • Unauthorized control • Tcpdump
• Eavesdropping
• ARP spoofing
• DNS spoofing
• SSL/TLS interception
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 243
Attack vector and techniques Techniques Consequences in SDN Used tools
Packet sniffing and • Tapped transmission • Unauthorized access • Scapy
Eavesdropping link • Network manipulation • Hping
• Monitor open network • Ostinato
• Hack weak password
• Eavesdrop pickup
devices
Protocol manipulation • Inject malicious • Manipulate network • Sulley
commands behavior • Peach
• Modify flow rules • Bypass security controls • AFL (American Fuzzy
• Redirect traffic • Disrupt communication Lop)
to unauthorized
destinations
Backdoor installation Deploy malware • Manipulate network • Botnets
behavior
• Bypass security measures
Physical attacks Tampering with SDN • Disrupt network Functionality of physical
devices or infrastructure connectivity devices to temper
• Manipulate traffic
• Gain unauthorized access
is opening new weak points for attackers. Attacks Table 33.6 SDN component with their threats
defined in Tables 33.4 and 33.5 leads the way to
Component Threats
get the knowledge of weaknesses and areas, which
needs to be strong for making system more secure. SDN controllers • Insecure authentication
Knowledge of these vulnerabilities will help to • Vulnerable software
understand intension of attacker. Some common • Lack of secure communication
exploit weaknesses are: Network devices • Firmware vulnerabilities
(Switches, Routers, • Weak access controls
• Insecure controller communication etc.) • Lack of flow rule validation
• Controller software vulnerabilities
Communication • Lack of encryption
• Weak access controls channels • Inadequate authentication and
• Insecure southbound interfaces authorization
• Flow rule manipulation • Protocol-level vulnerabilities
• Insufficient monitoring and logging
• Lack of network segmentation.
Vulnerabilities may arise due to many factors of • Software define security services
the system. Some weaknesses come due to their archi- • Authentication and access control
tectural characteristics of SDN. Table 33.6 is defin- • Encryption and privacy preservation
ing such threats which arise due to architectural • Security orchestration and automation
components. • Collaboration and threat intelligence sharing
Open challenges and future direction Result and outcome
SDN security has made great progress, but there are Analysis of attacks in various planes on the param-
still a number of problems that need to be solved eter of affected security aspects leads that there are
and opportunities for further research. Future secure various attacks which are affecting multiple planes as
network architectures are being shaped by ongoing well as multiple security aspects. Figure 33.5 is defin-
research projects and new SDN security trends. Some ing the classification of such attacks by considering
of the key open challenges and future directions in the impact of these security aspects. In this graph,
SDN security include: giving more weightage to the availability security as
compare to confidentiality and integrity. As avail-
• Secure SDN controller ability is the crucial security aspect for distributed
• Advanced threat detection and analytics system.
244 Securing the boundless network: A comprehensive analysis of threats and exploits in software
Figure 33.5 Analysis of attacks
Conclusion issues and solutions for the SDN architecture. IEEE
Acc. 9, 122016–122038.
Despite the fact that SDN has several advantages, like Benabbou, J., Elbaamrani, K., and Idboufker, N. (2019).
programmable centralized control, scalability, and Security in OpenFlow-based SDN, opportunities and
flexibility. However, it also brings about fresh secu- challenges. Photon. Netw. Comm., 37, 1–23.
rity issues and holes that must be filled. To maintain Liatifis, A., Sarigiannidis, P., Argyriou, V., and Lagkas, T.
the integrity, availability, and confidentiality of the (2023). Advancing SDN from openflow to p4: A sur-
network architecture, it is crucial to comprehend and vey. ACM Comput. Sur., 55(9) 1–37.
manage the security problems in SDN. Kunz, T. and Muthukumar, K. (2017). Comparing Open-
Flow and NETCONF when interconnecting data cen-
In this paper, we have looked at a number of SDN
ters. 2017 IEEE 25th Int. Conf. Netw. Prot. (ICNP),
security-related topics. We talked about the various
1–6.
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34 A bibliometric analyses on emerging trends in
communication disorder
Muskan Chawlaa, Surya Narayan Panda and Vikas Khullar
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
Abstract
Individuals with communication disorders has dramatically increased over the past two decades. Similarly due to the qua-
drupling in publications since 2012, a bibliometric study is needed for an hour. This study offers a thorough analysis of com-
munication disorders across an appropriate period. We have utilized bibliometrics to assess communication disorder-related
articles published in the Scopus database between 1960 and 2022, and to illustrate the resulting rise in research publications
based on a number of factors, including (i) publishing patterns (e.g., contributing authors, affiliations), (ii) key term analysis
to identify domain of interest, (iii) key term bunching, (iv) citation patterns, (v) publications medium, and (vi) researchers
who assist in examining research productivity in this particular domain. Based on the Scopus database, a total of 80,289
papers about communication disorders were examined. In the end, 59,252 publications and 12,232 key terms were retained,
especially those related to communication disorders. The number of publications increased by 77.7% (60 in 1960, 4725 in
2022). The United States contributes the most publications, and the highest document type is articles. Medicine (53,294)
has the most documents, followed by psychology (15,928) and so forth engineering (2287). Over time, the relative weights
of various study fields have also altered. A meta-perspective literature review is conducted on the quantitative characteristics
and properties of communication disorders. The suggested analytical study will be a vital resource for a substantive discus-
sion about potential future research plans for supporting special people with communication disorders.
Keywords: Analytical analyses, bibliometric, communication disorders, language impairment
Introduction into consideration when assessing speech (Adams
et al., 2012), communication, and language abilities
As per current reported prevalence by renowned
(Braithwaite Stuart, Jones, and Windle, 2022). Hence,
international organizations, the communication dis-
the assessment protocols include developmental, oro-
orders are believed to influence 5–10% of the global
facial, and pragmatic skill assessment. According to
population. In United States of America, the preva-
a Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (2022)
lence of communication disorder reported to be
and National Center for Health Statistics (Boyer,
5% for speech problems, language problems to be
2012) survey, multiple types of communication disor-
3.3%, voice problems and swallowing problems to
ders are prevalent among children aged 3–10 years as
be 1.4% and 0.9%, respectively. However, in India
shown in Figure 34.1.
the prevalence for hearing problems reported to be
The current state of research in the communica-
21.5%, neurogenic stuttering with stroke, dyslexia
tion disorder field is described in this study. Hence,
and speech and language disorders to be 5.3%, 6.3%,
a research study is required to accomplish this goal
and 11.08%, respectively in age range of 6–11 years
due to the quantity of publications. Yet the effect is
(Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, 2022;
as shown by various researchers is less significant. In
Jensen de López, Kraljevic´, and Struntze, 2022). The
order to determine gaps between published research
causes of communication disorders not only included
and solutions, bibliometric analysis is essential.
developmental or acquired conditions but also focused
Bibliometric studies are a subset of literature analyses
on aberrant brain development, prenatal factors, pal-
based on the quantitative traits and traits of a specific
ate, exposure to chemicals before birth, brain injury,
field of research utilizing meta perspectives (Lewis,
etc. Communication disorders are frequent to chil-
Templeton, and Luo, 2007; Rajendran, Jeyshankar,
dren and symptoms depend on its type, cause which
and Elango, 2011). By expressing an opinion on this
includes misuse of words, repetitive sounds, inability
paper learns from a meta-perspective (Van Raan
to understand messages, or difficulties communicating
1997; Schwarze et al., 2012) on the literature recent
in an understandable manner, an individual’s articu-
information and advancements (Serenko and Bontis,
lation, fluency, voice, and resonance quality (Pennisi
2004) in the particular research field. The productiv-
et al., 2016; Mahabalagiri, 2021). The cultural and
ity of the chosen study domain is analyzed using a
linguistic context of the individual must be taken
variety of investigative techniques. Hence, it aids in
muskaanchawla07@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 247
examining the distribution of data based on the fre- Bibliometric techniques are pivotal for producing
quency count and takes note of the citation’s style. innovative insights, such as assessing the productiv-
Moreover, it considers the quality, structure, and ity of writers, algorithms, or key term clusters (Calvo,
exchange of information in literature affiliation and Carbonell, and Johnsen, 2019; Zhang et al., 2022). In
the research’s financial impact (Hood and Wilson, order to give unique insights, the objective is to char-
2001). acterize the current state of communication disorder
As a result, the survey of literature revealed that in a pertinent time period. A range of techniques are
less research has been done in this field. Based on the being used, including computational and quantitative
Scopus database, the productivity of authors and con- algorithms, to analyze important factors (Hood and
tributing nations have been examined for 35,120 arti- Wilson, 2001). As shown in Figure 35.2, the num-
cles relevant to communication disorders during the ber of publications on communication disorders has
years of 2011 and 2022. Key phrase clusters associ- been exponentially rising every year since 2002. Every
ated with subject areas and various opinions of publi- year since 2002, a search result has increased by two,
cation trends, research impact, and productivity have according to Google Scholar (2022). The same rise is
been examined by the authors Heilig and Vob (2014). also being anticipated by a site for scientific literature
However, it falls short in terms of giving information (Scopus). Scopus counts 80,289 pertinent publications
on communication disorder research trends, citation as of 12 September 2022, whereas communication
patterns, and most-cited publications. Since most of disorder includes 59,252 disorders related papers. To
the analysis is based on a low number of publica- the best of our knowledge, no research has been done
tions for a certain field, and straight count technique in the area of bibliometric assessments in this field.
(Zhang et al., 2022). Based on the Scopus database, 80,289 papers relat-
ing to communication impairments are being examined
in this article (1960–2022). This study counts peer-
reviewed papers empirically and statistically. Current
research is still employed as a broad experimental
premise, which may stimulate academics to conduct in-
depth bibliometric investigations in various scholastic
orders. In order to identify a subject of interest, this
work aims to provide insight on (i) publishing patterns
(such as contributing authors and affiliations), (ii) an
analysis of popular key terms, and (iii) key term bunch-
ing. Other information, such as (i) journal citation pat-
terns, (ii) sources of publications, (iii) affiliations, and
Figure 34.1 Different communication disorders with (iv) the authors’ insights, aids in examining the research
their prevalence
Figure 34.2 Significant rise in publications since 2002
248 A bibliometric analyses on emerging trends in communication disorder
output of affiliations and researchers. As a result, the Data is being initially gathered through Scopus
knowledge in this work is being provided from the var- databsae and pre-processed before presenting pat-
ious aspects of evolution, status, and trends. tern analysis (removal of irrevalant and duplicate
The remaining document is structured as follows. documents). After the screening stage, the abstract of
In methodology section, dataset pre-processing, col- various articles have been reviewed and excluded the
lection of dataset, research trend, productivity and records that were not related to the field. During the
contribution to research are briefly described. Based eligibility stage, various full text articles have been
on important phrase clusters, research analyses sec- evaluated and removal of thesis or arVix publications
tion observes the keyword analyses and cluster for- have been done. This section serves as an example of
mation related to communication disorder followed the elaborated strategy used to locate peer-reviewed
with analyses on the basis of authors name and affilia- articles published over the last 10 years as shown in
tion section. Analysis is done on the basis of scholarly Figure 35.3.
metrics such as CiteScore per year and source normal-
ized impact per paper (SNIP) has been analyzed fol- Bibliographic analyses plan
lowed by challenges and the conclusion of the work. In order to obtain and process organized information
of articles, Elsevier’s Scopus database has been used
Methodology as a manual treatment of bibliographic information
(Serenko and Bontis, 2004; Garg, Sidhu, and Rani,
Owing to the specific field (communication disorders) 2019). In comparison to other bibliographic data-
under investigation, the analysis is based on 80,289 bases, Scopus provides advanced functionality for
articles, which points in the direction of limited infer- exporting organized information, including biblio-
ence at this stage. The analysis contains extensive time graphic and reference data, abstracts, and key terms.
of observation and employs a range of techniques to Scopus has twice as many articles for this domain as
analyze important factors. This section serves as an WoS, which incorporates articles-in-press for publi-
example of the elaborate strategy used to locate peer- cations (Zhang et al., 2022). In the section, research
reviewed articles published over a span of various trend, contributions and productivity of the research
years. have been discussed.
Dataset collection and pre-processing Research trend
Information about publications and citations is A general search phrase of (TITLE-ABS-KEY (com-
included in the first data collection (Van Raan 1997). munication AND disorder)) is being used for the title,
Figure 34.3 Flowchart depicting pre-selection of the articles
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 249
abstract, and key terms to encompass extensive lit- clusters in order to examine important subjects and
erature in communication disorder. A list of 80,289 aspects. The substance of literature that is connected
items has been produced as a consequence over the to a given domain is categorized using key phrases.
observation period of 1912–2022 (as of 24 September Major words define key themes and distinctive
2022). In order to find articles with correct and com- research contribution qualities. The frequency and
prehensive data and metadata (authors, titles, double pace of important phrases within a given time period
entries, etc., are deleted), a data cleansing process is can be used to identify the rise of current study sub-
carried out. Last but not least, 59,252 publications jects. It is also possible to identify themes or points
and 12,232 key phrases that were directly relevant to of view that are closely related to one another by
communication disorder has been kept; 85.64% of looking at the frequency of important phrases. The
publications were written in English. Data has been analysis is carried out in the following subsections,
divided into segments and examined from various combined the terms depending on how frequently
angles. First, the publications are being examined to they occur together.
determine which disciplines have contributed to the
development of the topic. Second, the number of pub- Keyword analyses
lications and the total number of citations are used This review has been conducted by using Scopus data
to analyze the contributing nations. The analysis also sources. The data was gathered and processed from
covers the distribution of document types, the number organized information of articles. The growth rate of
of publications per outlet, and the number of authors annual scientific production is 20.04%. The cumula-
who contributed to each article. tive number of articles containing the keyword by
year is shown in Figure 35.4. The cumulative occur-
Research contribution rence of related keywords like autism, children, com-
Researchers from numerous disciplines are exerting munication, disorders, etc., is showing a significant
significant effort to advance knowledge. Research increase per year. This role in the performance that
publications are a primary source of information for for 25.33% of the publications under study, key
topics that are the subject of scientific inquiry. Every terms have been assigned by Scopus, whereas key
research article has several objectives that define its terms are defined for 74.67% of the publications
contribution to the field. under study.
There are numerous distinct research contribu- Regarding the typical distribution of key phrases
tions. However, there are numerous other types of per publication, it has been found that the list of the
contributions that result in new truths. On the basis publication’s objectives typically uses three to six
of (i) academic contribution, (ii) contributing nation, key terms. However, when there is a communication
(iii) number of researchers, (iv) average number of issue, the frequency and number of crucial terms are
citations, and (v) research outlet, the examples in the higher than what is often believed. The ultimate goal
subsequent sections can be classified into three dis- is to reduce key phrase inconsistency; publishers fre-
tinct categories of contributions (conference, book quently supply a list of key terms pertinent for a par-
chapter, and journal). ticular journal or conference.
Research productivity Cluster formation
Productivity in bibliometric research can be defined Additional analyses have been conducted on key
based on a few factors. The factors could be (i) the term clusters, which are key term co-occurrences
quantity of publications per researcher and (ii) the that represent the topic of interest and are fre-
influence of publications. This section examines the quently represented by multiple key terms. The rela-
citation patterns of various sources and individual tionships between aspects and themes are revealed
researchers’ works to support the importance of cita- through recurrent key phrase clusters. The compari-
tions in research. The comparison ranking is then son of every conceivable combination of significant
completed to validate the findings of the pattern anal- key phrases necessitates computationally intensive
ysis (Howard, Cole, and Maxwell, 1987). The next analyses of key term clusters, despite the simplicity
leading section performs the analysis based on the of analyses of key terms with the highest frequency
keywords and formation of co-occurrence cluster of (T. R., R., Lilhore, U. K., M, P., Simaiya, Kaur, and
keywords. Hamdi, 2022). The key phrase cluster is lengthened
in the method to reveal all significant co-occurrences.
Research analyses Cluster analyses with two or more components is the
important phrase are shown in Figure 35.5: Word
This became necessary to categorize and aggregate communication is required to obtain significant key
bibliographic data by analyzing key phrases and term clusters.
250 A bibliometric analyses on emerging trends in communication disorder
Figure 34.4 Significant rise in cumulative frequency of the keywords
Figure 34.5 Cluster formation using co-occurrence of keywords
Analyses on the basis of authors names and academic fields, as well as the areas, authors, citation
affiliation patterns, and sources that contribute to it. Additionally,
subsections following indicates (i) the average num-
This section examines the general layout and advance- ber of articles by the eminent researchers, (ii) explores
ment of communication disorders across a range of publications by country and authorship patterns to get
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 251
insights from contribution patterns and (iii) examines in, using data derived from Scopus. In addition to
how publications’ impact is influenced by the outlet. the fact that contributions to computer science are
ongoing, there is also evidence of a popularity peak
Publications by various authors and a lack of expectations in the field of psychiatry.
Figure 35.6 displays the average number of docu- It suggests that ongoing expectations have an impact
ments by the top 10 authors in research of commu- on current research (Li et al., 2021). Data in Figure
nication disorders (across a decade). Compared to 35.7 shows that medicine and psychiatry have been
other authors’ contributions, a contribution by Lord, made significant contributions. Thus, it demonstrates
C. is noteworthy (128). In contrast to the individual, that study is concerned with having a thorough
it appears that communication dysfunction is more understanding of a particular field. It offers benefits
prevalent in collaborative settings. Over research in the domains of computer science and engineering
conducted by a single researcher, a certain group of in addition to the trends of communication disorders
authors may have a legitimacy advantage. (García-Aroca et al., 2017). This section investigates
publications by country and authorship patterns to
Evaluation based on academic disciplines and con- gain insights from contribution patterns. According
tributing country to Figure 35.8, researchers from the United States
Each article has been divided into multiple catego- (38.10%) and the United Kingdom (11.23%) con-
ries according to the publication outlets it appeared ducted the majority of the research. It is clear that
Figure 34.6 Significant works by numerous authors
Figure 34.7 Publications by subject area
252 A bibliometric analyses on emerging trends in communication disorder
Figure 34.8 Publications contributed by various countries
Table 34.1 Metadata about the research contributions Articles using scholarly metrics
Document type Overall (in percentage) This section analyses the scientific output and influence
of authors, institutions, and nations by Scopus. Scopus
Conference paper 43.49 can be used to gauge a journal’s prominence inside the
Article 72.6 database. The following metrics are used by Scopus
Book chapter 18.03 journal analyzer to evaluate journals and articles.
Review 14.86
CiteScore per year
Editorial 16.3
CiteScore is obtained by dividing the number of
Short Survey 0.819 Scopus-indexed papers published in the same three
Book 0.313 years by the number of citations that publica-
tion received in a given year. Table 34.2 depicts the
CiteScore per year of renowned journals during the
time period 2011–2021.
the United States (38.10%) and the United Kingdom
(11.23%) make considerable contributions to this Source normalized impact per paper (SNIP)
domain. SNIP is a correction metric that takes into consid-
eration the variations in citation potential between
Publication outlet fields. Table 34.3 depicts the SNIP of the eminent
The visibility and impact of an item is being influ- journals for the duration of last 10 years.
enced by the outlet choice. This section examines
how the research community’s outlets like to share SCImago journal rank
their ideas and expertise. It is feasible to analyze It indicates the typical number of weighted citations
the data since it contains metadata about the type that the papers published in the chosen journal over
of document. According to Table 34.1, 43.49% the preceding 3 years obtained in the chosen year.
of articles are, on average, included in conference Table 34.4 depicts the SJR of the esteemed journals
proceedings. during the time period of last 10 years.
Table 34.1 makes clear the facts that, the major-
ity of research contributions are presented and pub- Challenges and opportunities issues
lished in journals (72.76%), as opposed to books
(18.03%) and editorial (16.3%). The impact of The present state of research cannot easily be inferred
citations on the volume of research and publica- from surveys or literature reviews. As a result, the
tions per journal is discussed in the following lead- methodology or strategy utilized in this analysis can
ing section. be applied to any field of study. The relationship
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 253
Table 34.2 CiteScore per year
Source 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Journal of Autism and 6.2 5.8 5.8 5.9 6.6 6.5 6.2 5.6 5.2 5.6 6.6
Developmental Disorders
Autism 4.8 4.2 4.2 4.4 5.3 6.7 7.7 7.8 6.8 6.7 7.5
PLoS One 4.5 4.1 4.4 5.1 5.6 5.9 5.7 5.4 5.2 5.3 5.6
International Journal 2.8 3.1 2.8 2.8 3.3 3.9 4 2.8 3 3.5 4.4
of Language and
Communication Disorders
Research in Autism Spectrum 3.2 4.2 4.2 4.8 4.4 3.8 3.7 3.1 3.1 2.8 3.7
Disorders
Table 34.3 Source normalized impact per paper
Source 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Journal of Autism 1.752 1.884 1.72 1.635 1.585 1.565 1.52 1.564 1.53 1.473 1.862
and Developmental
Disorders
Autism 1.385 1.454 1.237 1.514 1.369 1.557 1.728 1.872 2.14 1.93 2.15
PLoS One 1.256 1.175 1.168 1.144 1.158 1.124 1.153 1.179 1.197 1.322 1.368
International Journal 1.515 1.231 1.222 1.211 1.414 1.541 1.48 1.268 1.082 1.358 1.845
of Language and
Communication
Disorders
Research in Autism 1.291 1.098 1.094 1.143 0.952 0.817 0.84 0.861 1.017 1.085 1.243
Spectrum Disorders
Table 34.4 SCImago journal rank (SJR)
Source 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Journal of Autism and 1.835 1.821 1.805 1.947 1.976 1.955 1.81 1.675 1.434 1.374 1.207
Developmental Disorders
Autism 1.228 0.993 1.129 1.503 1.455 1.844 1.739 2.336 1.885 1.899 1.617
PLoS ONE 2.425 1.982 1.772 1.559 1.427 1.236 1.164 1.1 1.023 0.99 0.852
International Journal 1.022 0.999 0.809 0.796 1.049 1.222 1.057 0.807 0.821 1.101 0.95
of Language and
Communication Disorders
Research in Autism 0.824 1.032 0.989 1.368 1.063 0.86 0.844 0.872 0.834 1.04 0.895
Spectrum Disorders
between authors and topics might be analyzed as technology as follows: (i) Clinical assessments and
part of future work to identify patterns in network proctored exams for the current diagnosis are subjec-
structure or trends within the domain. In order to tive and less technologically supported (Taylor and
produce new outcomes or assessments, the findings Whitehouse, 2016; Mandy et al., 2017; Ellis Weismer
or outcomes of this article can be compared to other et al., 2021). As a result, technical diagnostic instru-
results. It is possible to enhance the methods used ments are required. (ii) Additionally, conventional
for pre-processing research data so that less manual intervention approaches depend on the therapists’
work is required. Apart from these challenges, there knowledge. Due to waiting periods and costs, the
are few more opportunities issues related to the procedures are increasingly routine; as a result, early
254 A bibliometric analyses on emerging trends in communication disorder
Table 34.5 Meta-perspectives of the study technique. Int. J. Dev. Neurosci., 26(7), 699–704.
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contributed by country in Software-Defined Networking: A Review. In Pro-
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tive Computing & Communications (ICICC. 1–10.
5. Average CiteScore 1.33
Braithwaite Stuart, L., Jones, C. H., and Windle, G. (2022).
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7. Average SJR 1.33 in supporting communication in people with demen-
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Calvo, F., Carbonell, X., and Johnsen, S. (2019). Information
assessment is not possible, which delays interven- and communication technologies, e-health and home-
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M. S. (2021). A preliminary epidemiologic study of
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social (pragmatic) communication disorder relative
(iii) There is a need to assist in the creation of edu- to autism spectrum disorder and developmental dis-
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there are not enough patients receiving proper and Dev. Dis., 51(8), 2686–2696. [Link]
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I., Anguita-Rodríguez, F., and López-García, A.
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Garg, D., Sidhu, J., and Rani, S. (2019). Emerging trends in
over the appropriate time period. Based on the Scopus
cloud computing security: A bibliometric analyses. IET
database, a total of 59,252 publications concerning Software, 13(3), 223–231. [Link]
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35 Enhancing latency performance in fog computing through
intelligent resource allocation and Cuckoo search
optimization
Meena Rani, Kalpna Guleriaa and Surya Narayan Panda
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
Abstract
Applications for the internet of things (IoT) have rapidly expanded, posing a number of difficulties in terms of quality of
service (QoS), delay, latency, and disconnections. These difficulties are still there even if fog computing has emerged. An in-
novative resource allocation strategy is presented for fog computing’s latency problems. The proposed approach includes
allocating requests and assigning jobs to improve technical capabilities. It uses a queuing system with 3 recommended lists
(a) block, (b)wait, and (c) scheduling – that is on the basis of loaded criteria to choose available nodes. The Cuckoo search
(CS) approach, which significantly lowers latency, is developed to enhance resource allocation by calculating the distance
between fog nodes and users and selecting the nearest along with the available nodes for request processing. By contrasting
latency measures with and without the CS algorithm, the given evaluation shows the value of strategy. The results show a
striking drop in latency, with the method having the distance and decreasing overall latency. The cuckoo search method is
integrated with the suggested resource allocation mechanism to produce measurable latency reductions and improves the
general performance of fog computing systems to enhance quality of life.
Keywords: Resource allocation, fog computing, internet of things, Cuckoo search algorithm, resource use efficiency
Introduction of work being performed by each fog node. Finally,
fog nodes assign the tasks and the required resources
The IoT has expanded the number of devices, which
to enable effective processing without any of the bot-
has strained cloud computing (Abd-ali et al., 2020).
tlenecks. Effective task management inside fog nodes
Fog computing is the optimal solution for this prob-
is essential to fulfilling end-user needs within a setting
lem (Alsadie, 2022), primarily because of its proxim-
of fog computing (Ghobaei-arani et al., 2020).
ity to client devices and decentralized deployment
The timely execution of tasks inside fog nodes and
of fog nodes. Fog computing provides a direct con-
the maintenance of quality of service (QoS) and qual-
nection between a limited device’s number, enhanc-
ity of experience (QoE) are significantly influenced
ing performance in terms of speed, reliability, and
by the management of resources. The performance of
efficiency (Martinez et al., 2021). The processing of
fog nodes is optimized using a variety of techniques,
operations and quick data access are handled by fog
including caching algorithms, queuing, load balanc-
nodes situated close to user devices. Efficient resource
ing, scheduling, and power management. While sched-
management and allocation are essential for the fog-
uling methods provide resources to tasks depending
computing environment to function at its best. Fog
on their features, the queuing method prioritizes
computing has advantages such as faster data transfer
tasks on the basis of needs and urgency. Power man-
times, more redundant systems, and more processing
agement methods reduce power usage, caching meth-
power (Bittencourt et al., 2017).
ods store commonly accessed data in fog nodes, and
Four primary phases – request receiving, task dis-
algorithms for load-balancing equally distribute the
tribution, task division, as well as resource allocation
burden across fog nodes. These techniques contrib-
– make up the effective procedure for managing tasks
ute to better QoS, QoE, and on-time task completion
inside fog nodes. Requests are then sent to the fog
in the fog computing setting by optimizing resource
node from devices that are registered in the fog envi-
consumption, minimizing delays, reducing errors, and
ronment. The fog node then divides every request in
improving overall performance. In the fog comput-
to the many tasks based on the necessities of the tasks.
ing setting, managing activities and resources within
After that tasks are distributed in fog nodes for pro-
fog nodes may be difficult. Selecting the best node for
cessing, with the allocation taking into account a vari-
a job, managing workloads effectively, minimizing
ety of parameters, like the fog nodes’ capabilities, the
latency and cost, and lowering energy consumption
resources that are readily accessible, and the amount
are a few of the primary issues fog nodes deal with.
[Link]@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 257
For optimum performance and to improve the QoS resource management, decreased reaction time, and
and QoE for end users, these issues must be resolved was more effective at scheduling and controlling fog
(Moshref et al., 2022). Queuing scheduling, as well as devices (Vashisht et al., 2022). Another study put out
algorithms of load-balancing, along with the adop- a strategy for managing resources in vehicle fog com-
tion of energy-efficient procedures, may be used as puting that relies on pricing-based stable algorithms
solutions to these problems (Hong et al., 2018). to match contracts and encourage the sharing of
To reduce latency, the study suggests a brand-new resources across cars. This approach, which is compa-
queue list technique for scheduling a task inside the rable to existing optimum search algorithms but less
base broker in fog computing settings. The strategy sophisticated, demonstrated good resource manage-
makes use of 3 lists depending on a loaded set of vari- ment outcomes (Zhou et al., 2019). Researchers have
ables to estimate node availability. The CS method is suggested a method for allocating resources based on
utilized to minimize latency and optimize resource the development of an effective work scheduling algo-
allocation. CS assesses solutions according to fit- rithm. The technique lowered energy use, increased
ness, replaces the less fit ones, and preserves popu- bandwidth use, and improved reaction times for
lation variety. The technique assists in distributing internet-dependent applications (Jamil et al., 2020).
computational resources across fog nodes by taking An enhanced type of the fundamental ant colony
into account things like loaded factors along with optimization method for work scheduling was car-
shortest pathways. The following primary contribu- ried out by researchers in 2020. The investigators
tions are presented in this study to improve resource compared the new ant colony optimization method
management. against the original ACO algorithm using a MATLAB
It suggests a method of allocating requests along application. The outcomes demonstrated that the
with scheduling work on the basis of grouping them upgraded method increased the overall completion
into 3 categories (wait, block, scheduling) according time and economic cost, consequently enhancing the
to the amount of load. The article offers allocation of service quality in a fog setting (Yin et al., 2020). In
a resource method which reports the latency issues in 2021, investigators put out the TRAM method, which
fog computing by using the CS methods to find the uses the expectation-maximization method to sched-
optimal allocation of resources. ule activities in a fog setting. TRAM is a new method
The CS method is used in this study to discover the for the allocation of a resource along with manage-
closest fog nodes with the shortest pathways while tak- ment within fog computing. The major objectives of
ing into account node availability and user proximity resource allocation in a fog setting are to optimize
to choose the best nodes to handle queries. The objec- energy usage and job distribution. The scholars uti-
tives of these contributions are to reduce latency and lized iFogSim to test the performance and discovered
boost fog computing system performance. Following that TRAM led to a 60% enhancement in time of exe-
is an organization of the remaining article. An over- cution for assigning resources (Wadhwa et al., 2022).
view of fog computing, followed by present methods Another study recommended utilizing a synthetic
for optimizing resource allotment in fog computing, ecosystem-based optimization technique in com-
and concludes with finally which contains test results. bination with the SSA to optimize the process of a
task-scheduling. The suggested method, known as
AEOSSA, performed better in terms of productivity
Related work
and time rate than previous metaheuristic approaches
Investigators presented a method for task scheduling (Abd Elaziz et al., 2021). Finally, to minimize latency
on the basis of container characteristics in smart pro- and boost service quality in the fog environment,
duction in 2018. The method demonstrated a 10% researchers suggested a queuing theory-based CS
reduction in execution time and a 5% increase in approach in 2022. They employed particular meth-
task capacity in the fog environment (Member et al., ods to gauge the level of service and optimized this
2018). Researchers put out allocation of a resource method with the CS algorithm. The findings revealed
method which adopted security and privacy con- that utilizing the CloudSim simulator enhanced aver-
cerns in fog computing the same year. The suggested age reaction time by 20.39% and reduced energy
method enhanced the robustness and security of fog usage by 12.55% (Iyapparaja et al., 2022) shown in
nodes (Zhang et al., 2018). Table 35.1.
A group of academics suggested a bio-inspired Finally, discovered that the cuckoo algorithm is
hybrid method for work planning and resource man- superior as compared to methods like the genetic algo-
agement within fog devices. It combines modified rithm in terms of selecting further and more solutions.
particle swarm optimization (MPSO) and modified This was after performing an integrated study on
cat swarm optimization (MCSO) techniques. In com- every technique and approach utilized to enhance the
parison to existing algorithms, the method enhanced allocation of a resource inside the fog environment.
258 Enhancing latency performance in fog computing through intelligent resource allocation
Table 35.1 Literature survey summary
Authors/Year Technique Algorithm used Main goal Results
(Zhang et al., Genetic algorithm iFogSim and fog Enhancing QoS- Increasing latency, bandwidth,
2023) environment aware scheduling utilization, and reducing
energy consumption
(Saif et al., Grey Wolf optimizer CloudSim and cloud- Improve task Reduces energy consumption
2023) fog environment scheduling and delay
(Singh and Bio-inspired hybrid MPSO and MCSO Manage resources Reduced response time,
Singh, 2022) algorithm and schedule tasks enhanced resource
inside fog devices management, and greater
efficacy by comparing it to
other algorithms
(Iyapparaja et QTCS (queuing CS algorithm Decrease latency An increase in average
al., 2022) theory-based CS) and increase service response time of 20.39% and
quality a reduction in energy use of
12.55%
(Wadhwa and Expectation EM algorithm m Schedule tasks in a 60% reduction in the amount
Aron, 2022) maximization (EM) fog setting of time required to allocate
algorithm resources; reductions in both
energy usage and task load;
and improvements in task
allocation
(Abd Elaziz, AEO (artificial SSA (salp swarm Optimize the task Performed other metaheuristic
Abualigah, and ecosystem-based algorithm) scheduling process techniques in terms of
Attiya, 2021) optimization) productivity and rate of time
(Jamil et al., Efficient job Shortest job first Increase the response Compared to other algorithms,
2020) scheduling algorithm (SJF) time of internet- the average response time was
reliant apps while enhanced by 32%, and the
simultaneously energy usage was enhanced by
lowering energy 16%
usage and improving
bandwidth utilization
(Yin et al., Improved ant colony ACO Improve the The total and economic cost
2020) optimization (ACO) completion of the as well as the amount of time
algorithm task in terms of the needed to finish have been
overall cost reduced, which has led to an
increase in the overall quality
of the service
(Zhou et al., Pricing-based Stable algorithms on Efficient resource Good findings in resource
2019) resource management the basis of pricing management management and the same
for the vehicle fog in another optimal search
computing methods but less complex
(Member and Container-based N/A Reduce execution The capacity of the task
Luo, 2018) scheduling time and improve increased by 5%, while the
task distribution time of execution was reduced
by 10%
(Zhang and Li, Privacy-focused N/A Increase the fog Guaranteeing user privacy as
2018) resource allocation nodes’ robustness well as resolving security issues
and security
The CS has a larger search space than the other algo- System model and methodology
rithms because of its solutions (called nests), which
Three system models called fog computing, resource
resemble the fog node distribution. As a consequence,
allocation and cuckoo search algorithms with its
the alternatives are more complicated and optimal.
methodologies are introduced here which are given
Now chose to base the distance in the proposal on
below:
its ability to improve the task, and this decision pro-
duced superior outcomes from other efforts.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 259
Fog computing The performance of an application may be enhanced,
A decentralized computing infrastructure named network congestion can be decreased, and energy can
fog computing, commonly termed edge comput- be conserved. However, it also poses many difficulties
ing, distributes data, storage, and computing along that should be resolved to ensure effective resource
with application services between the data source allocation within fog computing settings, including
and cloud in the most effective location (Shamman resource scarcity, QoS restrictions, dynamic resource
et al., 2022). At the network edge, the infrastructure demand, network congestion, privacy, and security
is physically located in closer proximity to the end- (Bhatia et al., 2020; Jamil et al., 2022).
points or users (Ma et al., 2019). The IoT, real-time The process of allocating computing, storage, as
applications, and networked devices all create a rising well as network resources among various services
amount of data, which necessitates the implementa- and applications, is known as resource allocation in
tion of fog computing (Mahmud et al., 2020; Rani fog computing settings (Rani et al., 2021). Despite
et al., 2021). This strategy includes processing data the advantages of this approach, effective resource
close to its source, which has the potential to effec- allocation faces several obstacles for many reasons.
tively minimize latency, increase available bandwidth, These include diverse resources, fluctuating resource
and deliver quick insights and decision-making capa- demand, QoS restrictions, network congestion,
bilities. Fog computing is a useful addition to cloud resource scarcity, privacy and security challenges,
computing because it allows for real-time data analy- and scalability problems. Advanced algorithms and
sis as well as decision-making while simultaneously techniques that can dynamically distribute resources
outsourcing some processing duties to remote serv- depending on demand and restrictions in real-time
ers. This is especially helpful for data-intensive or while taking into account numerous QoS, security, as
time-sensitive applications, and it eventually leads to well as privacy needs must be created to solve these
increased performance and dependability of cloud- difficulties. As a result, resources will be used more
based services (Yousefpour et al., 2019; Kaur et al., effectively, applications and services will function bet-
2021). ter, and there will be less network congestion, which
Low latency, higher bandwidth, and the ability to will save energy (Tran-Dang et al., 2022).
make decisions instantly are just a few benefits of fog
computing. However, limitations with the deployment Cuckoo search algorithm
and maintenance of edge devices, scaling problems Yang along with Deb created the CS method in
caused by data processing and storage management, 2009 as an optimization method that was moti-
a lack of standards, system compatibility, high prices, vated through a cuckoo bird’s natural behavior. The
security flaws, and reliability issues may make it dif- method depends on the idea of imitating cuckoo bird
ficult to embrace. When choosing whether to employ behavior, in which the females deposit their eggs in
fog computing in a particular situation, certain restric- other birds’ nests. The CS method in optimization
tions should be taken into account. In conclusion, generates and examines novel candidate solutions at
while determining if fog computing is appropriate for random with a given likelihood of creating random
a given scenario, it includes drawbacks that should flights or random walks to escape from local optima
be carefully evaluated. It is effective in specific appli- (Iyapparaja et al., 2022). This process seeks the global
cations, like real-time data processing that requires optimum solution. The algorithm is straightforward
just a small number of latency and high-performance to use and comprehend since it generates new solu-
needs (Hao et al., 2017; Islam et al., 2021). tions using a simple yet effective process. It has been
used to resolve a range of optimization issues and
Resource allocation has shown to be effective and accurate (Nazir et al.,
Within the fog computing context, resource alloca- 2019). The fundamental steps in implementing the CS
tion refers to the process of dividing up and allocat- method are as follows:
ing available storage, computing, as well as network Every cuckoo only produces 1 egg at a time, which
resources to a variety of different uses and services. is after then dropped into a nest randomly; The best
The fundamental purpose of the present allocation is nests with the greatest eggs (solutions) would be per-
to increase the utilization of resources which is avail- formed on future generations; The amount of host
able while simultaneously ensuring that QoS require- nests that are accessible is predetermined, and each
ments are met (Potluri et al., 2020; Seth et al., 2023). host has the potential to find an alien egg. In the cur-
As a crucial component of the fog computing model, rent circumstance, the bird who is the host has the
the low-power edge devices proliferation that are choice of either abandoning the nest or ignoring the
placed at the edge of a network means that there is egg to construct a whole fresh nest at a different site
a range of heterogeneous resources which is required (Agarwal et al., 2018). An example of the CS algo-
to be meticulously allocated (Khattar et al., 2019). rithm in pseudocode is revealed below:
260 Enhancing latency performance in fog computing through intelligent resource allocation
Algorithm: Cuckoo Search Algorithm
Levy flight behaviors obtain a cuckoo using the levy
flight shown in Equation (1): Figure 35.1 The suggested methods for allocating the
task in the fog node
(1)
Optimizing resource allocation in fog computing tasks and distributes them to the relevant nodes in
uses the proposed mechanism accordance with the suggested queuing mechanism
that is made up of three lists, as previously men-
The cuckoo algorithm is suggested as a way to tioned. All forthcoming tasks are listed in the first list,
enhance task scheduling and resource allocation in a starting with the first one. The following two lists are
fog setting. The suggested system comprises a cloud used to filter this list. The 3rd list contains the tasks
layer, a fog layer, and an integrated fog environment which have been canceled by the users and is known
made up of each of these layers. The base broker is in as the urban list such as the tasks which have been not
charge of arranging and assigning jobs to the proper treated. The 2nd list consists of the tasks that would
fog nodes after receiving user requests from the fog be dispatched to the contract while it waited for the
nodes. The cloud layer handles intricate tasks. The broker to choose a free node.
suggested method attempts to shorten latency and The Levy flight is used by the method to randomly
speed up task execution. place tasks (eggs) on the fog nodes that make up
the search space. While some eggs may develop into
Discussion about the proposed method superior solutions, others might not. The program
To organize and schedule tasks in the environment employs the process of a local search to fine-tune
of fog computing, the study suggests a queuing para- the solutions obtained and the random search of the
digm. Three lists make up the model: a block list for cuckoos to locate new places to deposit their eggs.
the tasks, a schedule list for incoming tasks that have While the local search process aids in enhancing the
been canceled or are not essential, as well as a wait- quality of these solutions, the Levy flight in CS offers
ing list for the tasks which must wait for free nodes. an effective approach to scouring the search space for
To identify whether a node is full and to select the fresh answers. The following steps are used to put this
nearest node for processing of task, the model com- suggestion into practice:
putes loaded factor and distance. The task scheduling
method to appropriate nodes is then optimized using • Initialization: Create a random beginning popu-
the CS algorithm. For putting the algorithm into lation of potential solutions. Have a colony of
practice and adding it to a network of fog comput- cuckoos that utilize the Levy flight to randomly
ing, the article offers four guidelines. As illustrated in lay their eggs on the searched space.
Figure 35.1, the nodes process the tasks after which • Fitness evaluation: To assess each potential solu-
the users receive the results. The primary node (the tion’s suitability, and evaluate its objective func-
broker) is considered the system’s operational core in tion. Utilizing Equation (2), determine the loaded
this form. According to the idea, the broker organizes factor.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 261
(2)
The sum of all tasks’ processing times that have
already been completed or are in progress in the
fog node is known as the total time of processing of
every task. The term overall available processing time
encompasses the overall time of processing accessible
within the fog node. This accounts for factors like the
CPU’s processing capacity, available memory, and any
other pertinent resource constraints.
The fog node’s utilization factor can vary between 0
and 1, where 0 signifies it’s not in use, and 1 indicates
it’s fully loaded. To calculate the Euclidean distance
shown in Equation (3), employ the distance equation
(d) as follows.
(3)
Figure 35.2 A flowchart of the proposal’s steps
where, (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) indicate the coordi-
nates of the 2 points.
You must first subtract the respective coordinates
from these two positions, square each variation, add Evaluation measurement
the squared variations, and then take the square root In fog computing, latency is the time amount that
of the sum. passes between the process started and its accom-
This computes as: (x1 – x2)2, (y1 – y2)2 and (z1 – z2)2 plishment. For many applications, lowering latency
signifies the squared difference among the x, y and is a key objective since it may have a big influence
z-coordinates of 2 positions by computing Equation on how well fog computing systems function. The
(2 and 3) could examine the available and closet node latency in Equation (4) will be calculated.
as a better node.
Sort the tasks: employing a three-list proposal: (4)
Block, wait, and scheduling list, which represents
requests that have been refused and are waiting for P indicates the time of processing; N denotes the
an available node. delay of a network.
Selection of nest: Replace a nest (such as a candi- The P may be estimated by multiplying the R
date solution) with a new candidate solution if the old (processing rate) by the processing time (T) for the
candidate solution has a low fitness value. task:
Generating new solutions: Choose between a ran-
dom flight or random walk a to get a new candidate P=R×T (5)
solution. The generation is carried out under the 3
lists’ suggested mechanisms. The transmission time (Tt) and the propagation time
Acceptance criterion: If the novel candidate solu- (Tp) might be added to examine the network delay:
tion’s fitness value is greater as compared to the current
solution, it will be approved. If not, it is accepted by a
N=Tt + Tp(6)
specific probability depending on the variation in fit-
ness values between the recent and previous solutions. The transmission time could be computed as the
Stopping criterion: Run the method until a stop- product of transmission rate (Rt) along with the size
ping requirement is satisfied like when the several of the task (S):
iterations have attained a certain limit or the fitness
value is adequate.
Return the best solution: Return the optimal candidate (7)
solution discovered as an optimization consequence.
Here, created a flow chart for this suggested pro- When the propagation speed (S) and distance (d) are
cess, as seen in Figure 35.2. multiplied, the propagation time may be found.
262 Enhancing latency performance in fog computing through intelligent resource allocation
Table 35.2 Parameters of the fog environment a resource in fog computing, especially in mitigat-
ing latency-related difficulties. This success can be
Parameter Value
attributed to its unique features: combining distance
Router 6 measurements between fog nodes and users into the
fitness function and applying queue scheduling with
Users’ node 33
3 suggested lists in the basic broker, all of which are
Fog node 12 dependent on loaded criteria to decide whether or
Base broker 3 not a node is available. This precision in node selec-
tion significantly reduces randomness, enhancing the
overall system performance. Latency, a pivotal metric
Table 35.3 Final outcome
in assessing resource allocation, encompasses vari-
ous phases of request processing, from reception and
Latency (µs) Latency (µs) Distance Distance proposal scheduling to response transmission. The
with Cuckoo without (km) with (km) without suggested approach, which is founded on the CS algo-
Cuckoo Cuckoo Cuckoo rithm, exhibits significant benefits in terms of cutting
down on latency and increasing system efficacy. These
0.0092 0.0284 7.0711 21.21324
results highlight the utmost significance of the CS
0.0130 0.0748 5.02 28.0180 algorithm and its potentially game-changing role in
0.0064 0.0068 1.01 1.02 fog computing system optimization. Future research
0.0213 0.1086 7.0712 35.3555 endeavors could delve deeper, focusing on further
advancements and optimizations, especially in the
realm of IoT applications where the CS method holds
significant promise for resource allocation.
Evaluation and research in experiments
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36 Pediatric thyroid ultrasound image classification using
deep learning: A review
Jatinder Kumar1,a, Surya Narayan Panda1 and Devi Dayal2
1
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
2
Department of Paediatrics, Endocrinology and Diabetes Unit, PGIMER, Chandigarh, India
Abstract
The thyroid gland, a little butterfly-shaped gland at the front of the neck, generates hormones which govern metabolism.
Thyroid problems are most typically detected and classified via ultrasound (US) imaging. US imaging has become one of
the most important contributions for analyzing thyroid disorders due to its safety, accessibility, non-invasiveness and cost-
effectiveness. Machine learning (ML) advances, especially deep learning (DL) is proving to be beneficial in recognizing and
quantifying patterns in clinical images. At the heart of these advancements is DL algorithms’ ability to extract hierarchical
feature representations directly from images, eliminating the requirement for constructed features. This study describes the
evolution of ML, the concepts of DL algorithms, and an overview of successful applications, including clinical picture seg-
mentation for US imaging of thyroid-related illnesses. Finally, certain research difficulties are mentioned along with future
enhancements.
Keywords: Deep learning, ultrasound image, segmentation, thyroid
Introduction through the circulation to all other organs, regulating
metabolism and development. The thyroid gland reg-
The thyroid’s primary job is to control the body’s
ulates temperature, controls respiration, blood flow,
metabolism through the thyroid hormone. Thyroid
stomach motions, muscular contractions, digestion,
abnormalities can be caused by a variety of condi-
and brain activity. Normal physiological function of
tions. Medical pictures can be used to detect these
the human body may be impacted by thyroid gland
anomalies. Ultra-sonography can be used to diagnose
abnormality (Er et al., 2009).
thyroid problems. Medical image segmentation is an
Triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) were the
important tool for determining a body’s shape and
two primary thyroid hormones secreted by the thy-
structure based on clinical images. The endocrine sys-
roid, an endocrine gland. Thyroid hormones regulate
tem is made up of glands generating hormones that
different metabolic processes, such as heat generation,
influence the growth and development of the fetus,
carbohydrate intake, protein and fat intake. The pitu-
puberty, level of energy, and mood. To ensure that
itary gland regulates the development of hormones
the child’s body works properly, these glands need to
from T3 and T4. The thyroid stimulating hormone
release exactly the right amount of hormones into the
(TSH) from the pituitary gland is released when
bloodstream. Figure 36.1 indicates the body’s main
thyroid hormone is required and circulates through
endocrine organs. Growth disturbances (short or high
the bloodstream to enter the thyroid gland. The thy-
stature), thyroid issues, adrenal insufficiency, pubertal
roid gland produces thyroid hormones, which reach
development disorders, sex development disorders,
all other organs through blood vessels and regulate
pediatric diabetes, etc., are the different problems that
metabolism, growth and development. The thyroid
arise due to endocrinological anomalies.
gland regulates temperature, controls respiration,
The thyroid gland is an endocrine gland that har-
blood flow, stomach motions, muscular contractions,
vests double thyroid hormones which are triiodothy-
digestion, and brain activity. The normal physiologi-
ronine (T3) plus thyroxine (T4). Together T3 plus T4
cal processes of the human body might be affected by
hormones control a variety of metabolic activities
thyroid gland abnormality.
including heat production, carbohydrate intake, pro-
There are two side lobes on the thyroid, linked
tein intake, and fat intake. The pituitary gland controls
in the center by a bridge (isthmus) as shown in
the making of T3 and T4 hormones. When thyroid
Figure 36.2. The upper and lower bilateral thyroid
hormone is necessary, the pituitary gland discharges
arteries, as well as a small artery known as the thyroid
thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), which voyages
artery, supply blood to the thyroid gland. T4 is respon-
via the bloodstream to spread the thyroid gland. These
sible for 90% of hormone development, while T3 is
hormones are produced by the thyroid gland and go
[Link]@[Link]
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 265
Table 36.1 Thyroid diseases and their symptoms
S. No Thyroid disease Symptoms
1 Hypothyroidism Not have adequate allowed
thyroid hormones. Poor
capacity to endure ice,
sentiment tiredness,
clogging, gloom, and
weight increase
2 Hyperthyroidism Plenty of allowed thyroid
hormones. Weakness in the
muscles, trouble sleeping,
a rapid heartbeat, heat
intolerance, diarrhea, loss
of weight, etc.
3 Structural Most frequently an
abnormalities enlarged thyroid gland
(goiter)
Figure 36.1 Endocrine system 4 Tumors Cancerous or benign
tumors. Unusual thyroid
gland lumps that can be
made of solids, liquids, or
a combination of both.
5 Sub-clinical hypo/ The thyroid function tests
hyperthyroidism show irregular results in
the absence of clinical
symptoms (indicating
subclinical hypothyroidism
or hyperthyroidism)
types of thyroid diseases and their symptoms are sum-
marized in Table 36.1.
The supreme common endocrine condition in
children worldwide is thyroid disorder. Pediatric
Figure 36.2 Thyroid gland thyroid disorders (PTD) are a category of hypo-
thyroidism, hyperthyroidism, thyroid nodules and
malignancies, and endemic goiter diseases of the
responsible for the remaining 10%. Thyroid hormone thyroid gland in regions with iodine deficiency.
release is regulated by the thyroid-releasing hormone Hypothyroidism accounts for about 90% of PTD,
(TRH) and TSH stimulatory activity of the hypotha- which may also be caused by congenital or acquired
lamic pituitary thyroid axis. Hyperthyroidism (excess causes. Hyperthyroidism is attributed in large part to
thyroid hormone), hypothyroidism (insufficient thy- Grave’s disease. While PTD is the single most com-
roid hormone), benign (non-cancerous), malignant mon endocrine ailment among children, it is also one
(cancerous), and abnormal thyroid function tests of the most difficult to diagnose, due to the lack of
without clinical symptoms are the five basic types of substantial epidemiological evidence, the exact bur-
thyroid illness. den of these disorders is unknown.
Hypothyroidism causes weariness, mental fog- Congenital hypothyroidism occurs in 1:3,000–
giness, and absent-mindedness, as well as peculiar 1:4,000 live births, while in the pediatric population;
cold feelings, constipation, dry skin, fluid loss, non- acquired hypothyroidism has a frequency of 1–2%.
specific muscle and joint aches and stiffness, severe In girls, thyroid cancer accounts for 6% of all can-
or continuous menstrual bleeding, and melancholy. cers and 1.8% of all thyroid cancers. Furthermore,
Hyperthyroidism is characterized by excessive swell- while there has been a reduction in the worldwide
ing, heat aversion, increased bowel motions, tremors, occurrence of iodine deficiency disorders from 13.1%
uneasiness, anxiety, great heart degree, weightiness, to 3.2% in the last 25 years, based on overall goiter
fatigue, impaired attention, and unpredictable plus rates, this issue remains significant for thyroid health
insufficient menstrual flow (Vaz et al., 2014). The even within developed nations. Specifically, within
266 Pediatric thyroid ultrasound image classification using deep learning: A review
the United States, an estimated 4.8 million infants
are projected to experience the impacts of inadequate
iodine levels, resulting in lifelong reductions in pro-
ductivity. Collectively, therefore, PTD is a major bur-
den of illness in children and adolescents (Dayal et
al., 2017; Dayal et al., 2020; Rivkees et al. 2021). In
terms of their relative prominence, ease of prediction,
and accessibility to medical care, thyroid diseases dif-
fer from other endocrine disorders. Thyroid function
tests and imaging techniques, such as US and thyroid
scintigraphy, are used to diagnose thyroid disorders.
The US images are used to determine the cause of
hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism. For example, Figure 36.3 Phases of medical image processing
in patients with hypothyroidism due to Hashimoto’s
disease, the US shows features of heterogeneous echo
texture and hypo-echogenicity, whereas, in cases of
Grave’s disease, there are features of hypervascular.
A branch of computer science that makes an effort
to make PCs smarter is artificial intelligence (AI).
Incorporating intelligence into an aspect of interest
is one of the necessary necessities for any intelligent
action. A large part of scholars these days accept that
without learning intelligence, there is no intelligence.
Since the very beginning, ML structures have been
used to test scientific information units. Recognition
of ML and statistical patterns is the most important
discipline in biomedical society because they advo-
cate assurance to increase the sensitivity and preci-
sion of discovery and diagnosis of an ailment, even
though the objectivity of the choice-making mecha-
nism is defined. In clinical science, diagnosis is a big Figure 36.4 Reasons for medical image segmentation
challenge since it is important in deciding whether or
not a patient has the disease which assists to define
the effective course of treatment for the diagnosed remove noise and increase image quality. The goal
disorder. A hot research field of computer science of the segmentation process is to identify suspi-
has been the application of techniques for disease cious zones of interest that include anomalies. The
diagnosis using intelligent algorithms (Vasavi et al., characteristics are computed by utilizing the attri-
2020). butes of the region of interest (ROI) in the process
A history and physical examination are used to of feature extraction. The feature selection stage, in
establish a diagnosis. Thyroid disease is diagnosed which the smallest collection of features is picked, is
based on symptoms and the presence or absence of a a major challenge in algorithm design. The process
thyroid nodule. A blood test and US investigation will of picking a smaller feature subset that produces the
be given to the majority of patients. In some circum- highest value of a classifier performance function is
stances, a biopsy scanning and uptake tests may be known as feature selection. Finally, a categorization
necessary. The appropriate interpretation of thyroid is accomplished based on the concept of selected
data, in addition to clinical examination and comple- features.
mentary investigation, is a fundamental challenge The term “segmentation” refers to the division of
in the diagnosis of thyroid disease. Several DL algo- an image into several parts. An image is separated
rithms were used to provide the best outcomes in US into subparts according to the system’s requirements
thyroid images. The many stages of image processing in image dissection. Increasing visualization is the
are represented in Figure 36.3. Most image processing main objective of dissection for the detection proce-
systems include steps such as picture pre-processing dure so that it may be handled more effectively and
or enhancement, segmentation, feature extraction, efficiently. The motives for medical image segmenta-
feature selection, and classification. tions are depicted in Figure 36.4. All of the aspects
Pre-processing is the initial step in image process- that influence the analysis of an illness are covered by
ing. It must be performed on digitized images to segmentation. A disease’s navigation can be analyzed,
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 267
Figure 36.6 Image segmentation techniques
Figure 36.5 Problems in image segmentation
reconstruction is known as iterative approaches used
in specific scanning methods to rebuild 2D and 3D
diagnosed, quantified, monitored, and planned using images. A picture must be reconstructed from object
the segmentation method. projections in computed tomography, for example.
When there is noise in an image, the problem of Picture handling is the procedure of applying actions
uncertainty occurs, making image categorization to a picture to increase it or extract vital information.
harder. The reason for this is that noise in the image Obtaining photos has become easier as technol-
changes the intensity values of pixels. This change ogy advances, enabling the bulk creation of high-
in pixel intensity values messes up the image’s inten- resolution images at incredibly low costs. As a result,
sity range homogeneity. Because of motion in the image processing algorithm development in the US
image, blurring effect, and a lack of various charac- has substantially improved. As a result, systems for
teristics, noise can appear in the image as shown in extracting useful information from images have been
Figure 36.5. The challenge of inconsistency within created using automatic picture analysis or assessment.
the intensity values of picture pixels is caused by the Automated image analysis initiates with segmenta-
partial volume averaging problem. As a result, picture tion, a process that divides the image into visually dis-
segmentation is critical in medical diagnosis systems tinguishable sections that hold semantic significance
to deal with uncertainty (Masood et al., 2015). within the given context. Each of these areas usually
Segmentation models give the precise contour of has similar features regarding grey equality, quality,
an object within an image. Pixel-by-pixel informa- and shade (Silva et al., 2018). For more exploration,
tion is given for a given object in contrast to classi- such as determining texture homogeneity levels or
fication models, which identify what is in an image, layer thickness, clear segmentation, and detectible
and detection models, which create a bounding box sections are essential (Volkenandt et al., 2018).
around specific objects. Because it allows for non- Figure 36.6 depicts three categories in which image
invasive diagnostic approaches, clinical picturing is segmentation techniques can be characterized.
a significant quantity of the present healthcare sys- Before using MS techniques to precisely label
tem. For medical research, this requires developing each pixel inside the clinical image, the radiologist is
graphic and functional representations of the human required to first define the ROI and sketch its boundar-
body’s internal organs. X-ray-established procedures ies. Manual segmentation was vital because that gives
resembling regular X-ray, CT and mammography, in annotated ground truth pictures that may be used to
addition to molecular scanning, MRI, plus ultrasonic construct semi-automated and fully automated seg-
scanning, are among the various varieties. Apart from mentation approaches. MS is sluggish to process and
these medical scanning modalities, medical scanning is only suitable for small image databases. Due to the
is progressively applied for diagnosing a variety of lack of a distinct boundary (low contrast) in high-
illnesses, notably individuals involving skin and thy- resolution pictures, little deviations in the choice of
roid (Pal et al., 2016; Thakur et al., 2021). There are pixels for the ROI margin can affect a considerable
two parts to medical images; (1) Reconstruction and inaccuracy. Due to the lack of a visible boundary (low
image development; (2) Image analysis and processing contrast) in high-resolution images, a slight change
(Wang, 2016). Picture formation is the procedure of in the ROI margin selection can affect substantial
physically and visually projecting three-dimensional inaccuracy. An additional disadvantage of physical
(3D) section points into two-dimensional (2D) pic- segmentation is that it is independent, as the method
ture-level positions. Iterative reconstruction refers to is reliant on the professional’s awareness and under-
iterative approaches used for specific scanning meth- standing, and as a result, there is regularly important
ods to rebuild 2D and 3D pictures. While iterative variation between and within experts (Millioni et al.,
algorithms are used in image reconstruction, iterative 2010; Işın et al., 2016).
268 Pediatric thyroid ultrasound image classification using deep learning: A review
Semi-automatic segmentation strategies utilizing performance times, along with access to huge datasets
automated algorithms require a minimal amount and progressions in learning methods, have supported
of user input to get effective segmentation results the rise in the use of deep learning systems (Shen et
(Iglesias et al., 2017; Gera et al., 2021). The user might al., 2017).
be prompted to select an approximate initial ROI The forthcoming outline provides an overview of
that will serve as the basis for segmenting the entire the review’s structure. The following section delves
image. It may be necessary to do physical verification into AI and its related technological methodolo-
and remove region margins in order to diminish seg- gies, exploring ML role in image segmentation. DL
mentation fault. Techniques for semiautomatic seg- techniques for clinical photo segmentation and their
mentation comprise (1) seeded region growth (SRG) architectures, common methods of implementing DL
method, which combines neighboring pixels with like architectures, and metrics for evaluating image seg-
intensities iteratively established on a user-supplied mentation performance. Recent applications of DL
first seed idea; (2) Iteratively altering initial boundary models in various biological image segmentation con-
forms represented by contours utilizing a shrinkage or texts are examined following the above section. Deep
expanding procedure established on the implied level learning architecture implementation methodologies
of a utility using a level set established active contour were discussed. Literature review was done and in
model, which has the advantage of requiring no prior the end discussions concerning the challenges related
shape information or initial ROI locations and (3) with DL based image segmentation, the concluding
restricted area based dynamic contour approaches, remarks, and potential avenues for further research.
which use area parameters to characterize the image’s
foreground and background using small local regions Deep learning overview
and can handle heterogeneous textures (Zhang et al.,
2012; Fan et al., 2015; Kim et al., 2016). Artificial intelligence (AI)
The user is not required to interact with the com- In general, AI is described as the use of any equip-
pletely automated segmentation procedures. Shape ment to simulate the human cognitive process, which
models, atlas-defined division techniques, random includes learning, applying, and solving difficult prob-
forests, and deep neural networks are all supervised lems. Figure 36.7 shows the hierarchical links between
learning procedures that need drill information. AI, an area of computer science that comprises ML,
Unsupervised learning techniques require labeled DL, and convolutional neural networks (CNNs). AI,
pictures generated through manual segmentation dubbed “the fourth industrial revolution”, is signifi-
for both training and validation data, incurring the cantly transforming the terrain of our entire lives
same constraints as previously mentioned. Limited
contrast between regions and the significant varia-
tions in forms, sizes, textures, and colors of the ROI
further introduce challenges in the computerized seg-
mentation of clinical pictures (Roth et al., 2018). Big
disparities in the resource photos data might result
from noise in the acquisition of source data, which is
prevalent in real-world applications. As a result, max-
imum current systems established through clustering
methods, watershed procedures, and machine learn-
ing established methodologies for a fundamental lack
in the worldwide application, limiting their usage to a
minor quantity of applications. Furthermore, the prac-
tice of social feature exchange, often employed along-
side ML methods based on support vector machines
(SVM) or neural networks (NN), is ineffective, inca-
pable of handling novel data in its recent application,
and does not typically adjust to newly introduced
information. Deep learning algorithms may be able
to process raw data without the requirement for pre-
defined features. Natural image segmentation for
semantic reasons, as well as biological image segmen-
tation, has all been effectively accomplished using
these methods (Fujita et al., 2018). Quicker CPUs and Figure 36.7 Hierarchical relationships of AI, ML, DL
GPUs, which substantially concentrated exercise, and and CNN
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 269
Figure 36.8 Evolution of machine learning technology
today. The phrase “artificial intelligence” was initially In order to categorize ROI as healthy or diseased, a
proposed during a symposium at Dartmouth in 1956 common approach involves employing ML for image
and its evolution is shown in Figure 36.8. Importantly, segmentation. The initial phase of constructing such
AI approaches are highly suited to imaging-based an application involves pre-processing, which may
domains since the image itself is the primary source encompass noise removal or contrast enhancement
of data for training AI algorithms because pixel val- through filters. After pre-processing, the image under-
ues can be quantified (Russell et al., 2010; Yoon et al., goes segmentation via methods like thresholding,
2017; Dhiman et al., 2022). clustering, and edge-based segmentation. Once seg-
mented, attributes related to color, texture, contrast,
Machine learning (ML) and size are extracted from the ROI. Subsequently,
ML established the picture dissection method which using feature selection techniques like principal com-
is frequently used for categorizing ROI, such as ponent analysis (PCA) or statistical analysis, signifi-
unhealthy or healthy regions. Pre-processing, which cant attributes are identified. These chosen features
can include the usage of a filter to eliminate blare are then fed into a ML classifier, such as SVM or NN.
or for distinction improvement, is the initial step in The ML classifier determines optimal boundaries
constructing such an application. The image is seg- between classes by integrating the input feature vec-
mented after it has been pre-processed, utilizing tor with respective class labels (Kumar et al., 2021).
techniques such as thresholding, clustering, and edge- The ML classifier can then be used to categorize
based segmentation. Color, texture, dissimilarity, and fresh data. Common factors include addressing neces-
dimension features are extracted from the ROI after sary pre-processing requirements for raw picture data,
segmentation. figuring out the right features and the dimensions of
270 Pediatric thyroid ultrasound image classification using deep learning: A review
the feature vector, and choosing the best classifier.
The classifier type, along with pertinent characteris-
tics and the dimension of the feature vector, all play
crucial roles and warrant careful consideration.
Deep learning-based classifier (DLC)
Deep learning (DL) which is subdivision of ML that
includes computing hierarchical features or depic-
tions of sample facts (for example, photographs) by
combining lower-level abstract qualities, higher-level
abstract qualities is formed (Deng et al.. 2014). DLC
can process raw images straight, eliminating the neces-
Figure 36.9 Comparison of ML and DL
sity of preprocessing, dissection, and feature abstrac-
tion. Major DL methods necessitate image scaling due
to the input value constraint. Some processes call for
force normalization and contrast enhancement that
may be evaded by employing the facts augmentation
methods deliberated late in the passage. As a result,
DLC improves classification accuracy by avoiding
issues like erroneous feature vectors and sloppy seg-
mentation. The feature vector is fed into ML classifier,
which produces the object class, whereas the picture
is fed into a DLC, which produces the object class.
It’s worth noting that DL is theoretically superior
to regular artificial neural networks (ANN) because
this one has additional layers (Shen et al., 2017).
Representable learning occurs when each layer trans-
lates the preceding layer’s response facts into a new
depiction at advanced and additional abstract levels.
That all levels of a DL network, a non-linear pur-
pose transforms data into representation. In most
circumstances, the occurrence or non-appearance of
edges in precise arrangements, as well as their loca-
tion in the image, can be determined using attributes
gained from an image’s initial layer of representation.
Figure 36.10 Types of neural network (a) Traditional
The second layer detects edge location while ignor- neural network (b) CNN (c) FCN
ing slight changes, and the third layer combines these
patterns into higher groupings that match sections of
comparable matters, allowing subsequent layers to non-linear activation layer of ReLU increases non-
recognize objects using these groupings. Deep learn- linearity and training speed by applying the function
ing’s remaining efficiency for a variety of AL uses is f(x) = max (o, x) on reply inputs.
due to this hierarchical feature representation, which
learns straight via response. Figure 36.9 below dis- Convolutional neural network (CNN)
plays a comparison of the ML and DLC methods CNN is frequently used to tackle classification prob-
(Suzuki et al., 2017). lems, as previously indicated. To practice CNN for
Because it is like standard NN, CNN is the most semantic dissection, the response picture was distrib-
often used DL architecture. Contrasting a traditional uted among minor squares of identical magnitude.
NN (displayed in Figure 36.10a), CNN responds to A patch is then progressive to the next pixel in the
a picture and has a triple-dimensional structure of center to be classified. However, because the corre-
neurons to only connect to a little fraction of the sponding topographies of the sliding squares are not
prior level rather than the whole level (displayed in reprocessed, the image loses spatial information of
Figure 36.10b). The convolutional layer makes bulks topographies traveling to finishing interconnected
of feature maps comprising the filter’s retrieved fea- layers of the network which approach is inefficient.
tures by performing a convolution operation among To resolve this difficulty, the FCN was suggested
pixels in the response picture and a strainer. The (shown in Figure 36.10c).
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 271
Restricted Boltzmann machines (RBMs)
RBMs are a specific kind of NN and part of the
broader group of unsupervised learning methods.
The RBM is trained using a technique called contras-
tive divergence, which is a variant of Markov Chain
Monte Carlo sampling. RBMs are useful for many dif-
ferent processes, such as feature learning, dimension-
ality reduction, collaborative filtering, and generative
modeling. Applications including recommendation
systems, picture recognition, and natural language
processing have seen them particularly effective. One
key advantage of RBMs is their ability to learn com-
plex patterns and dependencies in the data without
requiring labeled examples. This makes them useful in
situations where labeled data is scarce or expensive to
obtain. Overall, RBMs are powerful models for unsu-
pervised learning that have found applications in var-
ious domains, contributing to advancements in ML
and AI research. Established with the plan displayed
in Figure 36.11, the RBM’s energy functions express: Figure 36.12 Autoencoder architectures with vector
(1) functions that capture the essential features of the
data, while most coefficients remain zero or close to
Autoencoder-based DL architectures zero. In the context of DL architectures, sparse cod-
Autoencoders have insufficient applicability and are ing principles have been integrated in various ways
not appropriate as generative models because of to improve the representation learning capabilities of
breaks in latent space descriptions. It was decided NNs. The use of sparse coding in DL architectures
to develop variational autoencoders to deal with aims to capture more meaningful and informative
this issue. For a variational autoencoder, the encoder representations of the data.
produces two encoded vectors rather than a single
encoded vector. The means vector is one and the stan- Generative adversarial networks (GANs)
dard deviations vector is the other. These vectors are Generative adversarial networks (GANs) constitute a
used as inputs to an accidental adjustable that sam- potent category of DL models capable of producing
ples productivity encoded vector. Figure 36.12 depicts highly realistic synthetic data. Comprising two com-
the design of an autoencoder. peting NNs a generator and a discriminator GANs
are designed to create synthetic samples, such as
Sparse coding-based deep learning architectures images or text, which closely resemble real data. The
This refers to NN models that incorporate the prin- generator network employs random noise as input to
ciples of sparse coding. Sparse coding is a technique produce these synthetic samples, aiming to grasp the
used to represent data in an efficient and compact inherent data distribution and generate items akin to
manner by utilizing a small number of non-zero acti- those found in the training data.
vations. The idea is to select a small number of basic In contrast, the discriminator network functions as
a binary classifier with the objective of distinguishing
between authentic samples from the training data and
spurious examples generated by the generator. GANs’
training mechanism involves an adversarial interplay
between the generator and discriminator, wherein
both networks enhance their performance through
iterative iterations of this adversarial competition.
In essence, GANs have brought about a revolu-
tionary shift in the realm of generative modeling
by furnishing a framework for generating synthetic
data that is both authentic and diverse. This area of
research remains vibrant, with continuous advance-
ments striving to enhance GANs’ stability, diversity,
Figure 36.11 Restricted Boltzmann machines (RBMs) and relevance across various domains.
272 Pediatric thyroid ultrasound image classification using deep learning: A review
Recurrent neural networks (RNNs) Clinical photographs
RNNs are a sort of NN that can process both sequen- Clinical pictures are computerized pictures of a
tial and temporal input successfully. Its main charac- patient’s body used to manuscript wounds, blisters,
teristic is to handle sequences of varying lengths. Each and skin limitations. These photos could be auto-
input in the sequence is processed one at a time, and matically analyzed to monitor therapy efficacy com-
the hidden state is updated and passed along to the pleted period. Clinical photos are commonly recycled
next input. This sequential processing allows RNNs in dermatological and aesthetic dealings to pathway
to model dependencies and patterns in time-series earlier and later skin or structural representations.
data, natural language processing (NLP), speech rec- Melanoma, a type of skin cancer, is most typically
ognition, and other sequential tasks. The recurrent diagnosed via clinical pictures.
nature of RNNs allows them to exhibit dynamic tem-
poral behavior, making them well-suited to solve the X-ray imaging
problems related to sequence modeling, time series X-ray is often used to visualize bones, organs, and tis-
prediction and speech recognition. Overall, RNNs are sues as well as detect a variety of medical disorders.
a fundamental class of neural networks designed for A machine emits a controlled dose of X-ray radiation
processing sequential data by leveraging their inter- that travels through the body during X-ray imag-
nal memory and recurrent connections. Their role has ing. variable tissues absorb X-rays differently, result-
been pivotal in propelling the domain of deep learn- ing in variable X-ray transmission through the body.
ing forward, and they have gained extensive usage X-ray images, also known as radiographs, appear as
across diverse sectors that encompass sequential and black-and-white images, where dense structures such
temporal data. as bones appear white, and softer tissues appear in
shades of gray. This contrast allows healthcare profes-
Standard deep learning architecture implementation sionals to identify fractures, tumors, infections, and
methodologies other abnormalities (Garcia et al., 2016). X-ray imag-
ing is widely used in various medical fields, includ-
Picture segmentation procedures based on DL have ing orthopedics, dentistry, cardiology, and emergency
been functional now in a variety of methods. Because medicine. To minimize radiation exposure, proper
the NN must be built and trained from the start in shielding and dose optimization techniques are
the first technique, it is time-consuming and requires employed, and the use of X-rays is carefully balanced
access to a big labeled dataset. The other strategy, with the potential diagnostic benefits for each patient
some pre-trained CNNs, such as AlexNet, can be (Davamani et al., 2021).
used to classify 1.2 million great tenacity photos for
1000 different classes (Krizhevsky et al., 2012). This Computed tomography (CT)
approach offers the benefit to save time as merely a The patient is placed on a table that moves through a
few weights need to be established. Transfer learning, circular hole in the CT machine for this scan. X-ray
where pre-trained CNNs are trained on ImageNet rays are emitted from various angles throughout the
data, proves to be more efficient compared to ran- body and travel through the tissues. These slices pro-
dom weight initialization. Another method involves vide intricate details about interior structures such as
extracting features from data using pre-trained CNNs bones, organs, blood arteries, and soft tissues. Using
U-Net and CNN are famous CNN, recognized for specialized algorithms, the computer reconstructs
their application in volumetric medical image seg- the acquired data, providing high-resolution images
mentation. V-Net, on the other hand, was specifically that can be viewed from various angles. CT scans
developed for biomedical image segmentation. The are extremely versatile and can provide useful infor-
U-Net architecture consists of fully convolutional mation for diagnosing and monitoring a wide range
network (FCN) with two paths – one for contraction of medical disorders. They are particularly useful in
and the other for expansion. The contraction path detecting and evaluating injuries, such as fractures
comprises a max-pooling layer and subsequent con- or internal bleeding, and diagnosing diseases, such
volutional layers (Ronneberger et al., 2015; Garcia et as cancer, cardiovascular conditions, and infections.
al., 2018). Modern CT scanners can capture images rapidly,
allowing for quick scanning times. Some scanners also
Biomedical images types offer advanced imaging capabilities, such as CT angi-
ography to visualize blood vessels, and dual-energy
Depending on the imaging technology, there are many CT to differentiate between different tissue types.
sorts of biomedical images. Some of the most often Therefore, healthcare professionals carefully evaluate
utilized biomedical imaging methods are discussed the risks and benefits of each CT scan, considering
below. alternative imaging options when appropriate and
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 273
minimizing radiation exposure by using appropriate biological tissues using light waves. It is most typically
techniques and protocols. used in ophthalmology to see and analyze the retina
and other ocular components, but it is also utilized in
Ultrasound imaging (US) cardiology and dermatology. OCT functions based on
US is a commonly employed method for diagnosing the principle of interferometry, wherein a light beam
and providing real-time visualization of organs, tis- is divided into two distinct paths: a reference path and
sues, and blood flow. In this technique, a handheld a sample path. The reference beam is directed towards
transducer device is positioned on the skin’s surface, a mirror, while the sample beam is directed towards
emitting sound waves into the body. These high- the tissue being analyzed. Subsequently, light waves
frequency sound waves, beyond the range of human originating from both directions engage with the tis-
hearing, traverse through the body and rebound sue before retracing their path to the apparatus.
upon encountering diverse tissues and structures, In ophthalmology, OCT is particularly valuable for
offering valuable insights during ultrasound exami- visualizing the retina and identifying various retinal
nations. Transducer also acts as a receiver, capturing conditions, such as macular degeneration, diabetic ret-
the reflected sound waves. The reflected sound waves inopathy, and glaucoma. It allows clinicians to assess
are then processed by a computer to create real-time the thickness, integrity, and pathological changes in
images on a monitor. These images depict the shape, retinal layers, aiding in diagnosis, treatment planning,
size, and composition of organs, tissues, and structures and monitoring of these conditions.
within the body. The ultrasound images are typically OCT is also used in other medical specialties. In
gray-scale, but color Doppler can be used to visualize cardiology, it can provide detailed imaging of blood
and assess blood [Link] imaging is frequently uti- vessels and identify atherosclerotic plaques in coro-
lized in obstetrics and gynecology, cardiology, radi- nary arteries. In dermatology, OCT can help visualize
ology, and abdominal imaging, among other medical and assess skin lesions and guide biopsies. One of the
disciplines. It can provide important details regarding key advantages of OCT is its high-resolution imaging
the structure and function of organs such the heart, capability, allowing for the visualization of fine tissue
liver, kidneys, and reproductive organs. In obstetrics, structures with micrometer-level precision. However,
it is commonly used for monitoring fetal develop- OCT has certain limitations. It is primarily limited to
ment during pregnancy. One of the key advantages of imaging superficial tissues due to the limited penetra-
ultrasound imaging is its safety and non-invasiveness. tion depth of light waves. Medical images taken at
While ultrasonic imaging offers numerous benefits, it a microscopic level are utilized to assess the tissue’s
also has some drawbacks (Reddy et al., 2008; Gharib small structure. The biopsy is utilized to retrieve tis-
et al., 2010; Haugen et al., 2016; Haque et al., 2020). sue for investigation, and subsequently, staining com-
ponents are employed to expose cellular features in
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) areas of the tissue. Counter stains are used to give the
The transmitted signals are picked up by a collec- graphics more color, visibility, and contrast.
tion of specialized antennas in the MRI machine,
and this information is processed by a computer to Data augmentation
create comprehensive cross-sectional images of the
body. These images, which can be viewed from dif- The enactment of DL neural networks was determined
ferent angles, provide information about the structure by the handiness of appropriate facts. Facts augmen-
and composition of various tissues and organs. It can tation, which includes removing a set of reasonable
help identify abnormalities, such as tumors, inflam- alterations to the samples (e.g., flip, rotate, mirror) in
mation, or structural abnormalities, and assist in the addition to augmenting color (grey) values, is the great-
diagnosis and monitoring of conditions like strokes, est commonly use method for aggregate the extent of
multiple sclerosis, joint disorders, and certain types of the training dataset. The efficiency of data augmen-
cancer. One notable advantage of MRI is that it does tation is examined in non-clinical research, and the
not require ionizing radiation exposure, making it a outcomes tell that classic augmentation methods can
safe imaging alternative. However, certain contrain- enrich by up to 7% (Fotenos et al., 2005; Golan et al.,
dications, such as the presence of metallic implants 2016; Milletari et al., 2017). When real data is scarce,
or devices in the body, may restrict its use in some numerous data augmentation procedures are used to
individuals (Kwak et al., 2011). generate more training data from the existing dataset.
These augmentation techniques change images while
Optical coherence tomography (OCT) and micro- retaining their class, and they can include methods
scopic images and scintigraphy such as – (1) Image translation: This technique involves
OCT is a non-invasive medical imaging technology shifting the pixels of an image along a single direc-
that captures high-resolution cross-sectional images of tion, either horizontally or vertically, without altering
274 Pediatric thyroid ultrasound image classification using deep learning: A review
the overall dimensions of the image; (2) Image flip- Accuracy
ping: Flipping the image pixels horizontally and verti- The most basic performance indicator is this one. An
cally by retreating the rows and columns of pixels; alternative term for it is overall pixel precision. The
(3) Picture rotation: Rotation of a picture from 0 to precision is in identifying whether a patient is unwell
360 degrees; (4) Contrast adjusting: Changing picture or healthy.
illumination levels to train the procedure to accom-
modate for such distinctions in test shots; (5) Image (2)
zooming: Randomly increase in or out of the picture
by adding fresh boundary pixels or using interpola-
tion. Using nearest-neighbor fill, boundary pixel dupli- Precision/specificity
cation, averaging, or interpolation, few existing pixels Precision denotes the proportion of affected pixels in
are deleted and fresh pixels are included in most of the automated segmentation output that align with the
these techniques. The first four solutions are referred authentic disease pixels. Precision is a valuable evalu-
to as inflexible data augmentation strategies since the ation metric for gauging segmentation performance,
data shape remains unaltered. The fifth method keeps particularly in scenarios prone to excessive segmenta-
the vertical and horizontal augmentation ratios the tion. The capacity to accurately measure instances of
same. If it’s not the same, the picture will spread fur- wellness is referred to as specificity (Lalkhen et al.,
ther in a single way than the other (image stretching). 2008).
The goal of these augmentation techniques is to make
deep neural networks more generalizable while avoid- (3)
ing feature under-fitting and over-fitting. These strate-
gies are usually applied mechanically throughout the DICE similarity coefficient (DSC)
network’s training phase. An additional resolution is The DSC surpasses total pixel accuracy as it impar-
to transfer knowledge from successful models that tially considers both false alarms and omitted data
have been implemented in the same (or even other) within each class. DICE is too thought to be better
industries. In transfer learning the system is trained as it measures not just the number of pixels that have
to recognize and apply understanding educated in a been suitably identified, but also the precision with
prior origin domain to a fresh assignment. Transfer which the segmentation borders have been drawn
learning, on the other hand, is influenced by network (Van et al., 2009). Here S stands for segmentations
structure, organ imaging modality, and dataset size in this case.
(Perez et al., 2017).
(4)
Quantitative analysis
The objective analysis plays a vital role in determin- Sensitivity/recall
ing the effectiveness of a segmentation algorithm. The Sensitivity refers to the ability to accurately measure
picture segmentation system is evaluated using rec- disease cases. The fraction of illness pixels in the
ognized benchmarks, which allows for comparisons ground truth which is exactly predicted using pro-
with recently published approaches in the literature. grammed segmentation is referred to as sensitivity.
The selection of an appropriate evaluation metric is
influenced by various factors, including the specific
(5)
implementation of the system. These metrics assess
different aspects such as accuracy, processing time,
memory usage, and computational complexity (Shie Jaccard similarity index (JSI)
et al., 2015). Table 36.2 provides definitions for the The percentage of the space of intersection among the
various abbreviations (TP, FP, FN, and TN) used to anticipated subdivision and the ground fact subdivi-
assess DL model segmentation performance: sion to the region of merger among anticipated sub-
division and the ground truth subdivision is called JSI
(Intersection-Over-Union).
Table 36.2 DL segmentation performance parameter
(6)
Category Actual disease Actual no disease
Predicted True positive (TP) False positive (FP)
As can be seen from the above, there is a distinction
disease between JSI and DSC.
Predicted No False negative (FN) True negative (TN)
disease (7)
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 275
Negative predictive value (NPV) probable identification of ROI by segmentation. To
The likelihood that a disease does not exist given a achieve greater efficiency, two feature maps, high level,
negative test result is defined as: and low level, have been explored. Shah et al. (2013)
created a method for generating a classifier that was
(8) trained using a supervised learning algorithm; how-
ever, the method was only evaluated on a dataset of
five photos. In this study, a feed-forward neural net-
Literature review work was built to segment the thyroid gland region.
A review of various segmentation approaches for Frannita et al. (2018) analyzed US photos to identify
thyroid diagnosis using US images was done. We thyroid cancer into three categories based on inter-
looked at research that used deep learning prototypes nal content characteristics. The nodular feature can
aimed at biological picture separation. The table con- be used to diagnose thyroid cancer. The time it takes
tains the editorial orientation, the modality, which a radiologist to diagnose a thyroid nodule is deter-
describes the picturing methods applied for picture mined by their experience. An automated method is
arrangement otherwise acquirement, the style, which required to eradicate radiologist dependence. This
describes the DL design use for subdivision, the com- research focuses on exploiting textural cues to cat-
ments part, which in brief describes the planned egorize thyroid nodules into three groups. The study
method, and lastly the performance metrics with brief also presents a novel deep learning algorithm and
descriptions used to calculate the planned algorithm. an energy-efficient internet of things (IoT) system
The popular approaches, as are established on CNN designed specifically for medical applications (Ying et
or FCN (Csurka et al., 2013). al., 2018; Kumar et al., 2021; Dhiman et al., 2022).
The segmentation results (Wong et al., 2011) are
evaluated using quantitative criteria such as accu- Conclusion
racy, precision, recall, and F1 measure, all of which
In this study of DL systems for US image segmenta-
exceed 80%. These results indicate the effectiveness
tion, certain key concerns were addressed. All of these
of the proposed technique in accurately distinguish-
research used real-world data to show that the pro-
ing different practical tissues in breast US images. The
posed technique worked in specific applications with
researchers suggest that this approach could assist in
small datasets. The question of why deep learning
clinical breast cancer detection by providing the nec-
algorithms work for a specific problem is still open.
essary segmentations and improve imaging in other
The solution to this problem is currently a work in
US medical applications.
progress. Many scientists are developing new visual
LeNet CNN and network in network (NiN) (Badea
aids to help people grasp feature maps created from
et al., 2016; Xu et al., 2019) the ACEW, DRLSE, and
hidden layers more intuitively. This scenario arises due
localized region-based active contour (LRBAC) sub-
to alterations in data acquisition devices, which can
division methods were described. The forefront and
lead to changes in image attributes like illumination or
backdrop are discussed for minor regions using this
color intensity levels. Consequently, network perfor-
strategy. Every point is considered separately to opti-
mance can be adversely affected due to a deficiency in
mize the local energy. Every spot was analyzed inde- generalizability. Furthermore, a significant challenge
pendently near optimize confined power to minimize posed by DL networks is the necessity for extremely
the power compute in its limited area. Physical initial- expansive image databases. This demand entails sub-
ization of the mask is required, as is manual param- stantial storage and memory resources, alongside
eter change. prolonged training periods for the networks. Another
Poudel et al. (2018) concluded that ML techniques pivotal area of research involves reducing training
generate more accurate and efficient segmentation, duration and effectively managing extensive volumes
but they necessitate a large number of tagged datasets of imaging data, accounting for storage and memory
and longer training time. According to the authors, requisites. The application of DLC-based method-
3D U-Net CNN exists as a mechanical sub-division ologies in biological contexts within clinical practice
technique for 3-D US pictures that uses a decoder to has also been impeded by the scarcity of adequately
provide a full-resolution subdivision and an encoder large imaging datasets. Despite the healthcare sector
to analyze the whole image by contracting in every possessing substantial imaging data, data sharing is
succeeding layer. Although it does take additional often constrained due to protected health informa-
training time, this technique has the advantage of tion or proprietary considerations. Hence, concerted
being able to partition 3D thyroid glands without endeavors are imperative to establish accessibility to
the usage of handcrafted characteristics. Shenoy et such data, whether through grand challenge competi-
al. (2018) have proposed an improvised U-net for the tions or data contributions. This proactive approach
276 Pediatric thyroid ultrasound image classification using deep learning: A review
is essential as the enduring advantages of data sharing variability in manual spot segmentation and its effect
far surpass any transient gains attained through data on spot quantitation in two-dimensional electropho-
concealment. DL algorithms have ushered in unpar- resis analysis. Electrophoresis, 31(10), 1739–1742.
alleled enhancements in performance across diverse Iglesias, J. E. (2017). Globally optimal coupled surfaces for
semi-automatic segmentation of medical images. Int.
healthcare domains, spanning from the automated
Conf. Inform. Proc. Med. Imag., 610–621.
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Fan, M. and Lee, T. C. M. (2015). Variants of seeded region
US images. However, there is further potential to be growing. IET Image Proc. 9(6), 478–485.
realized through the augmentation of publicly acces- Zhang, H., Albert, M., and Willig, A. (2012). Combining
sible labeled images. The manual annotation of visual TDMA with slotted Aloha for delay constrained traf-
data by experts remains a notable impediment in gen- fic over lossy links. 2012 12th Int. Conf. Con. Au-
erating accurate ground truths. In instances where tomat. Robot. Vis. (ICARCV), 701–706.
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37 Hybrid security of EMI using edge-based steganography
and three-layered cryptography
Divya Sharmaa and Chander Prabha
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
Abstract
To enhance the security and ensure privacy of a larger data set of electronic medical images (EMI) each of which varies in
properties while they are in storage, or before being transmitted, and accessed through real-time applications has become a
challenging issue. Stored EMI should be easily accessible anytime while ensuring secrecy and privacy. The proposed hybrid
method (PHM) is a combination of steganography with cryptography which ensures security while reducing the computa-
tional time so that they can secure EMI in real time. Initially, in PHM the EMI is hidden using edge-based steganography and
then applied with three-layered cryptography. The proposed hybrid method is implemented using MATLAB. The efficiency
metrics applied are: total time which combines steganography with encryption time, decrypt and de-steganography time
thus overall processing time, Peak Signal to Noise Ratio (PSNR), Mean Square Error (MSE), Kullback-Leibler Divergence
(KLD), Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), Bit Error Rate (BER), etc. This article aims to secure a larger data set of 5856
EMI images of varying dimensions sized 1.16 GB by implementing the PHM which is a combination of cryptography and
steganography. Further performance analysis demonstrates its efficiency and effectiveness in terms of reduced total process-
ing time, encryption, and decryption time. Therefore, PHM can be used by hospitals to enhance security and privacy while
providing real-time access to EMI. The PHM achieved is 0.99, R is 0.99, while better value for Kullback-Leibler Divergence
(KLD), Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), Bit Error Rate (BER), Universal Average Changed Intensity (UACI), Number of
Changing Pixel Rate (NPCR), etc. Hence proving its statistical relevance.
Keywords: Secrecy, privacy, electronic medical image (EMI), steganography, cryptography
Introduction Introduction to electronic health records (EHR)
The advent of electronic health records (EHR) (Al
Initially, there was digital data which is a raw form of
Hamid et al., 2017; Ali et al., 2022) has led to a rise in
information that could be stored locally or remotely
issues related to the security of the EHR. EHR often
or transferred over the Internet. Popular storage
consists of patient records, X-ray images (Agarwal
devices such as optical disk, solid state disk or drive
and Prabha, 2022), CT scans, etc., (Al Hamid et
(SSD), universal serial bus (USB), compact disk (CD),
al., 2017). These are collected by hospitals, labora-
digital-versatile disk (DVD), etc., are used for storing
tories, pharma companies, etc., (Ali et al., 2022) for
digital data. Nowadays, digital data has grown with
research, analysis, and development purposes. Popular
the increase in population.
EMI such as X-ray, MRI, etc., are created, accessed,
stored, and maintained on the computer as digital
Digital data
images. Some common EMI known can be seen in
Digital data in information sciences is the representa-
Figure 37.2. Thus, an EHR can be said to be a collec-
tion of information in a format that is understand-
tion of EMI, patients’ details, etc.
able to computers (Sharma and Kawatra, 2023).
Generally, a computer understands 0 and 1’s, and
Internet of medical things (IOMT)
anything saved in such format is called digital data.
IOMT are devices and applications which help cre-
The various types of popular storage mediums are
ate EHR and also allow sharing them with various
shown in Figure 37.1. There are four types of digital
devices like computer, android, etc., through Internet.
data are as follows:
Some IOMT devices currently in use are depicted
in Figure 37.3. IOMT data such as medical records
(a) Digital text
and imaging is currently facing security and privacy
(b) Digital image
concerns like theft or ransomware attacks (Sharma
(c) Digital audio
and Prabha, 2021; Lin et al., 2023). The goal of this
(d) Digital video.
research is to develop a hybrid steganography and
divya009sharma@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 279
Figure 37.1 Commonly used data storage devices
Figure 37.2 Common types of EMI
Figure 37.3 Commonly used smart medical devices that generate EHR
280 Hybrid security of EMI using edge-based steganography and three-layered cryptography
cryptography method for EMI security and protec- size in bytes, dimensions, and belonging to different
tion from modification, theft or loss attacks while patient’s security is an important aspect as it needs
they reside on storage devices. to be enhanced further while maintaining the original
EMI properties (Shukla et al., 2021). The easy to use,
Problem statement hassle free, anytime access to EMI is provided, faster
The previous researchers have introduced different access, and device scalable access to patients, medi-
data security schemas to enhance the security of EMI. cal practitioners, etc. EMI are used in case of medical
However, the previous studies have not effectively emergencies thus they need to be reliable, accurate,
enhanced data security. Most of them fail to mention and accessible in real time. Therefore, EMI security
encryption and decryption time (Adnan and Ariffin, and privacy need to be enhanced without affecting its
2019; Singh et al., 2020; Ali et al., 2022; Prabha et features.
al., 2022; Parmar and Shah, 2023) which helps prove
the efficiency of the proposed algorithm. However, Research contribution
computational time needs to be addressed while stor- The major contributions that led to this research have
ing EMI as they are used for real-time applications. been listed below:
The computational time is the time involved in access-
ing our EMI which involves de-steganography and 1) Developing a hybrid of steganography with
decryption process for the proposed hybrid method. cryptography method which is lightweight and
The previously used research works implemented con- capable of processing a diverse and larger data
ventional techniques such as Advanced Encryption set of 5856 EMI images.
Standard which is susceptible to brute force attacks 2) To propose a hybrid method that enhances secu-
(Adnan and Ariffin, 2019), RSA, least significant bit rity and privacy of the EMI images while main-
(LSB) steganography (Adee and Mouratidis, 2022), taining its picture quality for future diagnosis
Two-Fish algorithm (Maata, Cordova, and Halibas, and analysis also reducing the access time for the
2020). Thus, leading to proposed hybrid method same.
(PHM) which combines steganography with cryptog- 3) Efficiency evaluation of the proposed hybrid
raphy on X-ray images. The X-ray images are hidden method by analyzing the PHM time for encryp-
one at a time into a normalized cover image Lena. tion with steganography, decryption with extrac-
Then three-layers of cryptography are applied to tion time have been tabulated and compared
stego-image which will further enhance the security with previous research work along with the sta-
of EMI. This hybrid method is a light-weight combi- tistical test values such as PSNR, MSE, RMSE,
nation and is found suitable for real-time applications R, etc.
where EMI can be stored, or before transmitting them
over a network, and accessed in real-time (Sharma et This article is further sub-divided into the following
al., 2021) through real time applications. sections – the next is literature review which tabulates
the current state of research work, followed by PHM
Research motivation which gives an understanding of the proposed hybrid
The current study focuses on reducing the size of the method, then results and discussion of the proposed
EMI which renders them useless for future referenc- technique based on computational time, Finally, the
ing by medical practitioners, researcher, and insurance section discuss the conclusion of the proposed PHM
agencies, etc. Recently, there has been an increase in method.
the number of EMI users. The security and privacy of
EMI have become increasingly challenging as no EMI
is the same, having varying properties, thus, they vary Literature review
in size and have unique features. Due to varying sizes The current articles that are studied during this
(such as dimensions, storage space, etc.) and unique research work are tabulated in the form of Table 37.1.
features (therefore each image belongs to a unique This tabulation is based on the research goal that led
person at a unique point in time) for the EMI images. to their research work, the results achieved, the tech-
Previous studies have focused on normalizing the EMI nique proposed, and the future scope of research.
to dimensions 256 × 256 (El-Shafai et al., 2022) and
512 × 512 (Akkasaligar and Biradar, 2020; Brar et al.,
2022) which renders them useless for future medical Proposed hybrid method (PHM)
referencing. As medical data needs to be detailed, clear, The security of EMI from network hackers is an
and accurate for correct diagnosis. Thus, such meth- important challenge that needs to be addressed. This
ods have harmed the key feature of the EMI. Thus, research work focuses on enhancing the security and
EMI of varying properties such as number of pixels, privacy of the EMI (Ali et al., 2022) while in storage.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 281
Table 37.1 Literature review of studied research articles
Cited as Research goals Achievement Proposed technique / future
(Al Hamid et EMR which exists as big Medical data is securely accessed Elliptic curve cryptography with 3
al., 2017) data to be secured from data and stored by decoy technique party one-round authenticates key
theft attacks, and security which allows only authorized exchange
breaches, in the cloud using fog users access
computing
(Ali et al., To implement a deep learning Improves security, anomalies, Novel method on blockchain
2022) algorithm that securely and monitors a user’s behavior, allowing remote encryption for
searches the distributed better efficiency compared to users and upload of a distributed
blockchain-based database peer block chain models. This ledger. The proposed method can
using homographic encryption technique supports immutability, be enhanced by applying methods
for secure access and searching tamper resistance, and delivery of such as the classification method
of records (implemented secured data resulting in reduced
using smart contracts and security breaches
Hyperledger tools)
(Lin et al., To develop a technique that Satisfactory decryption Proposed a multi-layered
2023) protects the confidentiality, performance, promising convolution processing network
reliability, and increases capabilities to protect the data (MCPN) cryptography combined
availability of digital images confidentiality, data recovery, and with artificial intelligence (AI)
while be processed by online data availability of digital images for cancer disease detection while
applications increasing its applicability to IoT
and IoMT by combining with
discreet Fourier transform at the
physical layer of data transmission
between heterogenous devices
(Parmar and Integrating IoT nodes with Performance and cost-effective IoT blockchain light-weight
Shah, 2023) blockchain solution with less performance cryptographic (IBLWC) approach
overhead
(Mothi and Retain the quality of the iris Achieved an increase in the A hybrid of wavelet packet
Karthikeyan, image after data hiding quality of the image. High- transform (WPT) and advance
2019) security hybrid for more reliable encryption standard (AES)
and secure cryptography cryptography
(Georgieva- Protect cardiac database Showed effectiveness, security, Daubechies wavelet transform
Tsaneva, against unauthorized access stability, and potential use in then conducted energy packing
Bogdanova, telemedicine efficiency-based compression
and
Gospodinova,
2022)
(Kumar et al., Transferring images over the Gives greater security, enhanced LSB steganography and AES
2022) Internet would face various and robust security, challenging cryptography
issues such as protection, to break by unauthorized access
copyrights, modification,
authentication
(Krishna, Security of data stored on Lesser time for implementing Fully homomorphic encryption
2018) a cloud. Asymmetric block cubic spline curve cryptography of Big Data using cubic spline
cipher mode used with global compared with error correction curve public key cryptography.
variable used for calculating code (ECC). The proposed Work could be carried around the
public key from the private key method supports large big data. boundary condition of the spline
Resistance to active collision and curve. Work can be extended to
replay attacks support digital signature standards
(DSS)
(Zolfaghari Study the cross-impact Detailed study on neural network No technique was proposed. The
and Koshiba, of neural network on and cryptography future where two data hiding
2022) cryptography techniques should be intersected
(Adnan and Enhancing secrecy, privacy, Affordable insights into 3D-AES cryptography.
Ariffin, 2019) confidentiality, and enhancing protection while Enhancement is needed to protect
availability to records from removing vulnerabilities cloud storage
attacks and threats while in
communication
282 Hybrid security of EMI using edge-based steganography and three-layered cryptography
Cited as Research goals Achievement Proposed technique / future
(Adee and Securing and private data More redundancy, flexibility, RSA with AES then identity-based
Mouratidis, using cryptography with efficiency, and secrecy as it encryption algorithms followed
2022) steganography on cloud protects confidentiality, privacy, by LSB steganography. Future
environment leading to and integrity from attackers research work needs to focus on
reduced data theft and data while enhancing security and improving the combination of
manipulation attacks privacy steganography with cryptography
thus enhancing the security
(Maata, Information security to big Size of message is increased Two-Fish cryptography
Cordova, data in terms of size while significantly and time spent
and Halibas, transmitted efficiently and during the encryption and
2020) effectively decryption process. The authors
concluded that it was efficient
and effective
(El-Shafai et Securing images while in Secure, efficient, and immune SAE with improved deep learning
al., 2022) communication from various attacks such as (DL) extraction in the region of
noise attacks. This cryptosystem interest in the medical images
is efficient due parallelism of then compression and finally
the stacked auto-encoder (SAE), watermarking in multistage
which reduces the computational security encryption to enhance
complexity the robustness of medical data
broadcasted in telemedicine
(Akkasaligar To ensure and implement Resistance against different Selective digitizer medical image
and Biradar, security and confidentiality types of attacks. This SEDMI sncryption (SEDMI)
2020) of the medical images that method takes less computation
belongs to a larger data set or time (0.236 s) increasing its
larger size in bytes applicability as an e-health care
application
(Awadh, Image security and capacity Image quality is 68%, solving Hybrid layers of security
Alasady, and needs to be ensured on Internet security, and capacity concerns compression using discreet wavelet
Hamoud, transform (DWT) with AES
2022) encryption then least significant
bit (LSB) for hiding. Improved
hybrid security method with
random hiding algorithm to be
implemented on other languages
(Avula To develop a scalable, Developed a lightweight A Merkle tree data structure
Gopalakrishna lightweight framework based framework in blockchain. is used for hashing then
and Basarkod, on blockchain as modern Enhanced accessibility as cryptography based on lattice-
2023) healthcare are complex and artificial intelligence is combined based homomorphic proxy
requires secure storage with blockchain re-encryption scheme and
securely stored using blockchain
interplanetary file system
The role of cryptography is to ensure confidentiality The reverse of the proposed PHM method is applied
(Zolfaghari and Koshiba, 2022; Sharma and Prabha, to extract back the X-ray images.
2023) of EMI. The data set used for implementing
the proposed hybrid method (PHM) consist of 5856 Normalized cover image Lena
X-ray images in JPEG format which are all of vary- Firstly, the dimensions of Lena image are increased
ing sizes, dimensions, and belong to unique patients to 1080 × 1080. RONI region in Lena is the region
at unique time. The first step in PHM is to normal- other than Lena therefore the background (Hachaj,
ize the cover image Lena. Then X-ray image is hid- Koptyra, and Ogiela, 2021). Region of no interest is
den in normalized cover image Lena one at a time detected with the magic wand tool freely available
using edge-based steganography (EBS) resulting in a online at Pixlr ([Link] (https://
stego-image which is then applied with three layers [Link]/ n.d.). The background region of the cover
of cryptography this results in a crypto-stego-image. image Lena is inserted with randomly generated
This crypto-stego image can be saved either centrally black-and-white noise. Figure 37.4 depicts the process
or on a distributed database on cloud environment. of normalizing the cover image Lena and the output is
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 283
referred to as the normalized cover image Lena. This Goldbaum, 2018) in JPEG format which are hidden
normalized cover image Lena hides one X-ray image one at a time, few of these are shown in Figure 37.5.
at a time using edge-based steganography (EBS) meth- One of the X-ray images is loaded from the data set
ods where the X-ray image is equally hidden across all of 5856 X-ray images. This X-ray image is hidden in
the edges of normalized Lena towards its background the edges of the normalized cover image Lena (around
for all the three red, green, and blue (RGB) compo- Lena in the noisy background) achieved earlier and
nents separately. shown in Figure 37.4. Then the stego-image is applied
with three layers of cryptography resulting in crypto-
Proposed hybrid steganography with layered cryptog- stego image. A detailed explanation of PHM method
raphy method proposed in this article has been mentioned in algo-
The input for PHM is one image at a time from a total rithm 1 in Table 37.2.
data set of 5856 X-ray images (Kermany, Zhang, and The output achieved after implementing PHM are
the images in the form of noisy signal as shown in
Figure 37.6. The decryption method is the reverse of
the encryption algorithm.
Results and discussion
The proposed methods have been implemented
on 12th Gen Intel (R) Core (TM) i7-12700H 2.30
GHz, RAM 16.0 GB, 64-bit operating system, and
Windows 11 using MATLAB 2021a. The data set
was downloaded from Mendeley (Kermany, Zhang,
and Goldbaum, 2018) it consists of 5856 chest X-ray
images all in joint photographic experts’ group
(JPEG) format. Here, each X-ray images belongs to
different patients having varying dimensions, sizes,
and properties. For the validation of the proposed
hybrid method a comparative study is tabulated
which compares the computational time and the sta-
tistical tests such as PSNR, MSE, RMSE, etc. were
Figure 37.4 Process of normalization of cover image applied whose values are shown in the following
Lena sub-section.
Figure 37.5 Few of the 5856 X-ray images that act as input for the PHM
284 Hybrid security of EMI using edge-based steganography and three-layered cryptography
Table 37.2 The stego-encryption algorithm for the PHM
Algorithm 1: Algorithm for implementing the proposed hybrid EBS steganography with three-layers of cryptography for
enhancing security of EMI
Data set: The cover image: Normalized cover image Lena; The secret image: the chest X-ray image, total number of
X-ray images: 5856, format of X-ray image is JPEG, Dimensions: each X-ray image varies in dimensions and properties.
Step 1: Study the normalized Lena image and find the edges around Lena in the region of no interest. Get each edge pixel
value as (col, row) for each edge position and store separately into array variable say col which stores the column pixel
values, while row variable array where the row pixel values are stored.
Step 2: Separate the normalized cover image Lena into three parts based on red, green, and blue (RGB) components and
save these three components into three arrays Ir, Ig, and Ib.
Step 3: Load one X-ray image from a data set of 5856 X-ray images and convert it into a 1-D array say A.
Step 4: Equally embed the elements of A in the edges of Lena across Ir, Ig, Ib components using the col and row pixel
value found earlier in Step 1.
Step 5: Check for remaining elements in A save it as rem variable, then
Find p the minimum value in the row array
If ( column_length > rem)
Hide the remaining pixel values in p=p-1 row
Else: n=mod (column_length, rem), embed remaining element across multiple rows from (p – 1) till p-n, while
ensuring that (p-n!=0)
Step 6: Step 5 performed edge-based steganography (EBS). This stego-image will now be applied with three layers of
cryptography. Firstly, create an initial permutation (IP) table which is of the same dimensions as one of the three RGB
component of stego-image I.
Step 7: The three RGB components of the stego-image are now stored into variables say Sr, Sg, and Sb.
Step 8: The IP table created in Step 6 will be used as a substitution table on Sr, Sg, and Sb. Where the values of Sr, Sg,
and Sb variables will substitute based on IP table. This step will result in the process of confusion.
Step 9: The Sr, Sg, Sb achieved after Step 8 will each be further divided into two half’s first is the left half say Srl, Sgl, Sbl
and the right half say Srr, Sgr, Sbr.
Step 10: Each half Srl, Sgl, Sbl the right half say Srr, Sgr, Sbr are individually applied with a circular right shift by 4
columns.
Step 11: Then XOR the right half with the left half which results in the new left half while the old left half will become
the new right half.
Step 12: Combine the new left half Srl, with the new right half Srr which will form the new red component similarly Sgl
with Sgr and Sbl with Sbr generating the green and blue components.
Step 13: Combine these RGB components to get the stego-crypto image.
Step 14: Store this stego-crypto EMI.
Step 15: Analyze the computational time for implementing the proposed hybrid method for future analysis.
Step 16: Stop.
Data set size comparison method uses a larger data set with a total size of 1.16
Table 37.3 is a comparative analysis table where the GB made up of 5856 X-ray images having unique
sizes of the data sets involved in the previously stud- dimensions while belonging to unique individual.
ied articles have been tabulated and compared with
the proposed hybrid method. This table discusses the Encryption time
programming language used by the researcher, the size The time taken to perform the PHM where the
of the data set, where the data set was downloaded Normalized cover image Lena is applied with
from, the type or format of the secret message, and its EBS Steganography then three-layer cryptography
sizes, similarly the file type and size of the cover image which generates a crypto-stego image. The encryp-
used with respect to the article studied previous stud- tion time also measures the encryption speed rate
ies in this article. and the throughput time therefore how fast the
On analysis, it was observed that the most popu- crypto-stego image will be generated. The encryp-
larly used programming language by researchers is tion time also helps determine whether the pro-
MATLAB which has also been used for PHM method posed method is suitable for real-time applications
implemented in this research work. Similarly, PHM or not. The proposed methods take a total time of
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 285
Figure 37.6 Output images achieved after implementing the proposed PHM method
Table 37.3 Comparison based on the size of the data set and programming language used in previous research
Cited as Language Data set from / data set size Secret message type Cover type / cover size
/ secret message
size
PHM MATLAB Mendeley / 1.16 GB 5856 X-ray images Lena normalized the
in JPEG format / JPEG image / 720 KB
1.16 GB
(Ali et al., 2022) Python Log files 70% data training -/- -/ -
while 30% data for testing
purposes /-
(Lin et al., 2023) MATLAB 9.0 Head snapshots of 100 .JPEG images each -/-
version children (facial expression of 227 × 227 pixels
with ten EMI of hand X-ray)
(Mothi and MATLAB CASIA V4 and UBIRIS V1 Personal details of 10 iris images
Karthikeyan, 2019) 2017b Iris Databases. / 100 iris patients as text
images
(Georgieva-Tsaneva, MATLAB, -/- -/- records of up to 72 h of
Bogdanova, and Microsoft real electrocardiographs,
Gospodinova, 2022) Visual C++ photoplethysmography,
and Holter cardio data
(Kumar et al., 2022) - -/- Text message Digital image /-
“NATURE” /-
(Kore and Patil, 2022) Network -/- -/- -/-
simulator
(NS2)
(Adnan and Ariffin, - -/67240448 bits Big data /- -/-
2019)
(Adee and Mouratidis, Python Block of characters Text message 3 images/ 1.2MB, 2.9,
2022) converted to ASCII / - “Rose Adee and 7.2MB
encrypted files” /-
(Maata, Cordova, and Java [Link]/datasets/ Application store -/-
Halibas, 2020) 341.675 MB data /-
(El-Shafai et al., 2022) MATLAB -/ 256 × 256 - Grayscale images/ -
2020b and
Python
286 Hybrid security of EMI using edge-based steganography and three-layered cryptography
Cited as Language Data set from / data set size Secret message type Cover type / cover size
/ secret message
size
(Akkasaligar and MATLAB National Library of 500 medical 512 × 512 / -
Biradar, 2020) R2015b Medicine’s Open Access images (MRI,
Biomedical Images Search CT-Scan, X-Ray,
Engine /- and Ultra-Sound) /-
(Awadh, Alasady, and Visual Basic. -/- Lena image 65,536 Image 3,93,216 /-
Hamoud, 2022) Net language Bit /-
(Avula Gopalakrishna Ethereum [Link] -/- -/-
and Basarkod, 2023) platform and health./ 3452 health-related
Python data records of COVID-19
Table 37.4 Encryption time for the proposed hybrid Performance evaluation tests
method Performance evaluation test help prove whether the
aimed objectives have been achieved or not. Also,
Total time Average Minimum Maximum
time time time provide a better understanding of the performance
of any proposed hybrid technique (Li et al., 2022;
12.695647028333 0.13008 s 0.04451 s 0.548654 s Sharma and Prabha, 2023). These tests validate the
min
integrity, robustness, validity, and authenticity of the
proposed method (Ahmad et al., 2022). The values
achieved after implementing the proposed PHM
Table 37.5 Proposed method decryption time method are tabulated and compared with previ-
ously studied literature in Table 37.6. Some common
Total time Average Minimum Maximum performance evaluation tests such as MSE, RMSE,
time time time
etc. are discussed with their equations (Sharma and
16.369629188333 0.16772 s 0.05456 s 0.527336 s Prabha, 2023):
min
Mean square error (MSE)
MSE measures the average square error in image
retrieved after reversal of PHM when compared with
12.695647028333 min to perform the proposed
original image shown in Equation (1).
hybrid steganography with the encrypting method
(shown in Table 37.4). Thus, proving that the pro-
posed method is better than the previously stud-
(1)
ied methods having time 34.427972 (Adee and
Mouratidis, 2022), 102.164 s (Maata, Cordova,
and Halibas, 2020). Here, I(i,j) is the original image, SI(i,j) is the image
retrieved after implementing the reverse of the pro-
Decryption time posed hybrid technique. While m × n is the total num-
The time taken to get back the X-ray image hidden ber of pixels.
with PHM in the normalized Lena cover image. Lesser
decryption time is preferred. The proposed methods Peak signal to noise ratio (PSNR)
performed decryption in time of 0.05456 s as quoted The higher value of PSNR indicates that a low amount
in Table 37.5. Thus, achieving reduced computational of noise is present in the extracted image. MSE is rep-
time and is hence suitable for real-time applications. resented in Equation (2) (Sharma and Prabha, 2023).
Further from Table 37.5, it was found that the time
taken to perform encryption seems to be more, but it
(2)
is to be noted that the size of the data involved in this
study is also more than the previous studies. The aver-
age time for encryption is 0.13008 s while for decryp- Structural similarity index metrics (SSIM)
tion is 0.16772 s for 5856 X-ray images whose total SSIM measures the amount of similarity between
size is 1.16 GB. Thus, it can be concluded that the original image and retrieved image it is shown in
time of encryption and decryption has been reduced. Equation (3).
Table 37.6 Comparison based result table for the proposed hybrid method with the research article that led to this research
Cited as Time MSE / PSNR R SSIM NPCR UACI Entropy/ BER FSIM/ CR KLD/ RMSE/ SNR
MAPE PRD
PHM Total encryption time 0.000000035/ 0.999999 0.999981 95.585 6.59E-09 7.8398/2.25E- -/ 0.995818 0.000249/ 0.057113/ 0.049219
= 12.69 min, total 74.5584 05 1.68E-06 0.00011
decryption time =
16.36 min
(Al Hamid et 83.26 s - - - - - - - - - -
al., 2017)
(Lin et al., Avg. encryption and -/ 105.2513 0.9125 0.9406 100.00% 78.01% - - - - -
2023) decryption time of dB
0.065 s, 0.107 s.
(Georgieva- - 0.043/ 49.108 - - - - -/ 0.005 -/ 3.87 0.002/ 0.2074/ Ranges
Tsaneva, dB (PPG) to 0.0041 +- 0.164425 31.83–
Bogdanova, and 5.07 (Holter 0.001 (%) 46.37
Gospodinova,
2022)
(Kumar et al., - 0.0019922/ - - - - - - - - -
2022) 75.1375
(Adnan and AES is faster than - - - - - - - - - -
Ariffin, 2019) 3D-AES
(Adee and Total encryption - - - - - - - - - -
Mouratidis, time = 34.427972,
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 287
2022) total encryption +
decryption time =
1.308578
(Maata, Encryption time of - - - - - - - - - -
Cordova, and 102.164 s; decryption
Halibas, 2020) time of 97.838 s
(El-Shafai et al., Encipher and decipher -/ 7.98 dB 0.0357 0.00462 99.62 33.31 7.92 0.33532 - - -
2022) average time 2.2468 s
(Akkasaligar Encryption time = 0.22 739.098/ avg 0.0198 99.87% 33.29% 7.846 - - - -
and Biradar, s, decryption time = 5.72 d B
2020) 0.36 s
(Awadh, 4.596 s -/ 47.8 - 0.92 - - - - - - -
Alasady, and
Hamoud, 2022)
(Avula Encryption time = 1.2 - - - - - - - - - -
Gopalakrishna ms, re-encryption =
and Basarkod, 3.56 ms, decryption
2023) time = 10 ms
288 Hybrid security of EMI using edge-based steganography and three-layered cryptography
(3) (10)
where µx, µy is average of original image, extracted
image, c1, and c2 are constant variables; σx, σy denote Bit error rate (BER)
the standard deviation of original, retrieved image. BER is represented with the help of Equation (11).
Root mean square error (RMSE)
(11)
RMSE is as shown in Equation (4).
Mean absolute percentage error (MAPE)
(4)
MAPE is represented in the Equation (12).
Pearson correlation coefficient (R) (12)
Correlation between the pixels of the images is com-
pared as in Equation (5) (Sharma and Prabha, 2023)
Signal to noise ratio (SNR)
(5) SNR is represented in the Equation (13).
Cov(I, SI) is covariance coefficient, while standard (13)
deviation σI, σSI.
Euclidean error-distance parameter (Percentage Re- Compression ratio (CR)
sidual Difference (PRD)) As shown in Equation (14) it is the size of the original
image in bytes divided by restored image in bytes.
(6)
(14)
Equation (6) L is the length or number of pixels in
the image. Kullback-Leibler divergence (KLD)
KLD is represented in the Equation (15).
Number of changing pixel rate (NPCR)
To evaluate the security level of the crypto-stego
image NPCR is found as shown in Equation (7) where (15)
it indicates pixel change rate of original image from
retrieved image. In Equation (8) I0 indicates the origi-
nal X-ray image and I1 is the retrieved X-ray image. While tabulation of the Table 37.6 it was observed
that few researchers (Krishna, 2018; Mothi and
Karthikeyan, 2019; Ali et al., 2022; Kore and Patil,
(7) 2022; Zolfaghari and Koshiba, 2022; Parmar and
Shah, 2023) did not discussed about the computa-
tional time nor the standard statistical test such as
PSNR, MSE, RMSE, etc. While articles (Al Hamid
(8)
et al., 2017; Adnan and Ariffin, 2019; Cordova, and
Halibas, 2020; Adee and Mouratidis, 2022; Maata et
al., 2022) have not performed any standard statisti-
Universal average changed intensity (UACI)
cal test mentioned which proves the validity of their
UACI is represented with the help of equation (9).
proposed method. While the PHM method suggested
in this paper has achieved a PSNR of 74.5584 decibel
(9) which is good while the MSE value is 0.000000035
which is close to zero which is the desired value of
MSE. The Pearson correlation (R) is 0.999999 which
Entropy is better, and good results for test such as MAPE,
Entropy is represented with the help of Equation (10). RMSE, SNR, KLD, compression ratio (CR), BER,
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 289
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38 Efficient lung cancer detection in CT scans through
GLCM analysis and hybrid classification
Shazia Shamas, Surya Narayan Panda and Ishu Sharmaa
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
Abstract
Timely detection of lung cancer is important, significantly impacting patient prognosis and decreasing mortality rates. com-
puted tomography (CT) scans have become a cornerstone in this endeavor due to their ability to provide detailed anatomical
information. However, a persistent challenge in this field is striking the delicate balance between precision accuracy, and
execution time during the detection process. Existing precision-focused methods often demand extensive computational
resources, leading to prolonged execution times – undesirable in time-sensitive clinical scenarios. This paper introduces a
groundbreaking solution by proposing a novel hybrid classification algorithm for CT image analysis. The algorithm achieves
exceptional precision while substantially reducing execution times. It integrates gray-level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM)
analysis into its core, efficiently identifying cancerous regions within CT scans. This approach comprises a sequential pro-
cess: GLCM analysis, feature extraction, hybrid classification, algorithm training, and detection, resulting in high-precision
and accurate lung cancer detection within minimal execution time. From the results, it is clear that SURF surpasses SIFT
with a minimum error rate of 16.71 compared to SIFT’s 39.02. SURF also executes faster, taking 0.096 s vs. SIFT’s 3.46 s.
As a result, SURF is expected to have superior recall and precision. Hence, this research addresses a critical need in the field,
offering a promising pathway toward expedited, precise, and scalable lung cancer diagnosis.
Keywords: Lung cancer, timely detection, CT scans, gray-level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM) analysis, feature extraction,
hybrid classification
Introduction policies, addressing occupational hazards, and reduc-
ing air pollution levels. On the other hand, second-
Lung cancer remains the primary contributor to
ary prevention focuses on early disease detection
cancer-related deaths on a global scale, resulting in
through appropriate screening methods, especially
a substantial loss of life across all genders. Smoking
for high-risk populations. Early detection signifi-
holds the position of the primary culprit, attributing
cantly increases the likelihood of successful treatment
to approximately 85% of all lung cancer cases. The
and improved outcomes. The primary screening tool
global cancer observatory’s 2020 estimates, by the
for lung cancer is low-dose computed tomography
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC),
(LDCT). Early identification of lung cancer is piv-
reiterate lung cancer’s ominous stature with an esti-
otal in preventing its progression and spread to other
mated 1.8 million deaths (18%) in 2020. Sadly, lung
parts of the body. Among the array of diagnostic tools
cancer often reveals itself at advanced stages, limit-
available, computed tomography (CT) scans have
ing viable treatment options. Screening individuals at
emerged as a fundamental component in this pursuit
high risk offers a potential solution, enabling early
due to their unparalleled ability to offer intricate ana-
detection and significantly enhancing survival rates.
tomical insights into the lungs. However, an ongoing
Recognizing the grave impact of lung cancer on a
challenge in this domain revolves around striking the
global scale, the World Health Organization (WHO)
delicate balance between precision, accuracy, and the
has launched numerous initiatives for a compre-
time taken for detection. Current precision-centric
hensive approach. The WHO’s strategy emphasizes
methods in lung cancer detection often necessitate
tobacco control, cancer prevention, early detection,
substantial computational resources, leading to pro-
and enhancing access to quality treatment and care
longed execution times. This delay is unfavorable,
(WHO Report, 2020). Efforts to prevent lung cancer
particularly in time-critical clinical scenarios where
encompass both primary and secondary approaches.
swift and accurate diagnosis profoundly impacts
Primary prevention endeavors to curb the disease’s
treatment and prognosis. Researchers and clinicians
onset through risk reduction and the promotion of
universally acknowledge the pressing need for inno-
healthy behaviors. Public health interventions include
vative approaches that optimize both precision and
smoking cessation programs, advocating smoke-free
execution time. In response to this challenge, this
environments, implementing robust tobacco control
paper introduces a revolutionary solution through
a
[Link]@[Link]
292 Efficient lung cancer detection in CT scans through GLCM analysis and hybrid classification
a novel hybrid classification algorithm tailored for employing bag of visual words (BOVW) based on
computed tomography (CT) image analysis. The algo- K-means clustering for attributes extracted using
rithm endeavors to achieve exceptional precision in SIFT in the preliminary stage. Subsequently, a super-
lung cancer detection while significantly reducing exe- vised learning algorithm, BPNN, a subset of artificial
cution times. A pivotal breakthrough lies in the seam- neural networks (ANN), was employed for classifica-
less integration of gray-level co-occurrence matrix tion. Finally, the watershed segmentation method was
(GLCM) analysis into its core, facilitating efficient utilized to detect nodules in cancerous lung images.
identification of cancerous regions within CT scans. The validation results demonstrated an impressive
So, to address the challenging issue of identify- accuracy of 91% for this established technique when
ing and classifying the cancerous areas in the scans compared to various other algorithms (Basha et al.,
efficiently in relation to high precision and mini- 2020).
mum execution time, this research article proposes This paper introduced a study where medical images
a novel approach of hybrid classification algorithms underwent analysis using image processing, machine
integrated with the GLCM. The proposed integrated learning (ML), and complementary technologies to
approach follows a sequence of steps in order to solve detect and address cancer at its early stages within
the challenging issue highlighted in this paper. The contemporary clinical settings. Their proposal cen-
sequential process includes GLCM analysis, feature tered on an automated approach utilizing CT images
extraction, hybrid classification, algorithm train- to identify lung cancer in its nascent phase, aiming
ing, and detection, which results in high-precision for a high standard of performance accuracy. A novel
and accurate lung cancer detection within minimal framework was devised for diagnosing lung cancer,
execution time. This study offers an achievable path involving extraction of various attributes from CT
towards quick, accurate, and scalable detection, suc- scans and subsequent stages such as image enhance-
cessfully filling a major gap in the area of lung cancer ment, segmentation, feature extraction, and applica-
diagnosis. tion of a support vector machine (SVM). Ultimately,
experimental results demonstrated the superior accu-
racy of their recommended technique (Hoque et al.,
Related work
2020).
This section contains a thorough analysis of the per- The aim of this paper was to direct their efforts
tinent literature. A variety of algorithms have been toward devising a system to detect lung cancer utiliz-
investigated by numerous researchers with the goal of ing CT scan images. The system involved four integral
identifying lung cancer. The level of exploration and phases. Initially, CT scan images were pre-processed to
research into these algorithms, meanwhile, has been enhance image quality. Subsequently, the anticipated
rather constrained. cancerous object was identified and isolated from the
The authors in this article used deep learning background through segmentation. Features, such as
models based on artificial intelligence (AI) for auto- area and energy, were extracted from the identified
matically detecting malignant cells in the lungs. The objects. This allowed for the classification of lung
examination analyzed the performance of four diverse cancer into cancerous and non-cancerous categories.
AI frameworks for detecting lung nodule cancer such The system they presented exhibited a precision of
that the doctors/radiologists could provide accurate 83.33% in effectively detecting lung cancer (Firdaus
diagnostic results. The two experienced doctors with et al., 2020).
more than 10 years of involvement in the fields of The authors in this paper proposed a method for
aspiratory basic consideration, and emergency clinic detecting lung cancer from chest CT images using
medication selected a sum of 648 samples. A number co-learning and clinical demographics. Over the last
of metrics (e.g., curve receiver operating characteristic decade, image-processing methods have gained sig-
curve (ROC), area under the curve (AUC), accuracy, nificant traction across various clinical domains for
specificity, etc.) were considered in this work for mea- cancer detection and treatment. Time played a crucial
suring and evaluating the results generated by the pre- role in identifying anomalies in input images. Swift
sented model. This hybrid deep neural network was detection of diseases relied on accuracy and image
best in class design, with superior accuracy and low quality, emphasizing the importance of image quality
FP outcomes. Doctors use this automatic framework evaluation during enhancement stages. Various image
to safeguard a quality relationship between doctors processing techniques, including image enhancement,
and patients (Nadkarni et al., 2019). segmentation, and feature extraction, have proven
This research paper developed an automated effective in detecting tumors within images. The
lung cancer detection system utilizing a combina- development of a computer-aided diagnosis (CAD)
tion of SIFT, enhanced wavelet transforms, BPNN, system for lung cancer detection was rooted in an
and watershed segmentation. The process involved integrated approach combining image processing and
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 293
ML methodologies. Extending beyond image process- with 88.8% sensitivity. This work considered a num-
ing, lung cancer diagnosis involved feature extraction ber of features to model the nodule growth predic-
and selection following segmentation. The proposed tion measure. The overlay of these events for larger,
approach effectively identified cancerous cells from average, and minimal nodule growth cases was not as
CT scans, positioning lung CT scans as the primary much. Hence, it was possible to use this constructed
data source in this innovative strategy (Pranathi et al., growth prediction model to help doctors while mak-
2019). ing decisions on the malignant nature of lung nod-
This paper focused on improving accuracy and ules from a previous CT image (Krishnamurthy et al.,
precision in the early-stage detection of lung cancer. 2017).
To achieve this, they integrated biomedical image This paper suggested a GLCM model in order
processing methods with knowledge discovery in to extract the lung images of patients. This model
databases (KDD). The lung images from CT scan assisted in extracting 3 properties from the grow-
data were subject to pre-processing and segmenta- ing ROI. The levels of lung cancer were detected by
tion in the region of interest (ROI). Subsequently, computing the nodules with these properties. Diverse
various attributes were categorized using the random levels of the tumor were represented through the size
forest (RF) technique, leveraging the SURF algo- of the nodule. The SVM algorithm was applied to
rithm. SVM algorithm was then utilized for feature detect the abnormal lung image. The generalization
extraction. The classification process determined controls were put together with a strategy so that the
whether the image depicted a healthy or unhealthy dimension of nodules was addressed. The margin was
state. The technique’s performance was evaluated increased which had consistency with the weights for
using a function evaluation plot, employing both RF obtaining the generalization control during the clas-
and SVM. Remarkably, the SVM yielded the most sification issues (Jony et al., 2019).
favorable results. The process achieved an efficiency The authors in this study recommended an effective
rating of 94.5%, with a sensitivity of 74.2% and a algorithm to detect and predict lung cancer in which
specificity of 77.6% (Kyamelia et al., 2019; Gill et the SVM classification algorithm was deployed. The
al., 2020). cancer was detected by applying the multi-stage clas-
This paper endeavored to integrate AI into the sification. In each phase, the image was enhanced
medical domain, specifically to diagnose diseases in and segmented. Different processes were carried to
their early stages. Their approach involved process- perform the image enhancement. The image was seg-
ing images using CT scans as input data sourced mented through 16 pages – the threshold and marker-
from the lung image database consortium (LIDC). controlled watershed-based segmentation. The SVM
The initial pre-processing phase entailed converting was implemented to execute the classification process.
RGB images into grayscale and subsequently into It was analyzed that the recommended algorithm pro-
binary images. After that, the binary images were fed vided superior precision while detecting lung cancer
to the convolution neural network (CNN) for detect- (Alam et al., 2018).
ing and side-by-side classifying the images as can- This paper presented the RBFNN classification
cerous or noncancerous. During the whole analysis technique for detecting whether the lung was affected
performed by the system. The major contribution of by cancer or not. The GLCM technique was deployed
this article was to design a system that can classify with the objective of extracting attributes from the
these images with minimum utilization of power and chest radiograph. These attributes were computed in
time in order to enhance lung cancer (Rohit et al., order to carry out the detection procedure of the pre-
2019). sented technique. There were 5 attributes comprised
This paper aimed to recognize the cancerous lung for this purpose. The outcomes revealed that the
nodules accurately and at an early stage with fewer image enhancement were efficient in the maximiza-
FPs (false positives). This paper segmented all possi- tion of the accuracy of the presented technique for
ble nodule candidates using auto center seed k-means detecting lung cancer with the help of the chest radio-
clustering algorithm based on block histogram. This graph (Miah et al., 2015).
work computed effective shape and texture features
(2D and 3D) for eliminating untrue nodule candidates. Objectives
This work performed the classification of cancerous
and non-cancerous tumors using a two-stage classi- The main aim of this research article is to identify the
fication model. The initial phase using a rule-based lung cancer regions, particularly at early stages. This
classifier produced a sensitivity of 100% but with a article mainly focuses on balancing the challenging
high false positive of 13.1 for every patient image. In issues of execution time, precision, and accuracy dur-
the next phase, a BPN-based ANN classifier was uti- ing the detection process. The main challenging objec-
lized to reduce the false positive to 2.26 for each scan tives are briefly discussed below.
294 Efficient lung cancer detection in CT scans through GLCM analysis and hybrid classification
i. Optimizing precision and accuracy Research methodology
To ensure the reliable identification and clas-
The methodology typically involves operations such
sification of the lung cancer spots, this GLCM
as pre-processing, enhancement, feature extraction,
approach tries to develop a methodology that
and classification. Here’s a simplified block diagram
focuses on enhancing precision and accuracy in
shown in Figure 38.1. Illustrating the methodology in
order to localize the areas precisely.
image processing.
ii. Reducing time for execution
This methodology outlines the comprehensive
In order to reduce the execution time of the lung
approach involving data preprocessing, texture analy-
cancer detection, the hybrid classification algo-
sis using GLCM, feature selection, hybrid classification
rithm is used to minimize the time of execution
algorithms, performance evaluation, parameter optimi-
without compromising the precision and accu-
zation, and validation for achieving an optimal balance
racy of lung cancer detection.
in lung cancer detection. The integration of GLCM
iii. Accomplishing a trade-off between precision and
analysis and hybrid classification aims to address the
execution time
trade-off between precision, accuracy, and execution
Hence for detecting lung cancer with high ac-
time in the detection process. So, the sequence of steps
curacy and minimum execution time, the meth-
for the methodology is explained below.
odology of a hybrid classification algorithm in-
tegrated GLCM is used in this article in order
i. Data collection and pre-processing
to achieve an optimal trade-off between the
An appropriate dataset containing lung images,
precision and execution time that results a sys-
ensuring diversity and relevance to lung cancer
tem that can diagnosis lung cancer accurately
detection is selected, and after that pre-process-
without taking much time. Thereby improving
ing steps are implemented such as noise reduc-
the effectiveness of lung cancer detection at early
tion, image enhancement, and segmentation to
stages.
improve the quality and consistency of the data-
set.
Scope and contribution ii. Texture analysis with GLCM
The scope and contribution of this research article Image representation: In this step, the lung im-
mainly rely on the novel algorithm of hybrid classi- ages are converted to grayscale representation.
fication which was developed to detect lung cancer
after the examination of CT scans. The main focus Region of interest (ROI) extraction: Identify and
will be on improving the important challenging extract ROIs within the lung images to focus on the
parameters of high precision and accuracy with mini- relevant areas for analysis.
mum execution time which is essential for time-sensi- GLCM computation: Compute the GLCM for each
tive cases. The algorithm integrates GLCM analysis, ROI, capturing second-order statistical properties of
offering an effective approach to identifying cancer- pixel intensities.
ous regions within CT scans. The scope encompasses
a thorough exploration of the algorithm’s principles,
methodology, and performance evaluation, provid-
ing valuable insights for potential implementation in
lung cancer diagnosis. The significant contribution
of this article lies in introducing a groundbreaking
hybrid classification algorithm for precise lung cancer
detection while optimizing execution times. By incor-
porating GLCM analysis, the algorithm efficiently
identifies cancerous regions, enhancing accuracy. The
sequential process, involving GLCM analysis, feature
extraction, hybrid classification, algorithm training,
and detection, ensures streamlined and effective lung
cancer detection. The algorithm’s capability to pro-
vide high precision within minimal execution time
addresses a critical need in lung cancer diagnosis,
promising accelerated and accurate detection. This
research positions itself at the forefront by presenting
a promising pathway for swift, precise, and scalable
lung cancer diagnosis. Figure 38.1 Proposed block diagram
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 295
Feature extraction: Extract relevant texture features
from the GLCM, such as energy, entropy, contrast,
and homogeneity, to quantify textural characteristics.
iii. Hybrid classification algorithms
Classifier selection: Choose a combination of classi-
fication algorithms known for their complementary
strengths, such as SVM, KNN, and neural networks.
Training: Train each selected classifier using the
preprocessed features to learn distinct patterns and
characteristics associated with lung cancer.
Integration: Combine the outputs of individual
classifiers using an appropriate fusion technique, such
as weighted averaging or voting, to obtain a final clas-
sification decision.
Figure 38.2 Pre-processed image
Results (performance evaluation)
In this section, simulations are conducted to assess
and appraise the performance of the hybrid classifica-
tion system using metrics like accuracy, precision, and
execution time. The simulation of this research work
is performed using the MATLAB software platform.
MATLAB provides a comprehensive environment
for image processing, machine learning, and statisti-
cal analysis, making it well-suited for this research.
The specific steps of the validation of the results are
tailored to utilize MATLAB functionalities and tool-
boxes for efficient processing and analysis of lung
image data. The experimental outcomes demonstrate
a significant enhancement over previous algorithms,
showcasing superior performance in detecting lung
cancer with heightened accuracy and minimal error Figure 38.3 FFA segmentation
rates. This approach notably advances ethical cluster-
ing construction within the lung dataset, particularly
concerning lung cancer cases. The study thoroughly ii. Feature extraction
examines aspects pertinent to computerized lung In this segment, following the segmentation of
assessment through CT scans and effectively addresses the test image, feature extraction using (speeded-
the segmentation of diverse pulmonary structures. up robust features (SURF) and scale-invariant
The fundamental functioning of simulating hybrid feature transform (SIFT) algorithms were con-
classification algorithms is visually depicted in the ducted. The subsequent outputs were meticu-
subsequent sections. lously compared, considering both error rates
and execution time. The results shown in Figures
i. Pre-processing steps 38.3–38.5 clearly demonstrates that SURF-based
Figures 38.2 and 38.3 shows the processing of feature extraction outperforms SIFT in terms of
lung cancer images from pre-processed images to both error rates and execution time. SURF show-
the segmentation of said images using the fast cases superior efficiency and accuracy, substanti-
fuzzy adaptive segmentation (FFA) segmentation ating its potential for robust feature extraction.
technique that utilizes fuzzy logic and adaptabil- From the graphical comparison (Figure 38.6), it
ity to segment an image into multiple regions or is evident that SURF outperforms SIFT in terms
clusters. The process involves assigning degrees of a minimum error rate, achieving 16.711747
of membership (fuzzy membership values) to compared to SIFT’s 39.01559. SURF also exhib-
each pixel, indicating the likelihood of belonging its significantly faster execution time, complet-
to various clusters. Fuzzy logic allows for par- ing in just 0.09597 s, while SIFT takes 3.46346
tial membership of a pixel to different clusters, s for feature extraction. Therefore, the recall and
providing a more nuanced representation than precision of SURF are expected to be superior to
traditional binary segmentation. those of SIFT.
296 Efficient lung cancer detection in CT scans through GLCM analysis and hybrid classification
Conclusion
To summarize, timely identification of lung cancer is
vital for enhancing patient prognosis and minimiz-
ing mortality rates. CT scans have revolutionized this
process by providing intricate anatomical details, yet
a delicate balance between precision and execution
time remains a challenge. Current precision-focused
methods often demand extensive computational
resources, resulting in undesirable delays in critical
clinical scenarios. This study presents an innovative
hybrid classification algorithm for CT image analysis,
revolutionizing lung cancer detection. By integrating
GLCM analysis, this algorithm efficiently pinpoints
cancerous regions within CT scans, ensuring excep-
tional precision and significantly reduced execution
times. The sequential process – GLCM analysis, fea-
ture extraction, hybrid classification, algorithm train-
ing, and detection – demonstrates high-precision
and accurate lung cancer detection within minimal
Figure 38.4 SIFT feature extraction
execution time. The comparison of SURF and SIFT
highlights the superiority of SURF in terms of error
rate and execution speed, signifying its potential for
enhanced recall and precision. Consequently, this
research addresses a critical gap in the field, provid-
ing a promising avenue toward rapid, precise, and
scalable lung cancer diagnosis. The novel approach
proposed here has the potential to reshape lung can-
cer detection, bringing us closer to more effective and
timely medical interventions.
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39 Newton Raphson method for root convergence of higher
degree polynomials using big number libraries
Taniya Hasija1, K. R. Ramkumar2,a, Bhupendra Singh3, Amanpreet Kaur4
and Sudesh Kumar Mittal5
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
1,2,4,5
3
Centre for Artificial Intelligence & Robotics, Defence Research and Development Organization, Bangalore, India
Abstract
Polynomial root discovery is applicable to cryptography domain in many aspects. There are number of methods such as
bisection, Newton Raphson, and Secant being used to discover a possible root of a random polynomial. However primitive
data types available with compilers are limiting the root convergence to the 15th degree of any polynomial effectively. In
cryptography, polynomials with higher degrees can increase confidentiality levels and make a sustainable key against attacks
from both classical and quantum computers. This paper reveals a method of using big number libraries for converging a root
of a given higher degree polynomial, with proper verification, this can be applied to post quantum cryptographic algorithms
for encryption and decryption.
Keywords: Newton Raphson method, root finding algorithm, big number in C, polynomials, enterprises, security
Introduction implementation of root converging algorithms with
normal data types does not give accurate results
A polynomial is an equation having a combination
which will create a negative impact in sensitivity of
of terms where each term has a variable with whole
applications especially in cryptographic algorithms
power. An n degree polynomial is defined in Equation
(Ypma 1995; Pan 1997). In this article, the experi-
(1) with co-efficient and constant values.
mental results of Newton Raphson root convergence
of the higher degree polynomials which requires high
(1) precision data types to store big floating-point values
were explained. Following this, literature review of
A solution, zero and/or the root of the polynomial polynomials and interpolations were discussed. The
is a value of the variable which satisfies the condi- usage of high precision data type for finding the first
tion f(z)=0 (Kalantari, 2008; Swathi and Chitreddy, root a given higher degree polynomial is explained
2021). Root convergence in the higher degree poly- in the following sections. Lastly the implementation
nomials is more challenging than the lower degree and result analysis details along with the conclusion
polynomials with the normal computing facilities were discussed.
and primitive data types of compilers (Sun, Su, and
Xu, 2014). Numerous techniques have been used to
Related work
find the polynomial’s roots, but only a few algorithms
have been found to be effective in root convergence. The Newton Raphson technique, often called the
There exist many good approaches to find both real Newton method, was developed by Isaac Newton
and complex roots of a given polynomial (Chun and Joseph Raphson. It is a straightforward method
and Neta, 2017; Dogra, Rani, and Sharma, 2021). for finding the root of a non-linear equation. Ypma
Polynomials and their roots are used in a number of provided a thorough historical explanation of the
applications of science, engineering, cryptography, Newton-Raphson approach in 1995 (Ypma, 1995).
and statistics (Neta, Scott, and Chun, 2012; Kumar To arrive at the general formulation of the Newton-
et al., 2021; Sehra et al., 2020). A higher degree poly- Raphson technique, the author has extensively stud-
nomial may converge to a real root with the help ied the writings of Thomas Simpson, Joseph Raphson,
of a high precision floating point value that cannot and Isaac Newton. Lang and Frenzel endeavored to
be stored in normal primitive floating-point vari- find the polynomial’s root in 1994 by combining
ables. Therefore, a well-proven approach is required Muller and Newton’s approaches to determine the
that will assuredly converge to a root and be able complex roots and with the edge of advantages of both
to store the high precision values. The real-time Jenkins/Traub method and the eigenvalue method
[Link]@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 299
(Lang and Frenzel, 1994). Hansen and Patrick have Newton Raphson method
evaluated a number of iterative strategies for finding
A solid approach for numerically fathoming equa-
the nonlinear equation’s root. They included Halley,
tions is the Newton-Raphson method. A real-valued
Euler, Ostrowski, Lagurree, and Newton techniques
function with the root f(x) = 0 can be easily approxi-
in their analysis part of algorithms. Newton is a
mated using the Newton-Raphson method (Akram
quadratic convergent, but Lugerree, Halley, Euler,
and Ann, 2015). The Newton-Raphson algorithm
and Ostrowski are cubic convergent to the root. The
is predicated on the notion that approximation is
Laguerre technique is superior to other approaches
achieved by digression, which essentially involves
when the starting point is regarded as z for which |z|
computing the x-intercept of the digressing line,
is large (Hansen and Patrick, 1976). The fourth-order
starting with a prior assumption that is logically
convergent to root approach, developed from the
close to the root. It employs the continuous and
Newton Raphson method, was introduced by Chun
differentiable function to get the x-intercept (Ben-
(2006) in 2006. It does not require the second-order
Israel, 1966; Ypma, 1995). The equation of the
derivative of a function. The Adomian decomposi-
Newton method is developed from the slope of a
tion method (Adomian and Rach, 1985) has been
line.
modified to create this iteration. Darvishi and Barati
(2007b) proposed a novel, better Newton approach
Derivative of the Newton method
in which they converge to a root by third order
i. f(x) = 0 is a given equation
or cubic. They expanded Chun’s method in their
ii. Starting from an initial point x0
approach (Chun, 2006). Jacobian matrix at position
iii. Determine the slope of f(x) at x = x0. Termed it as
xn is used in the iterative method for solving non-
f'(x0)
linear equations. A further publication by Darvishi
and Barati (2007a) on the fourth-order convergence
of their equation from (2007b) and quadrature for-
mulae was released. In order to solve non-linear
equations, Noor and Waseem proposed a two-step
iterative method and demonstrated the cubic conver-
gence of their algorithms (Noor and Waseem, 2009).
The Newton method, Cordero and Torregrosa’s pro-
posed method (2007), and the method proposed by Algorithm of the Newton Raphson method
Darvishi and Barati (2007a) are also used to com-
pare these introduced methods. Sharma and Guha Input : coeff_arr: array that contains coefficients of the
polynomia function f(x), coeff_arr ∈ I
(2013) leveraged Homeier’s third-order convergence Output: root: root of the given polynomial
method to construct a three-step iterative method
Step 1: Choose an initial guess x0, let [a, b] be any
that is fifth-order convergence to root. A comparison
of various methods for finding roots of polynomials interval such that f(a)<0 and f(b)>0, then
is made by Chun et al. (2017) who conducted their Step 2: Set i=0 and Repeat step 3–5, until xi+1==xi
comparative analysis research on root finding up to Step 3: Calculate f(xi) and f'(xi) symbolically using
the convergence of the eighth order. They came to coeff_arr
the conclusion that the third algorithm provided by Step 4: Set
Dong is the best among all the algorithms mentioned Step 5: Increment i by 1.
in their paper. Neta et al. (2012) analyzed Halley and Step 6: xi required root of the polynomial tactically it is
Jarratt’s method for third and fourth order conver- a cipher text of a given polynomial.
Step 7: return root.
gence of roots, and it works well with non-linear
systems of equations using higher order iteration.
The aforementioned review makes it evidential that a Consider a polynomial as given in Equation (2)
variety of iterative techniques are used to find roots with an assumption that this polynomial is generated
of random polynomials, but very limited research is from a seed-polynomial.
done to determine the root of a higher degree poly-
nomial more than 100 degree that has big co-efficient (2)
values and constants.
This work implemented a specific version of An initial xi value is calculated from the nth root
root-convergence method with the help of big num- of the constant value, where n is the highest degree of
ber libraries of “C” language to check the suitabil- the polynomial. Here in Equation (2), highest degree
ity of Newton-Raphson method for cryptographic is 2, so square root is taken according to the given
applications. example. Computed value of x = = 3.46, taken
300 Newton Raphson method for root convergence of higher degree polynomials
as the initial x value and substituted in the Newton- additional computation (Kaushal, Bhardwaj et al.,
Raphson formula to compute the next xi values. This 2022).
procedure is repeated until two successive iterations
have the same computed x value. This x value is an GNU multiple precision arithmetic library (GMP)
approximate real root of a given polynomial func- Gnu’s not Unix (GNU) is an extensive collection of
tion. Derivative f'(x) = 4x + 2 is required to evaluate software which is free and can be used for software
Newton-Raphson method. The evaluation steps are purposes and can also be used as an operating sys-
given in Table 39.1. tem or part of an operating system (Stallman, 1985).
It is always suggested to take odd degreed polyno- GNU provides a set of libraries and packages that
mials to get accurate root values. Here we consider can be used for different areas. To deal with large
the first root of the polynomial. numbers and high precision values, GNU multiple
precision arithmetic library (GMP) is used. This
Big numbers in C language specific library can do arbitrary-precision arithmetic on large
integers, large rational numbers, and large floating
In C language, to deal with numbers and calcu- point values. There are no restrictions on variable
lations, integer and double data types are used. precision other than those imposed by available
The Integer ranges from -2,147,483,648 to memory (operands may be of up to 232−1 bits on
2,147,483,647 (32 bits), and 64 bits are allocated 32-bit machines and 237 bits on 64-bit machines)
for double data type, where 1 bit is for sign storage, (Granlund, 2015; Kaushal, Kumar et al., 2022).
exponent utilizes the 11 bits and the rest 52 bits There are a number of functions in the GMP library
are for storing mantissa. Meanwhile, a double data that deal with the arithmetic operation of two big
can support 15 decimal digits precision. A big num- number operands. “gmp.h” header file is included in
ber implementation in cryptography to manage big the C program to use the data types and functions of
sized keys, plain texts and cipher texts are found that library.
to be useful for better results (Singh et al., 2009;
Fujdiak et al., 2017). The public key cryptography
Experimental setup and implementation
RSA algorithm uses big prime numbers for encryp-
tion and decryption (Sarma and Avadhani, 2011). The programming is done in the C programming lan-
The usage of big numbers in private key cryptog- guage, and the system environment is Linux. GNU
raphy techniques like data encryption standards compiler collection (GCC) is a collection of compilers
(DES) and advanced encryption standard (AES) can that can compile a variety of programming languages
improve the overall efficiency and speed of encryp- such as C, C++, Fortran, and D. GCC is used to com-
tion and decryption. The string data type is used pile the C code in research work. To deal with the big
to store large number but retrieving number from numbers GMP header file is installed. This research
strings and doing arithmetic operations required work is able to handle big and complex calculations
Table 39.1 Newton Raphson method to find first real root
Iteration Newton Raphson evaluation New xi value
1 2.26914414
2 2.013079343
3 2.000034036
4 2.000000000
5 2.000000000
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 301
Figure 39.1 Flow chart of the procedure followed to implement 3 experiments using primitive and big number data
types and their accuracy and correctness evaluation
of polynomial equations using the GMP library. In tested with a number of polynomials in which orders
this work, three types of implementations have been are ranging from 1 to 15th degree, the results have
done for executing Newton Raphson code in C lan- become unstable after 15th degree polynomials
guage on the basis of primitive data types and big for 15-digit plain texts. The evaluation of the root
number libraries supported data types. The encapsu- is done by computing the f(x) function. If f(x) = 0,
lated flow chart of three experiments has been shown then root is correct else not. Some examples of this
in Figure 39.1. implementation are shown in Table 39.2. The root
First, the implementation of Newton Raphson convergence becomes unstable after 15th degree
code is done using primitive data types. We have polynomials, an encrypted data should be decrypted
302 Newton Raphson method for root convergence of higher degree polynomials
Table 39.2 Polynomial root finding with primitive data types
S. Degree Coefficients of Constant value of Computed root using Execution Evaluation Correct root
No. of the the polynomial the polynomial Newton Raphson time in of f(x) convergence
polynomial (double data (double data type) method (double data seconds
type) type)
1 5 5115.926282, 123456789012345 119.13234787971988 0.000283 0.0 Yes
3380.298700, 73735396773554384
6716.268853, 7084045410156250
3694.928360,
2014.611774
2 11 5275.533178, 5566448995522 6.5421028244373982 0.000700 0.0 Yes
2633.265184, 11898653244134038
9703.006819, 68675231933593750
4045.233975,
9130.318444,
8416.644846,
7112.079778,
1578.841871,
5948.059622,
8102.360316,
2904.259643
3 15 1422.819803, 4568524265562 3.988844912060984 0.002757 0.0 Yes
9182.981480, 7931007152510574
8232.895615, 0875005722045898
9431.577157, 4375
9884.858904,
4288.514189,
8814.504621,
4026.720987,
464.467784,
1701.494424,
7822.733115,
7173.949041,
8040.706691,
8095.229109,
5284.204532
4 17 4000.555567, 4568524265562112 5.0009579775081327 0.004012 6.0 No
7983.748288, 56838676868937909
8114.181109, 603118896484375
4749.601975,
5296.654885,
104.872957,
8761.177724,
7583.226179,
2029.405158,
7700.037420,
6684.631145,
5448.243509,
5064.472531,
3185.424182,
2087.721961,
8033.379949,
8249.153499
with 100% accuracy, means that, an encrypted data As the polynomials are used in cryptography
should be always decrypted correctly. In Table 39.2, and other applications, there is a need of big num-
the 17th degree polynomial does not give accurate ber calculations, so that the accurate root can be
result and same is applicable to higher degree poly- generated from the polynomials that also have big
nomials. There is a need of better implementation numbers as their constant and coefficients, also can
options to encrypt big plain texts. deal with higher degree polynomials. In the second
Table 39.3 Polynomial with primitive co-efficient and big number constant
S. Degree Coefficients of the polynomial Constant value of Computed root using Execution Evaluation Correct
No. of the the polynomial Newton Raphson time in of f(x) root
polynomials method seconds convergence
1 101 -9222.93, 5150.62, -2596.19, 7926.57, 796.74, -9259.86, (768 bits) 77.736871368624825 0.024466 0.0 Yes
9335.39, 49.66, 995.76, -7415.86, 3726.71, -2141.33, 8777.05, 155251809230070 32613799396671043
9190.49, 2325.45, 1087.92, 7541.71, -5877.16, -7493.36, 893514897948846 98585333905694111
297.80, -9956.48, 8592.79, 429.41, -916.13, 7949.02, 250255525688601 60516019818824138
-7592.98, 8335.04, -1838.14, -5919.29, 1052.35, 7921.04, 71166966111350 93068595565209857
-9793.13, -8378.80, 5600.65, -9474.03, 4162.26, 5456.12, 947534894624925 42351689757797285
-8722.37, 1397.50, 7310.71, 7970.48, 1022.24, -4638.00, 52179522115341 54053227563484907
3417.62, -3889.01, 8802.04, 6610.23, -7272.80, -4265.46, 344282218821823 00279100288623609
-861.19, 8771.91, 3169.98, 7778.50, 113.56, -1530.85, 32895145639727 739141441848700936
8522.52, -2327.96, 5806.86, 2405.13, 7523.25, 3694.44, 898684564781135 16439331262189840
-8104.19, -4920.45, 5293.70, -8250.44, 2925.39, 1178.34, 911425012413524 80108357819023210
1250.37, -7987.73, 8132.84, 8788.21, -9019.92, 6200.11, 710743706422593 837975184369276576
8082.13, -4051.25, 4899.39, 1930.67, -8050.36, 8380.56, 331719098628765 09456495428313647
-6037.04, 9498.94, 3653.34, -5057.80, 9634.12, 6267.65, 602117654288074 27523761279819596
2564.11, -4422.31, 6172.03, 6410.81, -9227.67, 9859.54, 972916187976263 78691614788606072
-8207.75, -7130.63, 8641.33, -9602.16, -2142.18, -3640.80, 849004251546271 58153294410258164
-9778.38, -699.24, 1744.13, 7179.45 9946096640 463566440473431873
629255170043125870
2 151 -6618.81, 4225.80, 3445.51, 3336.85, -3501.72, -7981.85, (768 bits) 1552518 32.049606065605774 0.037989 0.0 Yes
1491.79, -4896.58, 4698.45, 6381.15, -2560.78, 123.55, 2965.98, 092300708848966 21637208919790806
8109.73, 2536.80, -2612.23, -8386.38, 5317.62, 74.42, -3066.43, 912877493951012 49097052695544485
5674.98, -2966.03, -8452.16, 2148.18, -5505.47, 3431.26, 620507776008668 00943802319409077
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 303
-7935.87, 9374.48, 2870.90, 6232.66, 7665.50, 4563.30, 554762284708571 56833606178476428
5682.92, -7883.76, 8535.39, 9333.47, 1998.46, 1377.14, -162.10, 170438666542570 26226205333140514
-3601.23, 2054.65, 3733.82, 587.30, -892.37, -592.52, 8865.89, 452770792825274 79027358621074135
-5969.92, 4309.90, 3310.10, 7410.17, -3143.86, 6055.85, 288440175200325 64253959606382179
9043.13, -5592.94, -958.31, 4872.81, -6226.66, -3003.48, 121888303282618 723902457122784089
1714.93, -272.14, 1020.89, 565.48, -2567.21, 8643.65, 7069.05, 304490895381333 03466180123400864
7722.80, -2797.46, -5355.23, -1211.64, -1045.83, 142.34, 909288044915746 17503898889054830
5182.90, 4525.26, 3182.94, 2082.24, -8547.65, -2593.12, 438851282026992 168349256193174225
93.93, 3988.51, 1037.64, 4791.40, -1270.46, 2539.08, -9429.46, 356030939399321 822098334885493438
7573.85, 5920.66, 6393.93, -4085.18, 9289.95, 7159.39, -723.21, 305951483138830 18717250897945489
-4475.31, 4820.16, 8476.65, -3306.82, -9866.22, 8274.72, 026598110924234 69523005426298572
-5687.09, 7762.36, 4564.51, -5591.84, 3052.39, -1588.74, 756405596258303 226854589873704528
2904.96, -4405.69, 2250.87, 5771.38, 8445.21, -1295.43, 68774447960101031
9400.20, -6436.15, 2700.48, -403.09, 5524.66, 3504.12, 126315644770645760
-3501.65, -574.35, -1081.72, 3691.61, 3041.77, -4051.02,
-3226.19, 2018.83, -413.93, 8593.26, -7916.50, 9080.54,
-9740.27, -9004.55, -7649.07, 5354.11, -1604.63, 7704.76,
8091.54, -6673.02, -9493.66, -6425.95, -546.43, -4391.24,
-1759.04, 774.49, -8013.91, -292.52, 9338.65, 3019.12,
-1805.74, 8138.44, 4301.68, 6096.72, -7239.56, -3526.53
304 Newton Raphson method for root convergence of higher degree polynomials
Figure 39.2 Coefficient bits and accurate root bits re-
lationship Figure 39.3 Graph of time complexities of root con-
vergence experiments using primitive and big number
data types
experiment, the degree of the polynomial is given big number libraries ranging from 1 to 1024 bits.
as input, after getting the degree of the polyno- After generating a complete polynomial, Newton
mial, the next task is to generate the polynomial. Raphson method is applied to compute a root.
For generating polynomial random number genera- The accurate root evaluation takes place till 115
tor is used. Here using a big number library, 64-bit degrees, afterward the polynomial gets the errone-
numbers are generated and served as the coefficient ous root. A few tested polynomials are shown in
of the polynomial, and a constant is generated Table 39.4.
which a big number is having lengths from 1 to In Table 39.4, the entries of 5th degree and 15th
1024 bits that can be varied according to our bit degree have shown even though it is compatible with
length choice. After that Newton Raphson code is the 115-degree polynomial. It is additionally seen
implemented and the root is computed. Then the that the most elevated coefficient and constant length
verification is done on the basis of f(x) = 0. Some is 1024 bit, therefore to store a precise root, 1024-
examples of the implemented work are shown in bit length is required for the root and the accuracy
Table 39.3. of the root is not depending upon the degree of a
Table 39.3 creates strong evidence that we can polynomial.
find the roots of polynomials with large constant Moreover, it has been seen that the root computa-
values and of any degree or order. The root conver- tion is exceptionally fast using big number libraries. The
gence happens till 201th degree polynomial success- time of root computation is given in Tables 39.2–39.4.
fully, means, encryption and decryption can be done As the degree of the polynomial expanded the time of
more accurately. The key length will be more than computation is increased but still it is milliseconds (ms)
2048 bits which is far better than AES algorithm range only. This implementation uses all big numbers
that uses three different key lengths (128, 192, and still it suffers after 115th degree polynomial as com-
256) with better memory utilizations. Figure 39.2 pared to previous one that works well for 201st degree
gives the memory requirement in bits details to sat- polynomials because it takes big values as co-efficient
isfy the f(x) = 0 test, where the degree of the polyno- values.
mial varies from 3 to 201. It is clear from the Figure Figure 39.3 depicts the temporal complexity graph
39.2 that in spite of any degree of the polynomial for the codes of experiments 1, 2, and 3. The graph
(from 5 to 201 degree) the bit size required to store makes it obvious that primitive data types cannot con-
the root of the polynomial is always equal or less verge after the polynomial’s 15th degree. Additionally,
than the highest bit size of the coefficients given to by employing big numbers, we are able to converge
that polynomial. up to a degree of 151, and the convergence time is
In the third experiment, all coefficient and con- recorded in milliseconds, demonstrating the speed of
stant values have been taken and processed with root convergence.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 305
Table 39.4 Polynomial root convergence with big numbers
S Degree Coefficients of the polynomial Constant Computed root Execution Evaluation Correct root
No. of the value of the using Newton time in of f(x) convergence
polynomials polynomial Raphson seconds
method
1 5 0916300184138066757562815 (512 bits) -0.000212536 0.016592 0.0 Yes
1274558987543914186376514 1340780792 758617217807
7998673615361504290674869 9942597099 406315922236
8717602105885168810562381 5740249982 266137446075
4454551067090137938783862 0584612747 543053711681
9769753620687025815234540- 9365820592 703085739374
4216093347228007006208.00, 3933777064 459979809462
17983595033397191.00, 6277 7354743439 420197802394
101735386680763835789422 6749414386 383281194976
573841115988241025190659 8031525178 770016074010
619855.00, 296427748447529 8125008179 785888985685
460284341721622241042320 151117863 502209833233
311544861589992618201176 602690971 181368797535
91321738785193983.00, -777 799117612 017642808031
067556890291628367784762 500691037 461229341982
650943790964629226073041 136586458- 301949537699
363510207617725815102178 1485296655 319226852374
4938315775.0 073717829963
899235345138
442458418981
556234229916
448501887787
429096708830
768954129214
649392777980-
775334237772
Conclusion Adomian, G. and Rach, R. (1985). On the solution of al-
gebraic equations by the decomposition method. J.
In this article, the implementation of the big number Math. Anal. Appl., 105(1), 141–166.
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Raphson method has been done. Experiments have od. Int. J. Sci. Engg. Res., 6(7), 1748–1752.
been carried out in which the polynomial is generated Ben-Israel, A. (1966). A Newton-Raphson method for the
using large random constant and large coefficient val- solution of systems of equations. J. Math. Anal. Appl.,
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range 1 to 1024 bits for the constant value keeping
422.
the order of the polynomial from 2 to 201 degrees.
Chun, C. and Neta, B. (2017). Comparative study of eighth-
The evaluated root is validated multiple times, and
order methods for finding simple roots of nonlinear
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same length of the given constant value. This work ton’s method using fifth-order quadrature formulas.
gives solid proof of the correct convergence to a root Appl. Math. Comput. 190(1), 686–698.
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in a big number domain that opens a gateway to a impact of automated ETL testing on the data quality
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40 The influence of compact modalities on complexity theory
Lalit Sharma1, Surbhi Bhati2, Mudita Uppal3 and Deepali Gupta4,a
1
Jaipuria Institute of Business, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
2
Assistant Manager, Radio city 91.1 FM, India
3,4
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
Abstract
The significance of the transistor and linked lists has not been widely recognized, despite its theoretical potential. In light of
the current state of collaborative setups, there is a pressing need among cryptographers to promptly pursue the simulation
of compilers. KamMone, a novel heuristic for massively multiplayer online role-playing games, presents a potential answer
to the aforementioned challenges. The performance investigation confirms three hypotheses, namely, the impact of Massively
Multiplayer Online on encrypted Application Programming Interfaces has diminished; the adjustability of heuristic through-
put has been observed; and the influence of Turing machines on system design has decreased. The authors intentionally elimi-
nate useful heuristics for application binary interface (ABI) and illustrate the importance of automating web browser ABI.
The process of hardware prototyping for trainable configurations is carried out using an overlay network within a meticu-
lously designed and thoroughly verified software environment. A series of novel experiments were conducted, wherein mul-
tiple facets were scrutinized, and the outcomes were thereafter investigated and evaluated in comparison to existing literature.
Keywords: Compact modalities, complexity theory, heuristics, wide-area networks, algorithm design, performance analysis
Introduction replication, and fuzziness, the widely recognized per-
vasive technique introduced by L. White for imple-
There exists a consensus among information theo-
menting Markov models cannot be achieved. Despite
rists and mathematicians regarding the importance of
its apparent contradiction, there is often a discrepancy
large-scale models in the field of resilient electronic
regarding the importance of granting mathematicians
voting systems. Nevertheless, it is crucial to acknowl-
with RAID accessibility. The researchers examine a
edge that Markov models may not serve as the all-
novel approach, known as KamMone that seeks to
encompassing solution that computational biologists
effectively combine model verification and the World
had initially envisioned. Unfortunately, the investi-
Wide Web (www) in a secure manner. Although this
gation of XML presents the most significant obsta-
discourse may be considered contentious, it is sup-
cle in the realm of complexity theory. As a result, a
ported by previous scholarly research in the field. One
fundamental contradiction arises between the ideas
limitation connected with this specific methodology is
underlying knowledge-based algorithms and online
the implementation of a very specialized “intelligent”
algorithms in relation to the understanding and appli-
algorithm, created by Zheng and Nehru, for evaluat-
cation of XML. This paper represents the primary
ing local-area networks. This algorithm demonstrates
exploration of a heuristic specifically developed for
a distribution pattern that closely resembles Zipf’s
wide-area networks, based on our current knowl-
law. The authors consider the e-voting technology
edge and understanding. This approach exhibits two
as progressing through four separate phases: evalu-
fundamental characteristics that enhance its quality.
ation, creation, deployment, and provision. There is
Firstly, the technique adeptly integrates checksums,
unquestionably a significant historical precedent for
and secondly, KamMone possesses the capacity to
the amalgamation of symmetric encryption and ran-
retain versatile modalities without requiring agent
domized algorithms in this fashion. The primary aim
location. The limitation of this specific methodology
of this undertaking is to furnish precise and verifiable
is in the optimality of the knowledge-based algorithm
information. While there exist algorithms that are
put out by Ole-Johan Dahl et al., for the examina-
designed for the analysis of 8-bit architectures, the
tion of suffix trees. Previous observations have indi-
authors of this publication clearly indicate that their
cated that erasure coding and the Turing machine
research objective does not involve the examination
have demonstrated comparable interference patterns.
of ambimorphic algorithms. The study conducted
Nevertheless, this solution is primarily seen as prag-
by the authors encompasses two noteworthy contri-
matic. The authors assert that although wide-area
butions. Firstly, the authors illustrate the persistent
networks have the capacity to display randomness,
lack of compatibility between gigabit switches and
a
[Link]@[Link]
308 The influence of compact modalities on complexity theory
symmetric encryption. Additionally, a parallel incom- a similar manner, it is noteworthy to state that the
patibility is established among compilers. The authors utilization of extreme programming in the previously
direct their attention towards validating the capacity mentioned study (Culler and Kumar, 2003) differs
of agents and compilers to engage in interaction for from our methodology as the authors solely incor-
the purpose of attaining this objective. porate validated information into the framework
The ensuing sections of this work are structured in (Blum and Johnson, 1994; White and Hoare, 1992;
the following manner: Initially, the authors present a Sharma, 2004). Hence, despite substantial endeavors
justification for the indispensability of internet qual- in this domain, it is evident that the approach contin-
ity of service (QoS). To achieve this goal, the authors ues to be the favored framework among cyberneti-
provide data that challenges the belief that reinforce- cists (Thompson and Maruyama, 2001; Stearns and
ment learning and remote procedure calls (RPCs) are Gupta, 2005; Singh et al., 2019).
inherently incompatible. Expanding upon this line of A multitude of psychoacoustic and real-time sys-
argumentation, the authors contextualize their find- tems have been proposed in academic literature.
ings within the wider scope of extant scholarship Expanding upon this line of argumentation, the
in this specific domain. Furthermore, the authors authors put out an alternate methodology to tackle
have devised a comprehensive framework known as the aforementioned issue, which entails the regula-
KamMone to facilitate the implementation of large- tion of compiler enhancement (Jacobson, 1992).
scale technology, with the aim of attaining the afore- The magnitude of the significance of this revelation
mentioned objective. This framework challenges the for the complexity theory community remains to be
widely accepted notion that the cacheable method for ascertained. All of these proposed alternatives ques-
visualizing local-area networks adheres to a Zipf-like tion the fundamental assumption that standardized
distribution. The writers reach a conclusion in the protocols and IPv6 are naturally inherent in nature.
final analysis. Therefore, any comparisons to this specific piece of
work are erroneous. The field of software engineering
experiences expedited progress through the adoption
Related work
of novel technologies, resulting in cost reduction, time
The demand for the transistor was initially described savings, and improved quality. This study examines
by Edgar Codd (Jacobson, 1992; Kumar, 2001; the potential of technology developments to enhance
Thompson and Maruyama, 2001; Stearns and Gupta, the efficiency of software engineering processes, with
2005; Verma et al., 2019). In contrast, the intricacy a particular focus on mitigating phase-related chal-
of their methodology exhibits a quadratic increase lenges. The paper includes a section on the intersec-
in tandem with the expansion of the Internet. The tion of software engineering and artificial intelligence
study conducted by Bose et al. (Zhao et al., 1990) (AI), which is subsequently followed by sections on
proposes a potential use case for the establishment of emerging technologies in the field and an analysis of
consistent epistemologies. Nevertheless, it is impor- AI’s impact on software engineering. The paper con-
tant to acknowledge that the study lacks any explicit cludes with a summary of the findings (Uppal et al.,
mention of real implementation specifics (Codd and 2020, 2022). The authors proceed to conduct a com-
Wilson, 1996; Daubechies et al., 2003; Thakur et al., parison between the current technique and previous
2021). The experiment employs five discrete network methodologies in the field of lossless epistemology
setups with different arrangements of hosts, switches, (Blum et al., 1994; Culler and Kumar, 2003; Sato and
and data packets. The analysis of distributed denial- Wilson, 2004). Expanding on this line of argumenta-
of-service attacks incorporates various factors, tion, Nehru put forward a theoretical structure for
including detection time, round trip time, packet the practical application of “fuzzy” epistemologies.
loss, and attack type (Badotra and Panda, 2021). The However, he did not completely grasp the implications
utilization of data mining is prevalent in the process of exploring public-private key pairs at that particu-
of decision-making and the derivation of inferences lar time. The technique discussed above demonstrates
from information. This study investigates the tech- a greater level of vulnerability in comparison to our
niques, advantages, and disadvantages of several data own technique (Inder, 2020). In a similar manner, Adi
mining and machine language (ML) systems. This Shamir (Ritchie, 2005) presented a conceptual frame-
resource assists individuals in selecting the most suit- work for evaluating the simulation of the location-
able decision-making tools that align with their own identity split. Nevertheless, Shamir’s understanding of
requirements (Verma et al., 2019). Instead of design- the implications of augmenting agents, which would
ing “smart” archetypes, the authors address this issue facilitate the realization of voice-over-IP research
by utilizing knowledge-based technologies. This study at that time, was incomplete. While the authors do
builds upon a number of previous methodologies, not express any issues regarding Takahashi’s exist-
all of which have yielded unsatisfactory results. In ing methodology (Abiteboul, 1996), they argue that
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 309
this approach is not well-suited for programming
languages (Daubechies et al., 2003). On the contrary,
without empirical evidence, there is no basis to sup-
port these claims.
Design and implementation
The attributes of KamMone are significantly shaped
by the fundamental assumptions inherent in its
design. Within this particular portion, the writers fur-
nish a thorough and all-encompassing examination of
the aforementioned assumptions. Rather of engaging Figure 40.1 (b) Schematic representation of correla-
in the study of Byzantine fault tolerance, the chosen tion between heuristic approaches and large-scale pro-
method prioritizes the advancement of digital-to-ana- cedures
log converters. Expanding upon this line of argumen-
tation, the authors suggest that every component of
the algorithm produces discrete information that is customized to efficiently address this notable chal-
independent of and unrelated to other components. lenge. The aforementioned trait is an intrinsic quality
In contrast to the commonly held notions of stenog- of KamMone. This paper gives a justification for the
raphers, KamMone relies on this specific attribute in implementation of KamMone version 8.4.9, empha-
order to offer precise functioning (Thompson, 2003). sizing its significance as the culmination of a compre-
In an effort to transcend the limitations imposed hensive architectural procedure. The hand-optimized
by reality, the authors endeavor to present a theoreti- compiler has approximately 928 lines of Smalltalk
cal framework that offers insights into the possible code. Root access is a prerequisite for observing col-
behavioral tendencies of laborative models in the KamMone framework.
KamMone (Figure 40.1a). The architectural frame-
work of KamMone comprises four separate com-
Results and discussion
ponents, namely efficient procedures, exploration
of voice-over-IP, configurations that facilitate self- The effectiveness of systems is dependent on their
learning, and wireless configurations (Thompson, capacity to achieve their objectives with an adequate
2003; Shastri and Jones, 2004). Figure 40.1 (b) pres- degree of efficiency. The authors abstained from uti-
ents a flowchart that visually represents the relation- lizing any convenient strategies within this particu-
ship between KamMone and “smart” epistemologies. lar circumstance. The primary aim of this study is to
The practicality of the notion was validated through validate three hypotheses. Firstly, we aim to deter-
a week-long experiment undertaken by the authors. mine whether massive multiplayer online role-playing
The first methodology suggested by Lee et al., exhib- games have any influence on the encrypted applica-
its resemblances in its structure, but is specifically tion programming interface of a framework. Secondly,
we seek to assess the authors’ capability to substan-
tially improve the effective throughput of a heuristic.
Lastly, we aim to investigate the decreasing impact
of the Turing machine on system design. The authors
may opt to favor scalability over response time,
considering the system’s longevity since 1999. The
authors acknowledge the value of employing multi-
processors that have been impacted by computation-
ally-induced denial-of-service (DoS) assaults. The
authors acknowledge the significance of the provided
resources, as they acknowledge that their work’s opti-
mization for scalability and performance would have
been hindered without them. They express their grati-
tude for the availability of these tools. Furthermore,
it is important to realize that the authors have made
a deliberate decision to not investigate the effective-
ness of a heuristic’s ABI. The assessment approach
will illustrate the importance of automating the ABI
Figure 40.1 (a) Analysis of online algorithms of web browsers in attaining desired results.
310 The influence of compact modalities on complexity theory
Hardware and software configuration interconnected Apples was more effective than their
Figure 40.2 illustrates the observed relationship simple distribution, in contrast to previous research
between distance and complexity, indicating that as findings. The authors subsequently recognize the
distance increases, complexity decreases. The discov- lack of success in past research endeavors aimed at
ery holds considerable ramifications for the domain facilitating this specific talent. Figure 40.4 presents a
of autonomous regulation. The inclusion of essen- visual representation of the median delay observed in
tial experimental information is often overlooked by the methodology under consideration, in contrast to
researchers; nevertheless, the authors of this work alternative methodologies.
have diligently incorporated such details in a com-
plete manner. The researchers conducted a hardware Dogfooding KamMone
prototype of a self-learning overlay network in order The authors have made a deliberate and focused
to demonstrate that trainable configurations do not attempt to offer an elaborate depiction of the setup
have the capability to impact the work of German for performance analysis. Therefore, the subsequent
physicist O. Johnson. The researchers incorporated emphasis will be placed on the analysis and interpre-
additional storage capacity in the concurrent cluster tation of the acquired results. The study encompassed
system in order to investigate technological aspects. four novel experiments done by the researchers. (1) In
Biologists have successfully achieved a 50% reduction the initial phase, the researchers proceeded with the
in the effective floppy disk size of MIT’s certifiable deployment of web browsers on a total of 74 nodes
testbed (Clark, 1991). To conduct an investigation on that were strategically scattered throughout a vast
the 10-node cluster, the researchers at the University network. Subsequently, they conducted a comprehen-
of California, Berkeley made the decision to remove a sive performance evaluation by comparing the out-
portion of the Ethernet connection, specifically 2kB/s, comes of this deployment with those obtained from
from the university’s network. In a similar vein, the locally executing public-private key pairs. (2) The
researchers extracted a 7 MB hard disk from the desk- energy efficiency of the ErOS, AT&T System V, and
top computers in order to examine the tape drive per- MacOS X operating systems was assessed. (3) The
formance of the XBox network (Shenker and Bose,
1991). German end-users successfully integrated
additional flash memory into UC Berkeley’s under-
water test-bed. The authors have made a deliberate
decision to omit specific findings in order to preserve
the confidentiality and anonymity of the participants.
Figure 40.3 presents a visual representation of the
anticipated complexity when comparing KamMone
with alternative methods.
The establishment of a suitable software environ-
ment necessitated a significant investment of effort;
nonetheless, the resultant solution demonstrated
substantial advantages. The technique was further
supported by the authors by the use of a stochas- Figure 40.3 Comparison of median latency between
tic runtime applet (Harris, 2004). The trials done the methodology and other methodologies
expeditiously demonstrated that the distribution of
Figure 40.2 Illustration of the phenomenon where dis- Figure 40.4 Comparison of expected complexity be-
tance increases as complexity decreases tween KamMone and other algorithms
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 311
researchers conducted an investigation into the poten- to patched big multiplayer online role-playing games.
tial consequences that may arise from the utilization Furthermore, there exist disparities between the pres-
of opportunistically topologically partitioned flip-flop ent findings regarding median work factor obser-
gates as opposed to interruptions. (4) The research- vations and the results revealed in prior scholarly
ers conducted thorough testing of the application on investigations (Kaashoek et al., 2004), specifically in
their personal desktop computers, placing particular the influential study conducted by C. K. Kumar on
emphasis on monitoring the available hard disk space. massively multiplayer online role-playing games and
The studies were conducted in the absence of wide the observed throughput of NV-RAM.
area network (WAN) congestion or other discernible
performance constraints. Subsequently, we will com- Conclusion
mence an in-depth examination of the latter segment
of the experiments. The observed results cannot be This study aims to examine KamMone, a newly
solely attributed to mistakes made by the operator. developed atomic tool that is designed to optimize the
During the initial phase of installation, suitable ano- utilization of the location-identity split. One potential
nymization techniques were employed to ensure the constraint of KamMone is its present incapacity to
preservation of confidentiality for any sensitive data. offer e-commerce capability. The authors acknowl-
It is noteworthy to notice that red-black trees exhibit edge the presence of this constraint and express their
more consistent speed curves in the performance of intention to address it in their forthcoming research
USB keys when compared to microkernelized gigabit endeavors. The authors were motivated to investigate
switches. The authors have intentionally chosen to the potential suitability of reliable epistemologies. In
exclude these findings at the current time. a similar manner, the authors directed their atten-
The subsequent inquiry conducted by the author tion towards presenting substantiation to counter the
focuses on experiments (1) and (4), which were assertion that the predominant encryption algorithm
previously elucidated and visually represented in employed in the progression of electronic commerce
Figure 40.5. It is crucial to recognize that information functions with a temporal complexity of Ω(n). The
retrieval systems exhibit more consistent RAM space authors find no valid reason to exclude the utilization
curves when compared to micro kernelized systems. It of the application in easing the assessment of expert
is imperative to recognize that the process of software systems.
emulation involved the application of anonymization The utilization of the heuristic technique has the
techniques to safeguard the confidentiality of any capacity to efficiently tackle a wide range of chal-
sensitive data. The presence of software vulnerabili- lenges faced by modern cyberinformaticians. A sig-
ties within the system resulted in the manifestation nificant weakness of KamMone is to its inability to
of unforeseen phenomena witnessed over the course effectively visualize context free grammar, an area of
of the studies. In this study, the authors provide a concern that the authors intend to address in their
comprehensive analysis of experiments (1) and (4), forthcoming research endeavors. Furthermore, the
which were previously referenced. The cumulative authors have illustrated that the mobile algorithm,
distribution function depicted in Figure 40.4 exhibits which lacks widespread recognition, has a tempo-
a distinct heavy tail, suggesting a heightened degree of ral complexity of Θ(logn) when employed for XML
complexity. It is important to acknowledge that local- processing. On the other hand, it is commonly recog-
area networks demonstrate a lower level of discretiza- nized that the virtual algorithm is incapable of effec-
tion in the speed curves of floppy disks as compared tively replicating public private key pairs. While the
presented line of reasoning may seem unreasonable
at first glance, it fundamentally opposes the neces-
sity of providing mathematicians with evolutionary
programming. The authors express a desire to delve
deeper into the additional complexities related with
these issues in their forthcoming research endeavors.
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41 Designing a hyperledger fabric-based workflow
management system: A prototype solution to enhance
organizational efficiency
Arjun Senthil K. S.a, Thiruvaazhi Uloli and Sanjay V. M.
Kumaraguru College of Technology, Coimbatotre, Tamilnadu, India
Abstract
Workflow management is crucial for organizations to operate efficiently and effectively. It helps businesses to streamline their
operations, reduce manual work, minimize errors, and improve overall productivity. The popular current solutions which
are paper based, or web application based requires technological upgrade. Blockchain not only fits the requirements in terms
of cost, scalability but also in addressing the security requirements owing to the inherent use of public key-based digital
signatures, hash and decentralized architecture being an integral part of its foundations. In this work we choose to build our
prototype solution based on hyperledger fabric which adds flexibility through the customizable consensus mechanism and
its permissioned nature makes the identity management and association of public key to identity a seamless task. We show
that this design better fits the requirements and enhances workflow management in the organizational context. By extension,
a similar design has the potential to efficiently meet several of organizational requirements where we need public key-based,
digitally signed, sustainable and scalable solutions built on top of distributed architecture.
Keywords: Hyperledger, public key signing, workflow
Introduction workflow management might change as a result of the
deployment of blockchain, particularly when done
An organized, coordinated, and automated approach
so through the hyperledger fabric framework. This
to procedures is known as workflow management. It
change is characterized by the availability of natu-
entails the planning, carrying out, and maintaining
rally secure, scalable, and cost-effective solutions that
of workflows. In an organization, this will specify
easily connect with process design, execution, and
how work is to be carried out. It helps to increase
monitoring principles. Our research aims to present a
effectiveness, productivity, and quality while lower-
thorough grasp of the enormous effects that this novel
ing costs and errors. The core elements of a workflow
strategy can have on businesses, ushering in a time of
management system are workflow design, work-
increased operational effectiveness.
flow execution, and workflow monitoring (Reijers,
Vanderfeesten, and Van Der Aalst, 2016)
The business process is examined during the first Workflow applications
step of workflow design where a workflow diagram Let’s take a look at a real-world example to help us
is made. The tasks that must be completed in what better comprehend workflow management and its
order, which is responsible for what and how are all components which in turn very helpful to review the
detailed in this diagram. When the workflow design is existing application.
finished, the workflow execution phase starts. Here,
the real job is carried out in accordance with the pro- Example case study
cess diagram. Using software tools, this can be auto- Let’s say a student in college gets the chicken pox and
mated or done manually. In the workflow monitoring misses their final semester exams. The student must
phase, the workflow’s development is lastly moni- write a letter to the principal asking for permission to
tored and examined. This guarantees that it is running drop out of the tests. Figure 41.1 shows an example
effectively and efficiently. This phase also includes flow diagram which helps in visualizing the workflow
error detection, performance monitoring, and quality design.
control (Wu et al., 2022). However, without the support of the relevant fac-
Our research aims to examine the transforma- ulty, the student is not permitted to approach the prin-
tional potential of blockchain technology within cipal directly. The student should therefore first talk
this environment and fundamental workflow man- to their mentor about their circumstance. The mentor
agement concepts. Our main goal is to clarify how will look into the student’s situation and might give
a
arjunsenthil.19is@[Link]
314 Designing a hyperledger fabric-based workflow management system
the required approval. Once the mentor has given additional situations, it is also impractical. Physical
his or her approval, the student may speak with the signatures on paper are also susceptible to destruc-
department head. tion or loss while in transit. Delays and conflicts may
Before signing the withdrawal form/letter for the result from this.
semester examinations, along with any essential ref- A digitized signature, also known as a scanned
erences and messages, the department head will also signature, is the digital representation of a physical
verify the mentor’s approval, review the student’s situ- signature. It is simple to insert and provides a visual
ation, and give their consent after confirming that they representation of the signature in electronic docu-
have done so. The controller of examination must go ments. It may also be conveniently stored and accessed,
through the same procedure in order to approve the too. Digital signatures, however, offer a higher level
withdrawal request. The principal is then notified of of security than digitized signatures. Since, digitized
the request for final approval (Figure 41.1). signatures are simple to falsify or duplicate. Their
applicability in most situations may be constrained
Signing methods currently in use by the fact that they are not legally binding in many
Physical signatures on paper documents, digitized jurisdictions.
signatures (signature images that have been scanned), An extremely high level of security and non-repu-
and digital signatures are the three methods of signing diation is offered by a digital signature. Here, the
that are most frequently used in workflow manage- validity and integrity of the provided documents are
ment. These are typical in every industry. confirmed using cryptographic techniques. Digital
The most often used type of signature is a physi- signatures can be easily inserted into electronic docu-
cal one. It is challenging to copy or counterfeit. ments (Arya et al., 2021). They are also legally bonded
Additionally, it is simple to confirm by contrasting it in many jurisdictions. However, digital signatures
with the original document. However, it takes time require a digital certificate issued by a trusted third
because the signer needs to be there physically. In party called “certificate authority”. As not everyone
has the access to a digital certificate it can be a barrier
to adoption. In the event of a compromised digital
certificate or the loss of a private key, digital signa-
tures may become susceptible to attacks.
The current solutions available for workflow man-
agement are either expensive or difficult to learn. Thus,
making it necessary to develop a future-proof, easy to
use, low-cost and secure solution that addresses these
challenges.
Web workflow applications
Web workflow applications are computer tools that
facilitate the automation and streamlining of work-
flow within an organization. These programs can
boost efficiency, decrease errors, and increase pro-
ductivity. For verification of authenticity, majority of
them use digital signing.
Popular web workflow applications
Workflow automation – Power Automate, Kissflow
Software, and Workato. These programs are made to
streamline and automate workflow, making it easier
for organizations to manage and finish projects. Users
can link many applications and automate workflow
across them using integration platforms like Power
Automate and Workato. On the other hand, Kissflow
Software is an automation program that provides
a no-code platform to develop unique workflows,
forms, and reports.
[Link] is more of a cloud-based project man-
agement tool. It is project management software that
Figure 41.1 Case study workflow design enables various teams to collaborate and manage
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 315
their projects efficiently. It offers numerous tools to applications. Here is a quick summary of the three
increase efficiency, including task monitoring, time main blockchain technology generations.
management, team communication, and automation.
Document management software called Laserfiche First-generation blockchain: Bitcoin
enables companies to digitize their paper-based Blockchain technology is the foundation of Bitcoin,
records and streamline procedures. To increase decentralized digital money. It does away with the
effectiveness and productivity, it provides functions requirement for intermediaries like banks or govern-
including document capture, search, and retrieval in ments to handle transactions. The distributed ledger’s
addition to workflow automation. transparency and immutability are crucial in main-
taining the accuracy of all recorded transactions.
Conclusion Proof of work (PoW), a consensus technique, is used
These programs are made to assist companies with by Bitcoin to uphold network security and validate
workflow automation and streamlining the project new transactions. In order to add new blocks to the
management, and document digitization. However, blockchain, miners perform computing work to solve
these have a steep learning curve and are expensive to challenging mathematical riddles. It’s vital to remem-
scale in a big context. Additionally, there aren’t many ber that the scripting language used by Bitcoin has
choices for personalized modification. built-in restrictions and can only enable basic smart
contract features like multi-sign transactions. These
Blockchain technology agreements increase security because they involve
numerous parties and need for multiple signatures to
Blockchain in recent years be valid.
Due to its distinctive characteristics, blockchain tech-
nology has attracted a lot of attention recently. It is a Second-generation blockchain: Ethereum
decentralized, transparent, and immutable digital led- Developers can build and use smart contracts and
ger that can store information and transactions safely. decentralized applications on Ethereum, a unique
In other words, if new information is posted to the platform. It created a programming language that
blockchain, everyone can see the changes, making it can manage intricate contracts, making it the next
impossible for them to be changed. generation of blockchain technology. Initially,
The advantages of blockchain over traditional Ethereum validated transactions using a technique
databases and programs are numerous. A high level known as proof of work, but it eventually shifted
of integrity and availability is first and foremost guar- to a quicker and more effective technique known
anteed by the blockchain because it is very impossi- as proof of stake. The method is now quicker and
ble to hack or alter the data stored there. As a result, more environmentally friendly. Smart contracts on
transactions proceed more quickly and are less expen- Ethereum have made it possible to build a wide
sive because there are no longer any middlemen or range of cutting-edge applications, particularly in
intermediaries required. Finally, fraud is simpler to the area of decentralized finance. In conclusion,
spot and prevent since it offers a public and auditable Ethereum is a decentralized platform with cutting-
record of all transactions. edge capabilities that has opened the door for new
Blockchain is a decentralized, tamper-proof led- kinds of apps, especially in the area of decentralized
ger that can give all workflow participants access to finance.
transparency. Smart contracts, which can automati-
cally execute after certain criteria are satisfied, can be Third-generation blockchain: Hyperledger fabric
used with blockchain to automate certain phases in a This is a unique type of blockchain network designed
workflow. To save time, decrease manual errors, and specifically for companies and organizations. With
boost process effectiveness all at once. Blockchain more sophisticated features than other generations, it
can assist companies in decreasing processing, stor- is regarded as the most recent generation of block-
age, and data management expenses by eliminating chain technology. Its architecture for private networks
the need for intermediates and optimizing operations. which allows for restricted access, is a key feature. It
By offering a standardized platform for data inter- also has tight restrictions on who may do what and
change and workflow management, blockchain can offers a variety of options for reaching agreements on
make it easier for various systems and apps to operate transactions. Private channels are one special feature
together. that allows some users to conduct private transac-
tions. This is useful for keeping things private and
The different generations of blockchain secure. Another advantage is that it can be custom-
There have been multiple versions of blockchain ized for different uses, like managing supply chains
technology, each with unique characteristics and or handling trade finances. In summary, while Bitcoin
316 Designing a hyperledger fabric-based workflow management system
started blockchain and Ethereum introduced smart and cloud architecture. The article concludes by
contracts, hyperledger fabric is specifically made for reporting on a systematic literature review (SLR)
businesses, with powerful features that meet their examining the development of BMFA and impor-
needs. Each generation of blockchain technology adds tant conditions for implementation (Almadani et al.,
new features and expands what can be done with it. 2023).
A survey on distributed workflow management
Literature survey on existing blockchain solutions describes a workflow management system that uti-
An article exploring how secure electronic health lizes smart contracts on a blockchain to automate the
record (EHR) management provided by blockchain execution of tasks and the transfer of data between
technology has the potential to change healthcare. different parties in a distributed workflow. The sys-
Due to their centralized structures, traditional EHR tem is designed to be flexible, allowing users to define
systems have security flaws, but blockchain ensures workflows and modify them as needed, while also
tamper-proof records through decentralization and providing a high level of security through the use of
cutting-edge cryptography. Health care providers cryptographic protocols. Until now, companies that
can securely communicate information while giving facilitate workflows have been important in regu-
patients discretion over data access, which lowers lating the overall process by acting as choke points
operating costs and fraud. Decentralized, trustless or bottlenecks. However, it might be challenging to
transactions on the blockchain increase security impose the same regulatory obligations and respon-
and transparency. Data security is further improved sibilities on decentralized workflow facilitations
through identity and access management (IAM) sys- (Seppala et al., 2022).
tems and privacy-enhancing technologies (PET). In An article by Singh et al., investigates the advan-
order to provide safe, decentralized access manage- tages and obstacles associated with the implemen-
ment, the article introduces an IAM system that com- tation of blockchain technology in contemporary
bines blockchain, OAuth 2.0, and hyperledger fabric. business operations. The authors discuss the key
This system promises to enhance the privacy and characteristics of blockchain technology, including
integrity of patient data (Shrabani et al., 2024). decentralization, transparency, immutability, and
Fridgen et al. in his article proposed a solution security, and how they can be useful for processes
on cross-organizational workflow management such as supply chain management and financial
using blockchain. They emphasize that a tamper- transactions (Singh et al., 2020). They also provide
proof transaction history can represent a significant insights into different consensus mechanisms used
improvement for numerous workflows that span in blockchain technology, their advantages and dis-
organizational boundaries. This literature talks about advantages, and their suitability for different pro-
workflow on cross-organizational scale. It has taken cesses. They concluded by proposing a system based
a bank as its subject and works on how a blockchain on the consensus Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance
powered cross-organizational workflow tool will help (PBFT) explaining its versatility (Viriyasitavat et al.,
improve efficiency. To develop this workflow environ- 2021).
ment, it follows the design science research (DSR) Evermann’s article recommends that a semi appli-
approach. DSR tries to solve organizational problems cation that resides both on- and off-chain might be a
that are already identified through a build and evalu- great way to mitigate the flaws of the PoW system.
ate process (Fridgen et al. 2018). They too suggest the PBFT consensus acknowledg-
M. S. Almadani et al. in his article explains the ing that it’s hard to scale but gives finality to transac-
importance of multi-factor authentication (MFA) in tions and has low latency. The proposal is to integrate
enhancing security is discussed in the article, particu- Byzantine Fault Tolerance (BFT)-based blockchains
larly in distributed systems like blockchain networks. into workflow management systems in order to iden-
It describes the three techniques of MFA—knowl- tify potential design problems and assess their impact
edge, possession, and inheritance—as well as how it on both the systems themselves and their users. They
uses distinctive authentication components. Due to its also emphasize the importance of clean user interface
dependability and immutability, blockchain technol- and user education for wide acceptance of the service
ogy is suggested as a secure alternative to centralized (Evermann et al., 2021).
authentication in distributed systems, highlighting A survey on workflow management on BFT
its weakness. In his work it discusses authentication explains the multiple blockchains built around BFT
methods based on blockchains and how they moved algorithms are proven to be more efficient than the
away from centralized credential storage and toward other available solutions. It also provides immediate
decentralized ledger storage. Additionally, it empha- consensus. However, it does not scale well to large
sizes the need to improve MFA for blockchain net- networks since the number of nodes will increase and
works by mentioning the integration of blockchain the execution time will also increase in return. The
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 317
increased requirement for processing power is the security by optimizing digital signature algorithms.
major drawback of the PoW system. Moreover, it also Integrating digital signatures with identity authenti-
has increased latency and there is no finality of con- cation or timestamps can provide multi-dimensional
sensus. Whereas BFT-SMART utilizes a PBFT-based security and safeguard information non-repudiation
ordering mechanism that eliminates the latency, lack in the blockchain from a broader perspective (Fang
of finality, and computational demands of the PoW et al., 2020).
consensus. But it requires fully connected nodes and A survey on the preservation of digital signatures.
perfect communication overhead (Evermann et al., Traditional infrastructures announce the authenticity
2019). of key pairs and digital signatures using digital certifi-
Another article by Evermann et al., explores the cates, which are given by certification authority like
advantages and obstacles of using blockchain technol- Adobe. Digital signatures, blockchain, keys, encryp-
ogy for workflow management. The authors suggest tion, authenticity, and trust are all terms that are used
that blockchain technology can improve workflow in this paper to argue that the hash functions of the
management systems by providing a decentralized, blockchain provide a superior technique for main-
transparent, and secure solution. However, there are taining signatures than digital certificates (Thompson,
challenges such as scalability, privacy, and regulatory 2020).
compliance that need to be considered. The paper A decentralized web application for digital docu-
provides insights into different types of blockchain ment verification using Ethereum blockchain-based
technology, the importance of smart contracts, and technology in P2P cloud storage. The goal of this
recommendations for successful implementation application is to enhance the verification process by
(Evermann et al., 2019). making it more transparent, accessible, and audit-
A solution that included proof of storage and proof able. The proposed model utilizes various tech-
of existence. By including all of these features, CDAC niques such as public/private key cryptography,
created ProveDoc, a solution that proves the tempo- online storage security, digital signatures, hashing,
ral existence of any digital document, authenticates peer-to-peer networks, and proof of work, making it
its content, confirms the document’s origin, ensures faster and more convenient for any organization or
that its timestamp and hash cannot be altered ret- authority to verify uploaded documents with a sin-
roactively, and gets around the problem of storing gle click. Each document is also assigned an appro-
large data directly in blockchain with the aid of PoS priate hash value. By addressing the limitations of
(Chiliveri et al., 2019). traditional document verification methods, our pro-
A solution delays in payments and human error posed model effectively meets all the requirements
in cash flow management for construction projects for a digital document verification system (Imam et
continue, necessitating the use of digital technologies. al., 2021).
As a decentralized solution, blockchain automates A blockchain-based solution for storing and shar-
processes and improves transparency. Current solu- ing records across institutions, ensuring security and
tions have drawbacks like centralization and labori- integrity using a consortium blockchain. By combin-
ous data entry, such as cash flow-based 5D BIM and ing a storage server with a blockchain, secure docu-
web-based management systems. To overcome these ment storage is created. Smart contracts are utilized
difficulties, a networked financial management sys- to enable cross-institutional sharing of educational
tem employing chaincode and the hyperledger fabric records, with the consortium blockchain’s smart con-
is being developed. It offers a “proof of concept” solu- tracts regulating document exchange permissions
tion for all project stakeholders, classifying roles for and processes between institutions. Additionally, an
various parties and making it possible to trace finan- anti-tampering inspection method is employed to pro-
cial transactions over the course of a project. This tect the records stored in the storage server (Li et al.,
adaptable system takes into account different pro- 2019).
curement strategies, boosting trust and transparency
in the financial administration of building projects Design of solution
(Elghaish et al., 2022).
A digital signature scheme for non-repudiation. Comparison of available options
They analyzed various digital signature schemes Paper-based workflow management methods use
used in blockchain systems over the past few years actual paper documents and manual procedures. Due
and found that digital signature technology can fulfill to the possibility of lost, damaged, or missing papers,
specific application requirements of blockchains and this process can be time-consuming and error-prone.
meet security needs in diverse situations. The findings On the other hand, web applications are computer
of this study can aid in the design of digital signa- programs that may be accessed through a web browser.
ture schemes for blockchain and enhance blockchain They make it simpler to manage jobs and monitor
318 Designing a hyperledger fabric-based workflow management system
progress by automating procedures and supplying Architecture
real-time data. Web apps are a flexible and effective Smart contracts, which are self-executing contracts
alternative for many businesses since they can fre- between buyers and sellers that are directly pro-
quently be customized and adjusted to certain work- grammed into the system, are made possible by
flows. However, these have a steep learning curve and Ethereum. Public-private key cryptography is used
are expensive to scale in a big context. Additionally, for user administration, which is account-based. To
there aren’t many choices for modification. sign transactions and communicate with the network,
Blockchain technology is a distributed, decentral- users generate a set of public and private keys. Each
ized ledger that can safely record transactions and Ethereum account is identified by a public key, or a
data that offers a great level of security and confi- hash of the public key, known as an address, which
dence. It is nearly impossible for any one entity to may be accessed with the associated private key. Users
alter or damage the data because the data on a block- are responsible for maintaining their own keys, which
chain is decentralized and dispersed throughout a are often kept in a wallet or software client.
network of nodes. Transparency and accountability A blockchain platform for private and autho-
are also provided by blockchain. Because every trans- rized contexts is called hyperledger fabric. Its default
action on a blockchain is securely and irrevocably option makes use of the PBFT consensus mechanism.
recorded, all participants can see what is happening However, because to hyperledger fabric’s adaptability,
at every stage of the workflow. You can find an over- it may be customized, including by altering the con-
view of the comparison of the existing solutions in sensus algorithm as necessary. With their own distinct
Table 41.1. identities and rights, it enables many organizations
to take part in a blockchain network. A membership
Deciding best fit service provider (MSP) manages users in hyperledger
We require a safe, quick, and dependable foundation fabric. The tasks of managing identities, verifying
in order to build a workflow management application. users, and allowing access to resources fall under
All of our application’s needs are satisfied by block- the purview of an MSP. The MSP for each organiza-
chain. Additionally, we chose the proof-of-authority tion taking part in a hyperledger fabric network is in
consensus for the blockchain since it complemented charge of maintaining the identities of the users inside
our application model the best. However, the first that organization. Cryptographic keys are given to
blockchain network we chose, called Ethereum, users and held in their individual wallets where they
switched from proof-of-work consensus in its main are used to sign transactions.
network to proof-of-stake consensus in all of its test
networks. The hyperledger fabric was then introduced Data security and integrity
to us. Given that identity management is our primary For network security, Ethereum employs a public key
requirement, Ethereum and hyperledger fabric have cryptography method. To validate transactions and
various methods and capabilities. stop unauthorized access to the network, it employs a
digital signature. Additionally, Ethereum stores trans-
action data in a Merkle tree data structure, guarantee-
Table 41.1 Comparison of different existing solutions. ing data integrity. However, as Ethereum is a public
blockchain, anyone can examine all the data.
Solution Existing workflow solutions All network participants in the hyperledger fabric
comparison network are recognized and validated using a permis-
Paper-based Web Blockchain
applications
sioned mechanism. It makes use of a distinctive iden-
tity system that makes it possible to set access control
Security Less secure Secure Immutable on a per-user basis. By limiting network access to just
those that is permitted, this method improves data
Ease of use Takes lot Might Various security. To protect data from prying eyes, there are
(for of time and struggle solution
end-user) energy getting started designs
solutions.
available
Cost Expensive Can vary Usually
Cost
when according to cost- A specific number of ether is required for the deploy-
scaling and application friendly ment and interaction of contracts on the Ethereum
storing public network. The price of ether is 1,878.50 US dol-
Scalability Very limited Compromises Can lars (USD) or 1,54,458.59 Indian rupees (INR) at the
under heavy handle time of writing, although this value is subject to daily
load large change. A “gas fee” is another charge users on the net-
volumes
work must make in order for their transactions to be
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 319
successful. Gas costs 1.75 USD or 142 INR at this
moment in time. The accompanying charges for each
transaction can accumulate to a significant amount
over time.
However, since the hyperledger fabric network is
set up on a server owned by our organization, trans-
action fees are not required. However, it is important
to consider the costs of upkeep.
Summary
While Ethereum is a public blockchain platform
appropriate for decentralized apps and coin creation
utilizing smart contracts. Hyperledger fabric is made
for usage in business applications that need authentic-
ity, confidentiality, integrity, and scalability. Businesses
who want a private blockchain network for secure
transactions and data sharing can use it because of
its permissioned approach. For identity management,
hyperledger fabric is a fantastic alternative and is
used in sectors including finance, healthcare, and sup-
ply chain management. As a result, we developed a
blockchain-based workflow management application
using hyperledger fabric. The purpose of this program
is to facilitate a simple and secure workflow among Figure 41.2 Prototype application basic design
network users.
Building the prototype The tools used
Basic design This application uses [Link] and [Link] as its
The prototype application aims to create a workflow frontend and backend frameworks, respectively.
management system for the case study mentioned MongoDB is chosen as the database for storing infor-
earlier. This application will aim to streamline the mation. The hyperledger fabric test network package
workflow for an academic institution for quicker and is used to deploy a test network to develop our proto-
secure document approvals. type on. The chain code for interaction between users
The application needs to have an easy interactive is written in Golang.
interface as the front end. This front end serves as a
communication portal between the network and the Deploying the test network
users allowing them to send transactions. The appli- The fabric samples, binaries and docker images are
cation also needs a backend server to route all the available publicly in the hyperledger’s website. We
requests by the users between the frontend, database download and run the network and launch the docker
and the network. Then, it needs a database to store all containers for peer, client and organization nodes. We
the requests and pending approvals. The documents then create a channel between two organizations for
are also hashed, and the hash is obtained. Finally, communication. Moreover, we also make use of the
the hyperledger fabric network is used for validating fabric ca-client feature to create individual wallets
and storing the hashes of the documents by sending containing the private and public keys for every user.
transactions. These wallets will later be used to sign and validate
The application’s fundamental workflow is depicted the documents.
in Figure 41.2. The user who needs to get the docu-
ment signed (such as a student, for example) must first Configuring the chaincode
upload the required paperwork to the application. The chain code is the one managing the ledger state.
The application then waits for the signer (such as a It does so with the help of transactions submitted
teacher) to approve it. As soon as the signer gives his through our application. Along with the multiple
or her approval, the program stores the paperwork other functions to interact with the network this
and broadcasts the file hash and signature to the net- application uses the PutState function in the chain
work. For later retrieval, the network stores it together code to store the signature and timestamp of the doc-
with a timestamp and a key corresponding to it. ument submitted.
320 Designing a hyperledger fabric-based workflow management system
“[Link](args[0], dataInBytes)” increased security, and cost savings. This study adds
to the conversation about workflow management’s
where dataInBytes is a struct containing the signature ongoing pursuit of innovation and quality.
and timestamp and args[0] is a unique key which is
later used to retrieve the signature.
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42 Exploring Image Segmentation Approaches for Medical
Image Analysis
Rupali Pathak1,a, Hemant Makwana2 and Neha Sharma1
1
Prestige Institute of Engineering Management and Research, Indore, India
2
Institute of Engineering and Technology, DAVV, Indore, India
Abstract
The research provides a review of segmentation methods for medical imaging. The article provides a comparative study of
edge-based, region-based and energy-based methods of image segmentation. Many medical images have different levels of
intensity because of flaws in the object or technical limitations. Some segmentation techniques have limitations, like being
stuck in local minima or producing over-segmented images. Medical image segmentation is still difficult because of noise,
poor contrast, and huge variations in intensity level. Interactive medical image segmentation is also needed for better results
that can be solved by taking user input into account while segmenting an image. Active contour techniques assume that
global intensity may be used to define an image. Some approaches deal with intensity inhomogeneity in the same way that
the region-scalable fitting (RSF) model does. The method was compared to Chan-Vese (CV), RSF, and local and global in-
tensity fitting (LGIF). The hybrid region-based active contour (HRBAC) approach may be useful in addressing the intensity
of inhomogeneity. It also accelerates segmentation as compared to local region-based active contour (LRBAC). However,
HRBAC has limitation of contour initialization sensitivity and parameter sensitivity. Improved HRBAC model is also ex-
plored in this paper to deal with challenges of medical image segmentation mentioned above. The new function used in this
model will leverage global and local data to quickly get the correct response. The method combines energy functional-driven
curve generation with a level set framework for medical picture segmentation. Lattice Boltzmann approach is used to make
segmentation process fast.
Keywords: Active contour model, edge-based method, energy-based method, intensity heterogeneity, medical image segmen-
tation, region-based method
Introduction extensive areas of blurring grey-white matter bound-
aries (Xiaoxia et al., 2017). Edge-based algorithms
Segmentation is process of partition the image into
often use noisy images with weak edges. Image area is
different parts, also called regions or areas. Methods
used instead of gradient information in region-based
based on regions, intensity normalization, and par-
techniques (Naresh et al., 2010; Ge et al., 2012; Singh
tial volume medical images are segmented using
et al., 2019). In images with weak object boundar-
level set segmentation algorithms to quantify delin-
ies, edge-based models perform better. This model can
eated structures so that pertinent information can be
quickly figure out the boundaries of objects no mat-
extracted. Medical images those are visually ambigu-
ter how the level set is made. Active contour mod-
ous. Identifying data of interest and their boundaries
els may be parametric or geometric in nature. Their
exactly might help doctors in future investigations but
contours are made up of parameterized curves. The
it is also challenging due to tissue and organ archi-
snake model is a popular parametric active contour
tecture as well as noise. There are different types
model (Guo et al., 2013). Many active contour tech-
of segmentation techniques used in medical imag-
niques assume that global intensity may be used to
ing especially to deals with intensity homogeneity.
define a picture. Many people have come up with a
Intensity homogeneity is the common problem in
truly global way to promote several contours to sepa-
medical imaging and can have an impact on segmen-
rate multiple-region images, like Chan and Vese (Sun
tation accuracy. Edge-based and region-based models
et al., 2018). The Mumford-Shah function serves as
have been widely used in segmentation. Techniques
the foundation for the CV model (Liu et al., 2012).
that are deal with intensity inhomogeneity are region-
A model is made from a picture. As a result, it works
based methods, intensity normalization, partial vol-
well for objects with weak or defined borders but not
ume segmentation and level set methods. Chan-Vese
so well for pictures with inhomogeneous intensity.
and active contour methods comes under level set
Many medical images have different levels of inten-
category. Many medical pictures include haze or
sity because of flaws in the object or technical limita-
weak edges, especially in MRI brain imaging with
tions (An et al., 2007; Krupinski, 2010; Modi et al.,
rpathak@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 323
2021). There are several solutions to the CV model’s these models (Wang et al., 2014). Both models’ local
flaws. For two models that are regionally comparable intensity fitting terms were often combined to see how
(Vese, 2002). Any region-based segmentation energy, they affected curve creation in various places. In this
according to Lankton and Tannenbaum (Hemalatha instance, global intensity information takes prece-
et al., 2018), can be recast locally. Active contour dence. The contour is drawn to the boundaries of the
energy is being used to segment objects with variable item and then stopped. The use of local image con-
statistics. However, they are CPU-intensive, which trast modifies its weight (Wang et al., 2010; Memon
suggests an initial contour at the object’s edges. Zhang et al., 2020). At weak object borders, the global
et al. (2010) and Li et al. (2020) provide region-based intensity force leads the contour to diverge. More dis-
active contour models for dealing with intensity inho- criminative energy functions are necessary to increase
mogeneity. Local binary fitting (LBF) and region- model performance. The development of contours is
scalable fitting (RSF) are the most frequently used governed by discriminant and fitting. New region-
models by Li et al. The LBF model makes use of local scalable discriminants and energy functionalities were
image data. The RSF model makes use of local inten- introduced. While its counterpart phrase describes
sity data. Both models may be used at the same time intensity, this word differentiates between the back-
(Chuanjiang et al., 2012) (Figure 42.1). ground and the foreground. The energy is computed
using level set regularization. It manages intensity
Related work inhomogeneity better than conventional regional and
regional-scalable models due to its more flexible ini-
Many real-world images exhibit intensity heteroge- tialization. The new model trumps the old. To begin
neity. It’s widespread in medical images like X-rays with, the new energy functional provides proper fore-
and MRIs (MR) (Vovk et al., 2007). Radiofrequency ground/background separation. The method keeps
coils or acquisition processes generate inhomogene- both local and global data. There is now a sensitive
ity un-MR images. The intensity of the same tissue contour. These photographs highlight the accuracy
changes with time. In CT and ultrasound pictures, and longevity of the process. Piovano et al., employed
non-uniform beam attenuation generates similar convolutions to accelerate piecewise smooth seg-
issues. A new RSF model (Brox et al., 2009) inves- mentation. It deals with picture intensity and spatial
tigated the effect of intensity heterogeneity on seg- variations directly. Instead of calculating a piecewise
mentation. The RSF model makes use of locally smooth model as suggested in Chunming et al. (2009),
fluctuating data that fluctuate geographically (Zhi et there is less reliance on initial curve location. On the
al., 2015; Koshki et al., 2021). This is because the RSF other hand, the Geodesic Active Contour and Chan-
model may effectively segment using local area infor- Vese models are combined in this model. The geodesic
mation, namely the local intensity mean. Some recent intensity fitting (GIF) model was created. Later, two
suggestions deal with intensity inhomogeneity in the models emerged: the GGIF global model and the LGIF
same way that the RSF model does. However, some local model. The GGIF model is intended for pictures
approaches need setup, which limits their applicabil- that are uniform in size. The LGIF model accounts for
ity. Over-reliance on the contour’s start location is a intensity inhomogeneity. The new function will lever-
major flaw in local information models, solving Euler- age global and local data to quickly get the correct
Lagrange equations reduces energy functions. Local response. The CV model provides global data. The
and global intensity fitting energies are included in local information is explained by the energy para-
digm in Wan et al. (2018) using inter-fitting weights to
avoid computationally costly and erroneous segmen-
tation. Many image processing and computer vision
applications make use of it. Active Contour Model
and fuzzy C-means (FCM) are two well-known image
segmentation methods. Medical image segmentation
is still difficult because of noise, poor contrast, and
a lot of variation in intensity. A hybrid region-based
contour model (HRBAC) is also deals with intensity
inhomogeneity with efficiency (Liu et al., 2014; Xu
et al., 2014). This approach combines the advantages
of global and local region based active contour mod-
els. Localizing region based active contour (LRBAC)
and GIF are also handle intensity inhomogeneity but
may be computationally expensive or sensitive to
Figure 42.1 The segmentation outcomes initialization.
324 Exploring Image Segmentation Approaches for Medical Image Analysis
Segmentation of MR images inhomogeneity and noise concerns (Figure 42.4). The
left ventricle is in the second row. The picture is plainly
In medical imaging, noise is sometimes a prevalent
distorted by noise, high inhomogeneity, and weak
occurrence. The photos’ clarity can readily be nega-
borders. Cardiovascular CT images are shown in the
tively impacted by severe noise. It can obscure and
third row. To fit the picture, the C-V model employs
impede the view of particular characteristics in the
the global intensity mean. As a result, they fight with
image, which will affect the segmentation effects
varying degrees of severity. Li’s model which employs
(Figure 42.2).
the local intensity mean, may segment images with
To demonstrate its tolerance for intensity inhomo-
higher inhomogeneity than the C-V model. The LGDF
geneity, it was used to segment two MR brain images
model is only based on local intensity data. The bias
using the bias field effect. As a result of well-balanced
field cannot be quantified. Besides predicting the bias
segmentation, improved the quality of the photo-
field to fix the source picture’s uneven brightness, the
graphs It were able to make. After bias correction,
method also does a better job of splitting the picture
several low-contrast patches are visible (Figure 42.3).
into its separate parts.
Compare the method to the C-V model (Chan
The method was compared to Chan-Vese (CV)
et al., 2001), Li’s model (Li et al., 2011), and the
(Wong et al., 2005), RSF, and LGIF (Kass et al., 2008).
LGDF (Wang et al., 2009). Row 1 depicts left ven-
Global, local, and combined intensity data are often
tricular ultrasound pictures with acute intensity
included in these models. To accelerate the evolution,
a binary function with values within and outside of
the initial contours is applied to the beginning con-
tours. The following sub-sections contain parameter
values for the various experimental images.
Findings
Experiments have proven that automatic segmenta-
tion methods do not give correct analysis as needed
for medical images.
The definition of what is a “correct” or “desired” seg-
Figure 42.2 Left part represents the MR image with mentation of an image has mostly been unspeak-
noise and right side represents image without noise able to the computer vision community. Figure
Figure 42.3 Real-world medical images are used to test the procedure. Column 1 contains the original images and con-
tours. Column 2 has the final outlines. Column 3 contains photos that have been adjusted for bias. Column 4 contains
the estimated bias fields
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 325
Figure 42.4 Alternative approaches are compared. Column 1 displays the original pictures and initial outlines. The C-V
model is shown in column 2. There are columns 3: Li’s method. The LGDF model may be found in column 4. Column
5 – In this scenario, the method should be followed
Figure 42.6 An example of interactive image segmen-
tation
Figure 42.5 Correct segmentation of CT image
segmentation can be done manually or with the assis-
tance of a computer. This problem has a considerable
42.5 shows the example of correct segmentation impact on other fields, such as pattern recognition
of CT image. and computer vision. The use of dynamic contour
An interactive approach is required so that the result- models is the most advanced and current technique
ing contours should be the same. for image segmentation. Each of the most prominent
Fast processing is required for better and more analy- active contour models has its own set of advantages
sis of medical images. and disadvantages, and the qualities of the images
define which model is used in which applications.
The results of segmented MRI and CT scans of the These characteristics enable each model to be used
human body are shown in Figure 42.6. The proposed for a specific set of purposes and that are specific to
method yields clear and precise results, and the result- the classification of regions rather than edges. Using
ing outlines are entire and unbroken in every region. picture edge facts, the model generates an edge-based
Here is a graphical representation of the interactive function that can be used to create outlines around
segmentation approach shown in Figure 42.6. the edges of objects. For images with a lot of noise or
an uncertain edge, the edge-based function which is
based on the gradient of the image, can determine the
Analysis
proper bounds. This allows for a more precise assess-
Image segmentation is the most difficult compo- ment of the utility of the limitations. When employing
nent of image analysis and comprehension. Image a region-based technique, the problem of the contour
326 Exploring Image Segmentation Approaches for Medical Image Analysis
moving as you move from one area to another is associated with segmentation of medical images,
eliminated. Using statistical data, the model creates energy-based models perform better than alterna-
a region-halting function. The addition of a statisti- tives. New model based on regions for medical image
cal region allows for the expansion of this function. segmentation Gaussian distributions with varying
If any image has fuzzier edges, this model will out- means and variances are used to establish statistics
perform the edge-based technique. When it comes to of picture intensities for objects in local areas. As a
image segmentation, region-based models are pre- result, it can improve segmentation accuracy. Both
ferred over edge-based models. This is since apply- synthetic and real-world medical imagery work effec-
ing region-based models has no constraints, whereas tively. The model can be multiphase, allowing it to
applying edge-based models does. When examined understand more complex medical images with dif-
side by side, region-based models usually outperform ferent levels of intensity.
edge-based models. Because they assume that all ele-
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43 Design and performance analysis of electric shock
absorbers
Jenish R. P.a and Surbhi Gupta
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Chandigarh University, Punjab, India
Abstract
Modern vehicles have attained remarkable dynamics, largely attributed to the reduced vibration emanating from the pow-
ertrain and the damping effects of shock absorbers. However, the effectiveness of conventional shock absorbers is curtailed
by their inherent mechanical structure, which generally confines them to fixed output levels. Notably, luxury cars distinguish
themselves by integrating shock absorbers equipped with variable outputs to optimize comfort and performance. This paper
delves into a pioneering realm: electric shock absorbers with variable outputs, a concept with universal applications across all
vehicle types. The core objective is to unravel the potential of this novel suspension technology and its transformative impact
on vehicle dynamics. By exploring the territory of electric shock absorbers with variable outputs, this research contributes
to an evolving field that is set to redefine vehicular comfort and handling. The proposition of applying this concept to all
vehicles opens up avenues for a more standardized and enhanced driving experience, transcending the confines of luxury car
segments. Through a comprehensive exploration of electric shock absorbers with variable outputs, this study embarks on a
journey to revolutionize the realm of vehicle dynamics, promising an era of superior ride quality and enhanced maneuver-
ability.
Keywords: Shock absorber, hydraulic damper, hydraulic valve, bode plot, PID controller
Introduction The frequency response approach offers a robust
method for tailoring the performance of these critical
As electric vehicles (EVs) make a substantial impact
suspension components.
on environmental conditions, the automotive indus-
It is through the investigation of this frequency-
try is increasingly dedicated to crafting vehicles that
based approach that this paper seeks to address the
are both efficient and durable. EVs hold a unique
challenge of optimizing shock absorber performance
advantage in generating minimal motor-induced
within the context of EVs (Tiwari et al., 2020). By
vibrations compared to traditional combustion
harnessing the intrinsic characteristics of electric
engines. Furthermore, their reduced component count
shock absorbers, this research endeavors to illuminate
contributes to lower overall vehicle vibration levels
a pathway towards improved vehicle stability and a
([Link]-technology). Yet, a crucial aspect of vehi-
more refined ride experience (Faheem et al., 2016)
cle vibration management remains unresolved—the
(Figure 43.1).
ride rate of the front and rear wheels. The comprehen-
sive dynamics of a vehicle, encompassing parameters
such as caster, camber, toe in, and toe out, are meticu- Related work
lously tuned to heighten the vehicle’s dynamic stabil- The idea of using electronic shock absorbers with
ity. Central to stability enhancement are the shock variable outputs in all types of vehicles is the main
absorbers, which wield significant control over the topic of the literature study. It talks about how impor-
vehicle’s equilibrium (Shams et al., 2007). tant damping is for comfort and stability in cars, par-
By introducing variability to the damping of shock ticularly when it comes to electric cars. The use of
absorbers during the ride, the potential arises to aug- electronic shock absorbers with adjustable damping
ment stability and attenuate the ride frequency of ratios to enhance vehicle dynamics and lessen vibra-
both the front and rear wheels. tions is highlighted in the article.
The term “electric shock absorber,” despite its name, Electric shock absorbers are important. The impor-
does not inherently imply electromagnetic suspen- tance of shock absorbers in contemporary cars is dis-
sions ([Link]). Rather, this paper delves cussed at the outset of the assessment, with special
into the implementation of the frequency response attention to how they lessen powertrain vibrations
method as a means of controlling shock absorbers and improve ride quality. Although variable output
([Link]). shock absorbers are a characteristic of premium
jenishraj97@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 329
demonstrating how damping frequency changes with
valve rotation.
Features and conclusion
The electric shock absorbers with variable outputs
offer a range of damping control features, similar
to those found in luxury cars. The paper concludes
that dynamically controlling the suspension through
motor- controlled valves can significantly reduce
vibrations and improve vehicle comfort and stability
(Raman et al., 2017).
References are provided for related studies and
Figure 43.1 Electric shock absorbers
papers, which include research on electromagnetic
shock absorbers ([Link]-technology), IMC-
automobiles, it is claimed that traditional shock PID approach for designing robust PID controllers
absorbers with fixed outputs are restricted (Fateh et (Shams et al., 2007), and the use of testing machines
al., 2009). for quality improvement ([Link].
com).
Idea of variable-output electric shock absorbers Overall, the literature review effectively introduces the
This paper presents the idea of variable-output elec- topic, discusses the concept of electric shock absorb-
tric shock absorbers that are suitable for all kinds of ers, presents the control strategy, and provides insights
automobiles. These electrical by adjusting the damp- from relevant studies in the field. It also concludes
ing ratio during the ride, shock absorbers seek to with the potential features and benefits of electric
increase stability and decrease ride frequency (Amar shock absorbers with variable outputs for widespread
et al., 2011). use in vehicles.
Design and control of electric shock absorbers Damping control
The literature study goes into detail on the elec-
Damping of a shock absorber is controlled using the
tric shock absorbers’ design and control approach.
inbuilt valve (Irmscher et al., 2015), part called shims
It describes the replacement of the built-in shim-
will be placed in the top and bottom of the valve
equipped damping valve in conventional shock
which has a stiffness property like spring. This shim
absorbers with a motor-controlled spinning valve.
is the main cause for the damping of shock absorb-
The study highlights that by adjusting the damping
ers. Here in this electric shock absorber the shims will
ratio by rotating the valve, one may regulate the front
be replaced by a valve which will be controlled using
and rear wheels’ ride frequencies and enhance vehicle
motor.
dynamics (Guo et al., 2004).
Valve is made of two parts fixed (Lee et al., 2008;
The frequency response technique is covered in the
Thakur et al., 2021) and rotating, in which the
review as a useful strategy for regulating the damp-
rotating valve is connected to the inner shaft and
ing ratio of electric shock absorbers. Bode graphs and
controlled using motor and the fixed valve will be
PID controllers may be used to modify the damping
connected to the shaft for sliding in the casing. When
ratio according to the necessary riding frequency.
the top valve rotates the diameter of the hole will be
Furthermore, (Gupta et al., 2006) mentions the
reducing which is shown in Figure 43.2, as the hole
usage of infrared sensors for measuring input load or
diameter changes the damping ratio will be chang-
disruptions.
ing. In this paper only the basic drawing of the valve
is covered but with good valve technology damping
Analysis and simulation can be made more effective and long lasting. While
The study uses Simulink and MATLAB to analyze assuming the required ride frequency and creating a
and simulate the electric shock absorber model theo- bode plot required transfer function can be estimated
retically. A second-order equation is used to represent and with the help of disturbance PID controller can
the system, and several sub-systems are developed for be made for controlling the valve (Milliken et al.,
in-depth examination (Hrovat et al., 1997). 1995) (Figure 43.3).
Outcomes and conclusions Ride control
The analysis’s findings are presented in the literature Every vehicle has a ride frequency based on the sus-
review, which validates the efficacy of the method by pension design, in which delay place the important
330 Design and performance analysis of electric shock absorbers
Figure 43.2 Valve before rotation
Figure 43.5 Controller
Foundation
Matlab is one of the dominant analysis software
where we can perform our concept analysis theo-
retically with high precision, here we will be using
Figure 43.3 Valve after rotation Simulink as a floor to analyses our model which is an
tool in the Matlab.
(1)
This system is of second order. This means that the
system involves two integrators.
(2)
(3)
(4)
Figure 43.4 Ride frequency estimation (5)
role in the stability of the vehicle and the exact ride Output equation
frequency will determines the comfort (Tran et al.,
2022) (Figure 43.4). (6)
Ride frequency of the front and the back wheel can
be controlled by changing the damping ratio which is Using these equations, MATLAB model is made and
done using the valve rotation. When the delay between separated in to various subsystem for further analysis
the front and the back wheel is reduced damping will (Figure 43.6).
happen in the same proportion which can give a good
vehicle dynamic (Figure 43.5).
Result
Also, various dynamics of the vehicle is considered
for designing the PID controller so that the perfor- Analysis of this model is made with some of the base
mance in dynamic condition can be made smooth and assumption which are, the mass is set to be 200 kg
effective. and spring rate is set to be 32 N/mm, damping ratio
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 331
was changed in four scenarios which is because when discussed when the valve rotates the damping will be
the valve rotates the hole size will vary leading to changing. The results prove that we can change the
change in damping ratio damping based on load applied and the required com-
From Figure 43.7 we can see that damping fre- fort of the passenger. In practical condition damping
quency of the various damping condition as we will not be constant throughout the motion based on
Figure 43.6 Circuit diagram
Figure 43.7 Damping
332 Design and performance analysis of electric shock absorbers
the load factor it will vary for matching the required suspension system. This system can detect and react
damping, we can rotate the valve and try to match to various driving conditions, ensuring optimal per-
the damping value which is required. Dampers are formance while maintaining consistent ride quality.
normally inside the spring which has compression Energy efficiency: The integration of low-voltage
and rebound, however, during the rebound its good stepper motor technology minimizes power con-
if the spring is capable of returning faster. If there is sumption. This energy-efficient design aligns with the
over damping while returning it may cause failure of industry’s push toward sustainable solutions without
the shock absorbers, here we can change the damp- compromising on performance.
ing even while rebound which will helps the spring to Universal application: While luxury cars have his-
return faster. torically featured variable output shock absorbers,
this technology’s universal application opens doors
Features for standardizing advanced suspension systems across
The concept of electric shock absorbers with variable a wider range of vehicles. This democratization of
outputs introduces a host of features that promise to enhanced dynamics marks a significant shift in the
revolutionize the realm of vehicle dynamics and rede- automotive landscape.
fine the driving experience across all vehicle types.
These features not only enhance comfort but also Conclusion
contribute to unprecedented levels of stability, con-
trol, and adaptability: In the pursuit of refining vehicle dynamics and rei-
Dynamic damping control: Electric shock absorb- magining the driving experience, the concept of elec-
ers with variable outputs enable real-time adjust- tric shock absorbers with variable outputs emerges
ments to the damping characteristics. This dynamic as a pivotal innovation. This research delves into
control allows the vehicle’s suspension system to uncharted territory, unearthing the potential to trans-
adapt instantly to changing road conditions, provid- form how vehicles interact with the road and how
ing a smoother ride and improved handling. passengers perceive the journey.
Tailored ride comfort: The ability to adjust damp- The features outlined above underscore the trans-
ing ratios based on load conditions, road surfaces, formative impact of this technology, transcending
and driving speeds offers personalized ride comfort to traditional limitations and offering a comprehensive
passengers. This feature transcends the one-size-fits- solution to the challenges posed by varying road con-
all approach of traditional shock absorbers, ensuring ditions and driving scenarios. By harnessing the power
that each journey is optimized for comfort. of dynamic damping control, this innovation bridges
Enhanced stability: By synchronizing the damping the gap between comfort and performance, creating
characteristics of the front and rear wheels, electric a harmonious synergy that benefits both driver and
shock absorbers enhance vehicle stability. This syn- passengers. Furthermore, the universal application of
chronicity mitigates unwanted oscillations, mini- this technology goes beyond luxury vehicles, extend-
mizing body roll during cornering, and providing a ing its advantages to a broader spectrum of automo-
heightened sense of control to the driver. biles. This democratization of advanced suspension
Optimized performance: Electric shock absorbers systems not only enhances driving experiences but
allow for optimized performance in various driving also democratizes safety and comfort, affirming its
scenarios. Whether navigating through city traffic, role in shaping the future of transportation. As elec-
cruising on highways, or tackling challenging terrains, tric shock absorbers with variable outputs pave the
the damping characteristics can be fine-tuned for opti- way for a new era in vehicular comfort, stability,
mal handling and response. and control, the potential for continued innovation
Responsive handling: The dynamic adjustment of and refinement remains vast. With the convergence
damping ratios results in improved responsiveness of technology, engineering expertise, and a commit-
to driver inputs. Quick adjustments to damping in ment to improving mobility, this concept propels the
response to sudden maneuvers enhance the vehi- automotive industry toward a horizon where every
cle’s agility, making it more predictable and safer to journey is defined by harmony, performance, and an
handle. unparalleled connection between driver, vehicle, and
Decreased vibration: Vibrations transmitted from the road.
the road to the vehicle’s chassis are greatly reduced by
the variable dampening function. The ride is smoother References
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44 Integrating metaverse and blockchain for transparent and
secure logistics management
A.U. Nwosu1, S.B. Goyal2,a, Anand Singh Rajawat3, Baharu Bin Kemat4
and Wan Md Afnan Bin Wan Mahmood5
City University, Petaling Jaya, 46100, Malaysia
1,2,4,5
3
School of Computer Science & Engineering, Sandip University, Nashik, Maharastra, India
Abstract
The logistics industry plays an essential role in global commerce by ensuring goods’efficient movement and transportation
across various supply chains. However, as the logistics network keeps expanding due to the emergence of e-commerce, tradi-
tional logistics management systems face challenges related to maintaining transparency and security. Integrating blockchain
with the metaverse can revolutionize and offer solutions to the issues mentioned earlier. Blockchain is an immutable and
decentralized technology disrupting operations in different areas such as healthcare, banking, smart city, and logistics. This
paper aims to address the abovementioned problem in real-life computer interaction scenarios. It highlights the potential
benefits of integrating metaverse in logistics. It proposes a blockchain-based logistics management system with the meta-
verse’s immersive virtual environment to enhance the security and transparency of logistics management systems. The system
efficacy was tested based on privacy, security, latency and throughput. The proposed approach is more secure and efficient
compared with the existing system.
Keywords: Metaverse, blockchain technology, logistics management, transparency, virtual reality, augmentative reality, smart
contract
Introduction This study highlights the metaverse’s characteristics
and presents the metaverse’s opportunities in lo-
The logistics industry is characterized by complex net-
gistics operations.
works involving multiple stakeholders and many data
It highlights the challenges of integrating metaverse in
exchanges (Kasemsap, 2017). Conventional logistics
logistics management.
management systems need help to provide adequa-
This study proposed a metaverse-based logistics man-
tesecurity, transparency, and end-to-end visibility
agement system integrating blockchain technol-
(Waters, 2018). This inadequacy sometimes leads
ogy for the security and transparency of logistics
to fraud inefficiencies, creating delays and increased
operations.
logistics operations costs. This study integrates block-
In addition, they proposed an algorithm for activating
chain-based logistics management systems in a meta-
the customer environment for inquiries.
verse environment to address these issues. Metaverse
Furthermore, the performance evaluation of the pro-
is a virtual reality environment that intertwines with
posed system was tested based on the following
the physical world (Weinberger, 2022). It has gained
metrics: latency and throughput.
significant attention in recent years (Lin et al., 2023).
It offers unique opportunities for enhanced visibility,
communication, and immersive experiences. The inte-
Study organization
gration of blockchain technology with metaverse, on
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: This
the other hand, presents a decentralized and transpar-
paper presents the background, which consists of the
ent platform for secure data sharing and transactions
definition of the metaverse and its characteristics, the
in a virtual reality environment. The integration of a
opportunities of metaverse in logistics operation, the
blockchain-based logistics management system in a
challenges of metaverse integrated logistics, and the
metaverse has the potential to address the lack of effi-
definitionof blockchain and intelligent contract logis-
ciency, transparency, and security challenges of logis-
tics automation. Following this it discussed the related
tics operations.
works on applying metaverse in different domains.
The proposed work –architecture and the proposed
Contribution of study
algorithm of the proposed work is discussed. Finally
The following is the contribution of this paper:
drsbgoyal@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 335
the paper concludes the study and provides a future Interconnectivity: The metaverse comprises inter-
research agenda and scope. connected virtual spaces, often called “worlds” or
“domains.”Individuals, organizations, or communi-
Background ties can create these spaces, which can be linked to-
gether, allowing users to navigate between different
Definition and characteristics of metaverse virtual environments seamlessly.
Metaverse is a collective virtual shared space cre- User-generated content: Users play a crucial role in
ated by converging virtually enhanced physical real- shaping and expanding the metaverse through creat-
ity and physically persistent virtual reality (Khattar ing and sharing content. They can build virtual ob-
et al., 2020; Ritterbusch et al., 2023). It is also an jects, environments, and experiences, contributing to
immersive, interconnected, and interactive virtual the richness and diversity of the virtual universe.
universe where users can engage with each other and
the virtual environment in real time. The Metaverse Real-time interaction: The metaverse enables real-
can be accessed through various devices such as vir- time interaction and communication among users. It
tual reality headsets, augmented reality glasses, com- includes voice and text-based chat, virtual meetings,
puters, and mobile devices. Figure 44.1 depicts the collaborative workspaces, and social interactions,
architecture and layers of the metaverse (Al-Ghaili et fostering a sense of presence and social connection
al.,2022). within the virtual environment.
The following are the characteristics of a metaverse. Cross-platform accessibility: The metaverse aims to
be accessible across different platforms and devices,
Immersion: Metaverse provides a highly immersive ensuring users can engage with the virtual world re-
experience by simulating a three-dimensional envi- gardless of their chosen hardware or operating sys-
ronment where users can navigate and interact. It of- tem.
ten incorporates virtual reality (VR) and augmented
reality (AR) elements to create a sense of presence Opportunities of metaverse in logistics operations
within the virtual world. Metaverse has the capability of optimizing and
enhancing logistics operations. This immersive tech-
Shared space: The metaverse is where multiple users
nology offers unique opportunities to improve effi-
can interact and collaborate. Users can communicate
ciency, training, visualization, and decision-making
with each other, engage in activities, and create con-
processes within the logistics industry. Here are some
tent within the virtual environment.
critical potential metaverse in logistics operations:
Persistence: The metaverse maintains a persistent ex-
istence, meaning it continues to exist and evolve even Training and simulation: Metaverse can be used
when users are not actively present. User changes per- to create realistic and interactive training simula-
sist over time, allowing for the development of a dy- tions for logistics personnel. It includes training for
namic and evolving virtual world. warehouse workers, truck drivers, and other logistics
Figure 44.1 The architecture and layers of the metaverse
336 Integrating metaverse and blockchain for transparent and secure logistics management
professionals. By providing a safe and controlled envi- a. Data security and privacy: Logistics manage-
ronment, trainees can practice tasks, learn operational ment involves exchanging sensitive information,
procedures, and improve their skills without needing including shipment details, customer data, and
physical resources or putting valuable goods at risk. financial transactions. Integrating the metaverse
Warehouse management: Metaverse can provide introduces new security risks, as virtual environ-
warehouse workers with real-time information and ments may become vulnerable to hacking, data
guidance. Using AR-enabled smart glasses or devices, breaches, and unauthorized access.
workers can see digital overlays of product loca- b. Interoperability: As the metaverse evolves, vari-
tions, picking instructions, and inventory data, help- ous platforms and technologies emerge, each
ing them navigate the warehouse more efficiently and with its standards and protocols. Ensuring in-
accurately. teroperability between different metaverse sys-
tems and logistics media is critical for seamless
Load planning and cargo visualization: Metaverse
data exchange and collaboration across multiple
can assist load planning by creating 3D virtual rep-
stakeholders.
resentations of cargo and containers. Logistics man-
c. Cost and investment: Developing and imple-
agers can visually inspect how items fit together and
menting a metaverse logistics management sys-
ensure optimal use of available space in containers or
tem can be costly, especially for smaller logistics
trucks, reducing wastage and minimizing the risk of
companies. The expenses associated with hard-
damage during transit.
ware, software, training, and maintenance may
Last-mile delivery optimization: Metaverse can aid present a barrier to entry for some organizations.
delivery drivers in finding the most efficient routes Balancing the potential benefits with the initial
and locating specific delivery addresses. The AR navi- investment is a crucial consideration.
gation can overlay directions onto the driver’s field of d. Scalability: As logistics operations scale up and
view, allowing them to stay focused on the road while more users join the metaverse system, the in-
receiving real-time navigation updates. frastructure needs to accommodate increased
Remote assistance and collaboration: The AR com- demand and maintain a consistent level of per-
ponent of metaverse facilitates remote collaboration formance. Scalability challenges may arise, re-
and assistance for logistics professionals. For exam- quiring continuous monitoring and adjustments
ple, experts can use AR technology to guide on-site to handle growing user loads.
workers through complex repair or maintenance
procedures, reducing downtime and increasing opera- All these challenges can be addressed by leveraging
tional efficiency. blockchain-based solutions in logistics management
Quality control and inspection: Metaverse can be in a metaverse environment.
used for the virtual inspection of goods, especially in
cases where the physical presence of an inspector is Overview of blockchain
challenging or costly. It can improve the accuracy and Blockchain is a disruptive decentralized technol-
speed of quality control processes in logistics. ogy that enables secure, transparent, and immutable
transaction records (Zheng et al., 2017). Each block
Real-time tracking and supply chain visualization:
in the blockchain records information and is linked
Metaverse an immersive view of the entire supply
together using cryptographic techniques (Swan,2017).
chain, allowing logistics managers to monitor ship-
Blockchain has gained significant popularity with
ments, track goods in real-time, and identify potential
the rise of cryptocurrencies, most notably Bitcoin
bottlenecks or delays.
(Leekha,2018). It has been applied beyond digital
Customer experience: In the context of e-commerce currencies like healthcare, smart cities, and supply
and retail logistics, AR can enhance the customer chain management. Figure 44.2 depicts the transac-
experience by enabling virtual try-ons, product visual- tion process of blockchain technology.
ization, and interactive shopping experiences, increas-
ing customer satisfaction and reducing the likelihood Smart contract and logistics automation
of product returns. Smart contracts have the potential to revolutionize
logistics automation by introducing trust, transpar-
Challenges of logistics integrated metaverse ency, and efficiency into various aspects of the supply
Integrating the metaverse and logistics management chain. A smart contract is a self-executing program
system holds great promise, but it also comes with with the terms of the agreement directly written into
several challenges that must be addressed for suc- code (Li et al., 2020). Once the pre-defined condi-
cessful implementation. Some of the key challenges tions are met, the contract automatically executes the
include (Allam et al., 2022) are as follows: specified actions without intermediaries or manual
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 337
(Iakovlev et al.,2021). If the pre-defined temper-
ature range is breached, the contract can trigger
alerts or take corrective actions automatically.
g. Sustainability and carbon tracking: Smart con-
tracts can facilitate the tracking and recording
of carbon emissions and environmental impact
throughout the supply chain (Marenkovic et al.,
2021). It enables companies to measure their
sustainability efforts accurately and make data-
driven decisions to reduce their carbon footprint.
Figure 44.2 The transaction process of blockchain
Related work
intervention. The following list explains how intelli- Metaverse and blockchain are disruptive tech-
gent contracts can enhance logistics automation: nologies, but integrating blockchain-based meta-
verse technology in logistics is a relatively new era.
a. Supply chain visibility: Smart contracts can auto- However, some work has been done on the domain.
mate the tracking and tracing of goods through- For example, Kamble et al. (2022) present a review
out the supply chain (Rejeb et al., 2021). They on integrating digital twins with logistics and supply
can monitor the movement of shipments and chain management with digital twins. This study pro-
update their status in real-time on the block- vided the foundation for understanding how block-
chain (Wang et al., 2018). This enhanced visibil- chain can improve the traceability and security of
ity improves supply chain transparency. It helps logistics operations but does not integrate metaverse.
identify potential delays or disruptions promptly Subramanian et al. (2020) presented a fourth-party
(Wang et al., 2022). logistics with blockchain. This study investigates the
b. Automated payments: In logistics, multiple par- use of blockchain technology in the context of fourth-
ties are involved in transporting and delivering party logistics. It highlights how blockchain-based
goods. Smart contracts can automate payment smart contracts can streamline container shipping
processes based on pre-defined conditions, such operations and improve trust among various stake-
as successful delivery or verification of specific holders, but it does explore the metaverse.
milestones. A smart contract can also reduce ad- In addition, Paliwal et al. (2020) presented a new
ministrative overhead, minimize payment pro- blockchain-based framework for robust logistics.
cessing delays, and ensure timely compensation This article discussed the potential and challenges
for service providers. of implementing blockchain in logistics but does
c. Smart warehouses: Smart contracts can be uti- not involve metaverse. Tan et al. (2023) designed a
lized to automate various warehouse operations. metaverse-based logistics and marketing. The work
For example, they can manage inventory levels, provides insight into how metaverse can be integrated
automatically trigger restocking orders when into logistics and marketing. Roy et al. (2023) dis-
inventory runs low, and coordinate order fulfill- cussed the integration of blockchain-based metaverse
ment processes efficiently. in teaching, but it does not explicitly address logis-
d. Carrier agreements and routing: Smart contracts tics. Table 44.1 critically analyses the related works
can streamline choosing carriers and determin- on blockchain-based logistics in a metaverse environ-
ing optimal routes. They can evaluate multiple ment. Finally, Ali et al. (2023) and Gera et al. (2021)
factors, such as cost, delivery time, and carrier proposed a blockchain-based AI metaverse in the
reputation, to select the most suitable transport healthcare system.
for each shipment. Based on this literature and related work, work
e. Escrow and dispute resolution: Smart contracts needs to be done on integrating blockchain and meta-
can act as automated escrow services, holding verse in logistics to improve security and transparency
funds until pre-defined conditions are met. In in logistics management systems.
disputes, the agreement can facilitate automated
arbitration, reducing the time and costs associ- Proposed work
ated with conflict resolution.
f. Temperature and quality monitoring: In indus- In this section, we present the architecture of the pro-
tries with temperature-sensitive goods, intelli- posed metaverse-based logistics management system
gent contracts can automate the monitoring of integrating blockchain technology, the proposed algo-
temperature conditions during transportation rithms and the experiment environment setup.
338 Integrating metaverse and blockchain for transparent and secure logistics management
Table 44.1 Comparative analysis of existing work with limitations
Authors Domain Limitations
Kamble et al., 2022 Digital twin integration with logistic supply Metaverse was not integrated into the system
chain
Subramanian et al., 2020 Blockchain smart contract-based fourth party No integration of metaverse
logistics
Paliwal et al., 2020 Blockchain-based robust framework No integration of metaverse environment
Tan et al., 2023 Metaverse-based logistics and marketing This work did not integrate blockchain
Roy et al., 2023 Metaverse based on teaching This work does not focus on logistics
management
Ali et al., 2023 Blockchain-based and AI metaverse in the This work does not focus on the logistics
healthcare system system
environment. All the customer records are stored in
the block and linked in a blockchain. The blockchain
creation for a customer is shown in Equation 1.
Tn = [Cid, Ts, Dsig(C)](1)
where Tn: Transaction, C_id: Customer ID, Ts:
Timestamped, DSign(C): Digital customer signature.
Transporter environment: The transporter registers
first and is assigned with T_id. When they sign in, they
can interact within the virtual environment. A block-
chain is created when a transporter enters the envi-
ronment; all the record of the customer is stored in
Figure 44.3 The architecture of blockchain-based lo- the block and linked in a blockchain. The blockchain
gistics management metaverse system creation for the transporter is shown in Equation 2.
Tn = [Tid, Ts, Dsig(T)](2)
System architecture
The proposed system provides virtual logistics ser- where Tn: Transaction, T_id: Transporter ID, Ts:
vices with immersive experiences for real-time track- Timestamped, DSign(T): Digital signature of the
ing of goods and monitoring the warehouse remotely. transporter.
Figure 44.3 depicts the proposed system architecture. Manufacturer environment: The manufacturer reg-
Blockchain is used to store and transfer data to main- isters first and is assigned with M_id. When they
tain logistics data security. Blockchain helps to foster sign in, they can interact within the virtual environ-
transparency and trust, developing trust among cus- ment. A blockchain is created when the manufacturer
tomers. The customers and logistics entities can be enters the environment. All the customer records are
assigned user IDs after successfully registering. stored in the block and linked in a blockchain. The
Note: LCA is a logistics company Avatar, WA; blockchain creation for a manufacturer is shown in
Warehouse Avatar, GA: Goods Avatar and CA: Equation 3.
Customer Avatar.
The proposed architecture comprises four envi-
ronments: the customer environment, the virtual or Tn = [M_id, Ts, Dsig(M)](3)
metaverse environment, the transporter, and the man-
ufacturer environment. where Tn: Transaction, M_id: Manufacturer ID,
Ts: Timestamped, DSig(M): Digital manufacturer
Customer environment: The customer registers first signature.
and is assigned with user_id. When they sign in, Metaverse environment: This is the primary immer-
they can interact within the virtual environment. A sive environment of the proposed system. All the
blockchain is created when a customer enters the logistics entities’avatar is created here. The customer
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 339
inquiry about the condition and location of goods Table 44.2 Tools and specifications
is done. Here, the goods also have their avatar. The
[Link]. Tools Specifications
manufacturer can request the state and condition of
the warehouse, and the transporter can have a video 1 Remix IDE Intel (R) core of i5
monitoring of the goods while on the road. All data 8250U
created during the transaction is stored in the block- 2 Solidity 0.7.0
chain repository.
3 Decentral and explore Intel HD/UHD 9th gen
Algorithms of the proposed system 4 Window 11, personal 1.6 GHz, 8 GB of RAM,
computer with a 64-bit operating
Algorithm 1: Activation of customer environment and system
customer inquiry
Input: Customer, Transporter, Manufacturer,
Output: Activation of Metaverse Environment and
with the physical environment. Table 44.2 depicts the
Initiation of Customer Logistics Inquiries
specifications of deployed tools.
1: Procedure: Blockchain_LogisticMeta ()
2: if (C_ID== True) then Results and analysis
3: Display the avatar of the Customer
This section presents the proposed system’s simula-
4: else
tion results and the proposed system’s evaluation of
5: Display customer does not exist
the existing system. Figure 44.4 depicts the simulation
6: if (CP= true), then
results of the proposed approach.
7: Execute _contract (for the Customer)
8: Setup Customer Virtual Environment
Privacy and security evaluation
9: else
The privacy and security evaluation of the proposed
10: return to none
system is tested based on the following cyber threats:
10: end if
11: end Insider attack: This attack occurs when a logistics user
Note: CP= Customer private key accesses private data or information without legiti-
macy. The system protects against this attack, which
hashes the data while transmitted along the network.
Algorithm 1 shows the flow of information in both
blockchain and logistics metaverse. When a customer DDoS attack: This attack occurs when an adversary
inquires about the status of his goods from the logis- floods the system network with malicious code to
tics company, the system first conforms to the authen- shut and breach the communication channel. The
ticity of the customer. Customers who need to register proposed system mitigates this attack using a decen-
will be redirected to register with the system. The cus- tralized node and consensus mechanism.
tomer smart contract can only be executed when the One-point-of-failure attack: The attack happens
private key is correct, and the interaction of custom- when the system gets corrupted or compromised by
ers with the logistics company will be in the virtual introducing a corrupted device, halting the whole
environment. The customer can track the location of system. The system protects against this attack using
goods virtually. Once the inquiry is completed, it will decentralized nodes and device authentication.
be stored in the blockchain, and the environment will
disappear. Performance evaluation
Furthermore, other logistics stakeholderslike trans- The performance evaluation of the proposed sys-
porters and manufacturers follow the same pattern to tem was tested based on two metrics: latency and
activate their environment. throughput.
Experiment environment setup Latency: This refers to the time frame between trans-
The experiment aims to implement the proposed sys- action initiation and transaction completion time.
tem (blockchain-based metaverse integrated logistics Table 44.3 depicts the latency result of the registra-
management system) that will enhance real-time data tion process between the proposed and existing logis-
sharing and security in logistics operations. The smart tics systems.
contracts are created using the solidity version and
deployed using Remix IDE. The decentral platform Figure 44.5 shows the analysis of latency results.
makes a virtual representation of the logistics system. It shows that the proposed system has higher latency
Web 3.0 is used to connect the virtual environments than the existing baseline system.
340 Integrating metaverse and blockchain for transparent and secure logistics management
Figure 44.4 Simulations results
Table 44.3 Latency results between the proposed system Table 44.4 Throughput comparison between the baseline
and the existing system system and the proposed system
Smart Contract Logistic system Proposed No of Logistic system Proposed
transaction time(s) systemtime (s) registration time(s) systemtime (s)
Create an account () 7.1 5.5 5 5.5 7.1
Add product () 12.0 9.8 10 9.8 12
Data retrieval () 17.4 15.1 15 15.1 17.4
20 23.9 24.8
25 30.1 32.1
Figure 44.5 Latency comparison Figure 44.6 Throughput comparison
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 341
Table 44.5 Comparative analysis of existing metaverse- References
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45 A systematic study of multiple cardiac diseases by using
algorithms of machine learning
Prachi Pundhir1 and Dhowmya Bhatt2,a
Research Scholar, Department of CSE, Faculty of Engineering and Technology SRM Institute of Science and Technology
1
Delhi-NCR Campus, Delhi-Meerut Road, Modinagar, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
2
Assistant professor, Department of I.T., ABESEC Ghaziabad, India and Professor, Department of CSE, Faculty of
Engineering and Technology SRM Institute of Science and Technology Delhi-NCR Campus, Delhi-Meerut Road,
Modinagar, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
Abstract
The research aims to identify the algorithms and techniques that have been applied to the identification of heart disease.
Since there are more and more occurrences of heart disease every day, it is important and difficult to anticipate any
prospective problems. This diagnosis is a difficult task that demands precision and effectiveness. The early detection
of cardiovascular diseases depends on heart sound analysis. Practically speaking, the advancement of computer-based
heart sound analysis is appealing. This paper is the survey of different algorithms and approaches that can be used to
find heart disease and there can be various attributes for the same like speed, accuracy. The suggested method focuses
on automatically classifying phonocardiogram (PCG) data after removing noise using a convolution neural network in
order to lessen the need on skilled medical professionals for heart sound detection. Algorithms that are compared in this
paper are support vector machine (SVM), convolutional neural network (CNN) with and without augmentation. Because
of their ability to analyze images accurately, CNN have quickly attracted the interest of researchers and medical profes-
sionals. In order to diagnose cardiovascular disease, this study sought to design a system that combines various machine
learning techniques, such as K-nearest Neighbor, Naive Byes, linear regression, decision tree, Alex-Net, ensemble learning
and random forest.
Hence this paper gives a relative study of numerous approaches that were used to classify and detect cardiac diseases.
Keywords: Cardiac diseases, SVM, Naïve-Bayes, Alex-Net, CNN with and without augmentation
Introduction Heart diseases also known as cardiovascular dis-
eases describe a range of conditions that can majorly
The management and retrieval of implicit, previously affect the heart and they are:
unknown, or known data files that may be important
is called machine learning (ML). Machine learning is Diseases related to blood vessels
a complex and broad field, and its applications and Congenital heart effects
evolution are continuous. Machine learning uses vari- Cardiac arrhythmias
ous classes of supervised, unsupervised, and relational Diseases of heart valves
learning to predict and evaluate the accuracy of given Diseases of heart muscle
data. Today’s cardiovascular disorders include a wide Infection in heart
range of conditions that could harm your heart. In year
2019, a total of 393.11 million individuals worldwide The type of cardiac issue we have determines the
pass away from cardiovascular disease, according to heart disease symptom. Until we experience a heart
the World Health Organization (Tang et al., 2018). attack, stroke, heart failure, or angina, we may not
It is the main reason why adults die. By examining a be identified with coronary artery disease. One type
medical history of different person belonging to dif- of heart disease, coronary artery disease (CAD), is
ferent demographic Location, technique used in the characterized by the provision of oxygen and blood
paper can identify who is most likely to be diagnosed flow to the heart. Low blood flow to the heart is the
with a heart condition (Son et al., 2018). It can assist primary cause of angina and heart attacks. Two dif-
in diagnosing disease with fewer medical tests and ferent types of components are greatly impacted by
efficient treatments in order to appropriately treat cardiac ailments. Smoking, high blood pressure, high
patients. It can be used to recognize someone display- cholesterol, obesity, bad diet, diabetics, depression,
ing any heart disease symptoms, such as chest pain or and stress are among the altered factors. The second is
high blood pressure (Figure 45.1). constant risk variables, such as age, gender, genetics,
a
dhowmyab@[Link]
344 A systematic study of multiple cardiac diseases by using algorithms
and race. Various survey findings stated that heart ill-
nesses cannot be identified just on their symptoms.
The numerous hospitals, medical facilities, and an
organization generate and process a vast amount of
data. The information cannot be used in a specific way,
and the crucial information can be processed and man-
aged in a clinical decision support system in the future.
The hidden features in the data may be overlooked
by the doctors when analyzing it. Unwanted biases
and incorrect disease classification are the results. The
Figure 45.1 2022 leading cause of death
Figure 45.2 Number of deaths by cause, World 2019
Figure 45.3 Share of total disease burden by cause, World 2019
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 345
cost of medical care and the standard of care given to These PCG signals are shown visually in five dif-
patients may be impacted by this. Therefore, we must ferent forms in the following example in Figure 45.4.
create a productive system for reducing human mis- The rest of the article is organized as follows: The
take and raising patient care quality. This is possible by related work in the field of cardiac diseases. Followed
fusing computer decision support systems with medi- by conclusion and future work.
cal decision support systems (Figures 45.2 and 45.3).
Cardiac diseases are serious and need to be accu- Related work in the field of cardiac diseases
rately recognized at an early stage utilizing routine
auscultation tests. Heart auscultation is a crucial In this section we define the objective and technique
component of a heart examination used in medicine used, and accuracy achieved.
to detect early-stage cardiac disorders. Cardiac aus- In paper by Baghel et al. (2020), convolutional neu-
cultation is a technique for listening and analyzing ral network also knows as CNN model is used in the
to heart sounds (Baghel et al., 2020). Human cardiac proposed system because of its excellent accuracy and
auscultations are examined with a stethoscope. A robustness in autonomously diagnosing cardiac dis-
traditional stethoscope is used in clinical settings to eases from heart sounds. In order to improve precision
examine the health of a human heart. It is a simple, in a noisy environment and make the system resilient.
effective method that also costs nothing computation- For multi-classification and training 2124qof various
ally, but understanding and interpreting heart sounds cardiac conditions, the proposed method has utilized
requires medical training (Leatham, 1975). data augmentation techniques.
Clinical interpretation of the cardiac auscultations Results of this paper are – N-fold cross-valida-
may only be done by a qualified medical specialist. tion and both heart sound data were used to vali-
We will use ML-based automatic classification system date the model with enriched data. All fold’s results
based on heart sounds to diagnose cardiac disorders. have been displayed and published in this work. The
Computerized heart sound recording is known as model utilized in this study had a 98.60% accuracy
a phonocardiogram, or PCG. phonocardiography rate on tests designed to identify numerous heart
(PCG). PCG is a non-invasive, cost-effective method disorders
of recording heart impulses. In paper by Tang et al. (2018), the support vector
A number of cardiovascular disease (CVD) sig- machine (SVM) classifier’s powerful classification
nals, such as mitral stenosis (MS) aortic stenosis (AS) ability is demonstrated by the characteristics. The
mitral regurgitation (MR) and mitral valve prolapse outcomes demonstrate that the overall score which
(MVP), can be diagnosed using PCG signals. was determined by 200 independent simulations,
Figure 45.4 Utilizing a phonogram (Baghel et al., 2020) signals from the current CVD classes. (a) Aortic stenosis (AS),
(b) Mitral regurgitation (MR), (c) Mitral stenosis (MS), (d) Mitral valve prolapse (MVP) and (e) Normal
346 A systematic study of multiple cardiac diseases by using algorithms
is 0.880.02, which is comparable to the perfor- study combined with a traditional feature engineering
mance of the previous top classification techniques. technique. In the beginning, 497 characteristics were
Furthermore, the SVM classifier performs admirably yielded by 8 domains.
with even a minimal number of training features and To obtain global information about features and
consistently produces reliable results with randomly avoid over fitting. The features are embedded into the
chosen training features. Five hundred and fifteen built-in CNN which is usually used before the clas-
features used in this study are time interval, state sification layer but excludes all connected processes
amplitude, energy, high-order statistics, cepstrum, fre- involving the global average layer.
quency spectrum, cyclostationarity, and entropy. The To enhance the effectiveness of the classification
frequency spectrum features have the greatest classifi- method, the class weights of the loss function were
cation-contributing value, according to a correlation set in the training phase while accounting for the
analysis between the features and the target label. class imbalance. The effectiveness of the suggested
Haya Alaskar et al. (2019) and Gera et al. (2021) technique was assessed using stratified 5-fold cross-
data gathered from the 2016 PhysioNet/CinC chal- validation. Matthews correlation coefficient, mean
lenge dataset. In these papers, it examines the perfor- accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity, respectively,
mance of a CNN named AlexNet, concentrating on 72.1%, 86.8%, 87%, and 86.6% on the PhysioNet/
two methods for identifying abnormalities in PCG CinC challenge 2016 dataset. The proposed method
signals. Heart sound recordings from both clinical performs well in terms of sensitivity and specificity.
and non-clinical settings are included in this dataset. In a paper by Abbas et al. (2022), using a unique
Our thorough simulation findings showed that 87% attention-based technique, CVT-Trans also known
recognition accuracy was reached utilizing AlexNet as as convolutional vision transformer recognizes and
the feature extractor and SVM as the classifier. This is classifies PCG signals majorly in five groups. The
an improvement of 85% accuracy attained by end-to- CWTS also known as continuous wavelet transform-
end learning AlexNet in contrast to the benchmarked based spectrogram method was used to extract fea-
methodologies. tures from the PCG data. Accuracy of 100%, SE of
In a work done by Li et al. (2020), cardiac diseases 99.00%, SP of 99.5%, and F1-score of 98% indicate
are diagnosed using heart sound as a key component. the overall average accuracy.
Experts struggle and take a lot of time to distinguish In a work did by Son et al. (2018) explains that
between various heart sounds because of the low sig- 97% accuracy rate is achieved for diagnosing patients
nal-to-noise ratio (SNR). The scientific classification with heart problems. Mel frequency cepstral coeffi-
of heart sounds is therefore necessary. To automati- cient, discrete wavelets transform, and centroid dis-
cally distinguish between normal and diseased heart placement-based k-nearest neighbor features of the
sounds, we used deep learning algorithms in this heart sound signal were used to extract features, while
Table 45.1 Comparisons of previous studies on classification of cardiac diseases.
Reference Objective Technique used Accuracy
[1] Cardiac disorders detection using multi- CNN with augmentation Accuracy achieved – 96.23%
classification algorithm CNN without augmentation Accuracy achieved – 98.60%
[2] Binary classification between abnormal SVM Accuracy – 88%
sounds and normal PCG signals
[3] Binary classification between abnormal AlexNet, SVM Accuracy – 87.65%
sounds and normal PCG signals
[4] Using PCG signals classification between Ensemble of a feature Accuracy – 86.02%
normal and abnormal sounds engineering method, deep
learning algorithm
[5] Cardiac disorders detection using multi- Deep learning Accuracy – 100%
classification algorithm SE – 99.00%
SP – 99.5%
F1-score – 98%, based on
10-fold cross validation
[6] Heart diseases detection using multi- MFCC’c Accuracy – 97%
classification algorithm DWT (using SVM and
DWT)
[7] Several heart diseases detection using a multi- SVM, K-NN Accuracy – 97.78%
classification algorithm
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 347
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sification using SVM and discrete wavelets transform Liu. (2018). PCG classification using multidomain fea-
tures and SVM classifier. BioMed research internation-
(DWT), we merged Mel frequency cepstral coefficient
al, Vol. 2018. [Link]
and DWT features. This improved the results and
Alaskar, H., Alzhrani, N., Hussain, A., and Almarshed, F.
classification accuracy. Results can be significantly (2019). The implementation of pretrained AlexNet on
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tion via SVM, DNN, and k-nearest neighbor (KNN). Li, F., Tang, H., Shang, S., Mathiak, K., Cong, F. Clas-
In a paper by Yadav et al. (2019), uses heart sounds sification of heart sounds using convolutional neu-
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physically works. for the classification of abnormal M., Thakur, D. (2021). Dominant feature selection
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46 Forecasting mobile prices: Harnessing the power of
machine learning algorithms
Parveen Badoni1,a, Rahul Kumar2, Parvez Rahi3, Ajay Pal Singh Yadav4 and
Siroj Kumar Singh5
Department of CSE, Chandigarh University Mohali, Punjab, India
1,2,3,4
5
Department of CSE, HMRITM, Hamidpur, New Delhi, India
Abstract
The primary objective of this paper is to forecast optimal prices for top-tier smartphones, while considering their available
features. Our approach involves the development of a machine learning (ML)-based price range prediction model, which
harnesses various algorithmic techniques applied to an extensive dataset. This model generates comprehensive data visual-
ization, aiding decision-making processes. Additionally, our proposed model facilitates market analysis within the sector
by comparing its accuracy against other models. For instance, numerous companies engaged in the purchase of pre-owned
mobile phones employ their proprietary models. Users can cross-reference these models with ours to pinpoint the most suit-
able price for their mobile devices. The accuracy level can be gauged against alternative models to obtain the most reliable
results. Our research encompasses a wide array of features and events to predict mobile phone prices, thereby addressing
buyer concerns and simplifying their quest for smartphones within their budgetary constraints.
Keywords: Machine learning, mobile prices, linear regression, predictive model, KNN, SVM, smart phone prices
Introduction The regression plot demonstrates whether or not the
residual values are regularly distributed (Noor and
Our dataset is sourced from Kaggle, supplemented
Jan, 2017). Using the test dataset, the random for-
with user-selected data to enhance the realism and
est regression technique showed the highest accu-
accuracy of our model. In the ever-evolving mobile
racy (Saini and Kaur, 2023). This classification will
market, new devices boasting updated software and
help consumers make informed decisions about their
an array of features are introduced daily. Several crit-
mobile device purchases.
ical features play a pivotal role in predicting mobile
pricing. These include the mobile phone’s processor,
camera specifications, RAM capacity, and the pres- Previous work
ence of AI applications. Furthermore, factors such as A captivating avenue of research in the field of
the device’s thickness and size, internal memory, cam- machine learning (ML) involves leveraging past data
era pixel count, and video quality are essential con- to forecast the prices of newly released products. In a
siderations that must be integrated into our dataset 2014 study focused on Mauritius, various techniques,
for effective categorization. In today’s modern age, including decision trees, multiple linear regression,
seamless Internet browsing is another imperative, k-nearest neighbors (KNN), and naive Bayes price
influencing mobile pricing significantly. As a result, prediction, were employed to predict the prices of sec-
the overall price of a mobile phone is influenced by ondhand automobiles. The results yielded by each of
this comprehensive list of features. Decision trees these methods were comparable. However, it’s worth
and naive Bayes’ inability to handle output classes noting that the most commonly used algorithms,
with numerical values is one of their key drawbacks. naive Bayes and decision trees, demonstrated limita-
Therefore, the price attribute had to be divided into tions in handling, classifying, and predicting numeri-
classes that had a range of prices, although this cal data values. This can be attributed, in part, to the
obviously presented more opportunities for error relatively small dataset used, which resulted in low
(Pudaruth, 2006). prediction accuracies.
Trial and error is used to construct the best arti- Mobile phone prices, many like used cars, can be
ficial neural network model (Visit, 2004). Therefore, influenced by unforeseen events such as technological
our objective is to classify mobile devices into cat- breakthroughs, market shifts, and global economic
egories such as expensive, non-expensive, or poten- changes. Consequently, while predictive models can
tially price outliers, leveraging the wealth of features. offer valuable insights, they may not always provide
rir7890@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 349
highly accurate predictions due to the influence of known input and output data, enabling them to pre-
these unpredictable factors. dict future outputs. Unsupervised learning uncovers
Key considerations in the modeling process encom- hidden patterns within the input data, while super-
pass data collection, the identification of significant vised learning identifies and leverages patterns already
features, and a comprehensive analysis of both recent present in the data. Both the data and the computa-
and historical developments within the mobile sector. tional complexity can be decreased through feature
Factors such as the brand’s reputation, economic con- selection. It can also become more effective and iden-
ditions, competitor analysis, regression analysis, and tify the feature subsets that are valuable (Thu Zar and
the application of ML techniques all play pivotal roles Nyein, 2016).
in constructing effective predictive models. These fac- In this research paper, various supervised and unsu-
tors collectively contribute to a more holistic under- pervised learning methods are employed to predict
standing of mobile pricing dynamics. The bulk of this our model. The data is carefully prepared to enhance
research paper is dedicated to the implementation of precision in our model. To collect data for our model,
a judicious selection of variables in mobile valuation specific websites and links are utilized, simplifying the
techniques. This process is instrumental in identifying data acquisition process and allowing for the accumu-
which variables are the most pertinent and appropri- lation of a substantial dataset. The epsilon, polyno-
ate to include in the model. The knowledge acquired mial degree, and gamma are the three most significant
through this research has broader implications, optimum parameter values that evolution strategy
enabling various fields to gain insights into the cir- can converge to more quickly than cost (Listiani et
cumstances that warrant specific studies and the occa- al., 2009).
sions when suitable techniques should be applied. In Within the paper, a variety of ML algorithms are
this dynamic environment, statistical models are more applied, including K-nearest neighbors (KNN), sup-
suited for short-term forecasting because they by defi- port vector machine (SVM), support vector regression
nition reflect actual market results (McMenamin and (SVR), as well as linear and polynomial models. These
Monforte, 2000). diverse algorithms are harnessed to predict the out-
In this context, the primary challenge lies in pre- put within our model. The inclusion of multiple algo-
dicting our model based on both market prices and rithms serves the purpose of enhancing the accuracy
the key features of mobile devices. This is achieved of our model, ensuring a comprehensive approach to
through the utilization of the support vector machine mobile price prediction.
(SVM) concept. Previous research has indicated that,
especially when dealing with large datasets, the SVM data collection
technique outperforms other methods, such as mul-
tiple linear regression, in terms of accuracy for price The dataset includes mobile phones manufactured or
prediction. Using back propagation algorithms to assembled by various companies, including Samsung,
simulate and predict runoff forecasting results and Apple, Google, BBK Electronics Corporation, and
comparing expected forecasting result accuracy with others. Interestingly, whether a mobile phone has a
existing forecasting approaches may ultimately result memory card slot or not is considered a notable fea-
in a more trustworthy data mining strategy (Mishra ture, highlighting the importance of this aspect in the
et al., 2014). dataset.
The central aspect of our mobile prediction model Several features in the dataset have numerical val-
revolves around the unique approach of predicting ues, including display size, thickness, internal memory
mobile prices based on their model names and key size, camera pixel size, RAM size, and battery size.
features, which are available on the internet. This rep- These numerical values offer insights into the specifi-
resents a pivotal distinction, positioning our model cations of the mobile phones.
a step ahead of other predictive mobile models. Figure 46.1 provides a description of the dataset,
While various types of models have been employed including statistical measures such as mean, median, and
for mobile price prediction, many of them fall short count. This information is crucial because it helps assess
in this critical aspect. Although one method that the characteristics and distribution of the data. The bal-
improves prediction performance is data cleansing, ance of the dataset, in terms of these statistical measures,
it is insufficient when dealing with complicated data is used to evaluate the fitness of the data for analysis
sets like the one used in this study (Gegic et al., 2019). and modeling. Ensuring that the data is balanced and
representative is essential in selecting an appropriate
dataset for research, as it can significantly impact the
Methodology
quality and reliability of the results. Therefore, under-
Machine learning employs both supervised and unsu- standing the data’s description and balance is vital for
pervised learning approaches to train models using the data selection process in this research.
350 Forecasting mobile prices: Harnessing the power of machine learning algorithms
Figure 46.1 Data set values without company columns
Figure 46.2 Data set values with company columns
In our research, we’re faced with the challenge of per the price in the online apps. We are using it in our
classifying mobile devices as either very pricey or daily life, which we can use the same in our daily life.
not. However, the continuous and dynamic nature of Now let’s highlight about description or how to take
mobile device prices in our rapidly changing society data. The price of the data here is taken from amazon,
complicates this task. This led us to transform the eBay, Flipkart, etc., are our source of the data that we
regression problem into a classification model. In collected to predict price as per festivals offers and
this classification, we’ve grouped the mobile device normal discounts are given by the apps or by the com-
prices into four classes, although prices are con- panies. All the features are the same, but we added
tinually changing. Both decision trees and the naive more columns predicting our mobile price.
Bayes classifier, however, have a fundamental limita-
tion when it comes to handling output values repre- Dimensionality reducation
sented as classes with numerical values. Therefore,
we had to discretize the pricing attributes into these By acquiring a set of key variables, or features, we
classes, which encompass a range of prices. This dis- design a prediction model by limiting the amount of
cretization introduces new potential sources of error random variables that are taken into consideration.
into our model and other related processes. To eval- Data opening fix technique for important data in the
uate the effectiveness of our model, we have split request to create the partitions required to contain
the data into a training set and a test set. The train- the disaster and provide the missing data (Brar et al.,
ing set is used to train the model, while the test set 2022; Nadeem et al., 2023).
is held separate and not used during training. This Prediction model used in this paper is not totally
approach allows us to assess how well the model practical since it becomes more difficult to present
performs on unseen data, providing a measure of the training set and use that dataset to generate pre-
its generalization and predictive power. A customer dictions the more features there are. Most of these
can be recommended a good product by providing functions can occasionally be redundant because they
an economic range (Muhammad and Khan, 2018) are connected with one another, which can reduce
(Figure 46.2). the model’s accuracy. With the help of dimensionality
Many elements, like memory, display, battery life, reduction algorithms in this situation, ML employs
camera quality, and so forth, are taken into account two distinct types of dimensionality reduction tech-
while buying mobile phones. Due to the lack of niques such as feature selection and feature extrac-
resources required to cross-validate the price, peo- tion. During element selection, we are looking for
ple make incorrect decisions (Singh et al., 2019; the dimensions that provide greatest data and filter
Krishnamurthy et al., 2021). The data here is impor- unnecessary data for the model’s prediction.
tant because it describes model perfectly. Now the Using feature extraction, main goal is to identify a
main question arises why we chose this format to new set of dimensions getting that result from com-
represent data? Simple answer is that it gives data as bining the original dimensions. In machine learning,
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 351
we typically add as many features to collect key Here are some common data representation meth-
details and produce more accurate results. As the ods and their purposes:
number of elements rises, the model’s performance Heat maps are useful for visualizing the relation-
will eventually start to suffer. This frequently referred ships between data points in a matrix. They are often
as the dimension curse. The problem with dimension- employed to display correlation matrices, making it
ality is that, for our prediction model, sample density easier to identify patterns and dependencies between
falls off exponentially as dimensionality rises. The variables.
dimension of the feature space increases and becomes Correlation heat maps specifically focus on depict-
sparser as we continue to add features while main- ing the correlation coefficients between different
taining the number of training examples. Finding a variables. They help highlight which features are
correct answer for a ML model is significantly simpler strongly correlated or inversely correlated with each
as a result of this rarity, which is very likely to cause other.
any model to over fit (Figure 46.3). Count plots are typically used for categorical data
and help visualize the distribution of categories within
Exploratory data analysis (EDA) a variable. They provide insights into the frequency of
each category.
EDA is a best approach for data analysis using visual The describe() function is a statistical tool that
techniques. It is used to discover the trends, patterns provides summary statistics about the dataset. It cal-
in the data set and to check assumptions using sta- culates measures like mean, standard deviation, mini-
tistical summary and graphical representations of the mum, maximum, quartiles, etc. This function can help
data set. We load the dataset using the Pandas module identify outliers, central tendencies, and the overall
from the python and then print the first five rows. distribution of numerical features.
We use the head() function to print the first five lines Using these representation methods collectively
(Figure 46.4). allows data scientists and analysts to explore and
Different datasets can exhibit various characteris- understand the dataset thoroughly. It aids in identify-
tics, and the choice of data representation methods ing potential data issues, such as missing values or
can significantly impact our understanding of the data outliers, and can reveal valuable insights about fea-
and the modeling process. Various data visualization ture relationships and data distributions. This under-
techniques can be employed to gain insights into the standing is crucial for building accurate predictive
dataset’s features and values, ultimately facilitating models and making informed decisions based on the
the model prediction and elucidating the relation- data.
ships between features. Under the current situation, Addressing missing data in a dataset is a critical
the system uses a technique where a seller randomly consideration in data analysis and modeling. Missing
determines a price without the buyer knowing the data can occur when certain information is not pro-
product’s worth (Balaji et al., 2023). vided for one or more data points within the dataset.
Figure 46.3 Exploring the data values
352 Forecasting mobile prices: Harnessing the power of machine learning algorithms
Figure 46.4 Example of data set by using head() function
Figure 46.5 Data description of dataset that we have taken
There are various reasons why data may be miss- generates multiple complete datasets with imputed
ing, such as survey respondents choosing not to dis- values and combines results to provide more robust
close certain information (e.g., income or address). estimates.
In such cases, many data values may be absent from Handling missing data is an essential step in data
the dataset, creating a challenge for data analysis preprocessing to ensure that analyses and models are
(Figure 46.5). based on as much available information as possible,
Missing data is a common and real-world problem without introducing bias or inaccuracies due to miss-
in data science and statistics. It can lead to biased or ing values.
inaccurate results if not handled properly. Data scien- In Figure 46.6, a boxplot representation of the
tists and analysts employ various techniques to man- previously mentioned dataset is presented. This
age missing data, such as: graphical representation effectively displays outliers
Imputation: This involves filling in missing values within the dataset. Specifically, it provides insights
with estimated or imputed values based on statisti- into RAM, device width, and device height, which
cal methods. Common imputation techniques include are the primary contributors to changes in the outli-
mean imputation, median imputation, mode imputa- ers graph. Understanding these outliers is crucial as
tion, or using predictive models to estimate missing they can have a significant impact on model predic-
values. tion, especially when their values exhibit substantial
Data collection improvement: In some cases, variations.
improving data collection processes can help reduce To delve deeper into the relationships between
the occurrence of missing data. This may involve bet- various features and their correlation with prices,
ter survey design, clearer instructions to respondents, further analysis is essential for model prediction. The
or data validation checks during data entry. Matplotlib library is employed to showcase these fea-
Deletion: In certain situations, it may be appropri- ture relationships using a Heatmap graph. Heatmaps
ate to remove data points with missing values from are valuable tools for visualizing dependencies and
the analysis. However, this should be done carefully, correlations between different attributes and our
as it can lead to a loss of valuable information and target prediction in the model. This aids in gaining
potential bias. a comprehensive understanding of how various fac-
Advanced imputation: Advanced techniques, such tors influence the pricing of mobile phones. India is
as multiple imputation, can be employed when the expanding, and so is the country’s mobile customer
missing data pattern is complex. Multiple imputation base. India is home to around 900 million mobile
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 353
Figure 46.6 Boxplot diagram for outliers and missing values
Figure 46.7 Heatmap for comparing and choosing the attribute to classify our model
354 Forecasting mobile prices: Harnessing the power of machine learning algorithms
Figure 46.8 Count plot is used to count the occurrence of the observation
phone subscribers, which gives each mobile phone phones excel at this task, offering seamless ways to
manufacturer a stronger platform (Deepesh Kumar, share photos directly online. In the digital age, there
2012). are numerous methods and platforms that facilitate
The corrosion products were analyzed using this process. The megapixels of a cell phone camera
energy-dispersive spectroscopy, scanning electron hold significant importance in the world of photog-
microscopy, and X-ray diffraction (Sidhu, Goyal, and raphy. A higher pixel count directly correlates with
Goyal, 2017) (Figure 46.7). the quality of your photos. Therefore, when seeking
Representation of data in terms of the graph is to capture high-quality images, it’s advisable to con-
given as follows: sider mobile phone cameras with a minimum of 3
megapixels.
(a) Rating/count In essence, the proliferation of digital technology
Rating which is used to rate the mobile phone, it is has made sharing photos online a straightforward
used to get the feedback of the user, who buy the and accessible endeavor, while paying attention to
mobile phone. Its value is in between 0 to 100. This camera megapixels remains a key factor for achieving
graph shows the value, which can easy to understand superior photo quality
(Figure 46.8). The more the pixel of the camera, the more the
price of the mobile increases; but not for the all-
(b) Primary camera/count mobile models it varies from one mobile to another.
Sharing images with the world through social media So this feature is considered in the dataset and
has become a ubiquitous practice when it comes to above is the graphical representation of feature
utilizing a photo gallery. Both iPhone and Android with price.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 355
(c) RAM/count accurately. This function aids in creating informative
The primary component of a mobile phone, RAM is visualizations that help in understanding the data dis-
where the operating system, currently running appli- tribution and characteristics.
cations and data are stored. Data is stored in phone The variation observed in the data serves to demon-
storage so that apps, pictures, videos, and files can strate the careful selection of values within the data-
run smoothly. Main memory is important for the pre- set. Among the key factors contributing to the model’s
diction by the help of the ram version, we can get prediction accuracy, RAM, battery power, and the
accurate value. It is the main reason why mobile price price itself hold prominent positions. These attributes
depends on it. A variation in the RAM will cause the play a pivotal role in shaping the predictive capabili-
mobile price to increase and decrease. The relation ties of the model, allowing for more precise mobile
representation is given below (Figure 46.9). phone price predictions (Figure 46.10).
Factors can influence the price of a smartphone,
(d) Distplot for all main features including:
In the dataset, various features including RAM, bat- Brand: The brand reputation and market presence
tery power, camera size, and other attributes play a of a smartphone manufacturer can significantly impact
crucial role in refining the precision of mobile phone its price. Established brands often command higher
price predictions. It’s worth noting that the data val- prices due to their perceived quality and features.
ues are meticulously accurate, enhancing the reliabil- Market duration: How long a specific device has
ity of the predictive model. been in the mobile phone market can affect its price.
To visualize and present the data effectively, the Newer models with cutting-edge technology may
Seaborn library is employed. Specifically, the “sns. have higher prices initially, while older models may
displot()” function is utilized to represent the data see price reductions (Figure 46.11).
Figure 46.9 Count plot is used to count the occurrence of the RAM
356 Forecasting mobile prices: Harnessing the power of machine learning algorithms
Figure 46.10 Count plot is used to count the occurrence of the primary camera
Figure 46.11 This pairplot is used to understand the best set of feature to explain a relationship between two or more
variables to perform cluster separation
International usability: A smartphone’s ability to Supply chain issues: Global commodity inflation
be used internationally, including factors like network resulting from supply chain disruptions can lead to
compatibility and unlocked status, can influence its increased production costs for mobile phone manu-
price. Devices that offer global usability tend to have facturers. These additional costs may be passed on to
higher price tags. consumers, impacting smartphone prices.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 357
Energy prices: Fluctuations in energy prices, par- tweaking by restricting the number of splits and the
ticularly for manufacturing and transportation, can size of nodes can result in gains (Mark, 2004). We
impact the overall cost of producing and distributing Separate our target column by the help of the panda
smartphones. in python and to transform our data in array form
Labor shortages: Labor shortages in manufacturing we used sklearn library to standardized our model
regions can affect production costs, potentially lead- in which we will give this data to our model in that
ing to price adjustments. form for prediction effectively in our price prediction
Input costs: The cost of materials and components model for mobile devices.
required to build smartphones can fluctuate based on
factors like demand, availability, and global economic Training the model
conditions.
Market competition: The competitive landscape In our dataset, which excludes the company column,
within the mobile phone industry can also influence we are employing three primary algorithms to train
pricing. Manufacturers may adjust prices to gain mar- our predictive model: KNN, decision tree, and logistic
ket share or differentiate their products. regression.
It’s important to note that some smartphones may First, let’s delve into how the decision tree algo-
indeed have significantly higher prices compared to rithm is used to predict the model:
others due to factors like advanced features, premium Decision trees are visual representations of deci-
materials, and branding. Understanding these factors sion processes, often depicted as flowcharts, to plan
is essential for consumers looking to make informed and illustrate business and operational decisions. In
choices when purchasing a smartphone. the context of ML, decision trees serve as algorithms
Apple: The important reason is that apple uses to differentiate dataset features using a cost func-
extremely high-quality materials to make their phones tion. The decision tree is initially expanded, and then
robust, which ensure a longer lifespan than android irrelevant branches are pruned through optimization.
phones. For Apple to be able to afford these great mate- Parameters such as the depth of the decision tree can
rials, they need to charge a decent price. iPhones often be adjusted to mitigate the risk of over fitting and cre-
cost more than $1,000, especially for new models. ating overly complex trees.
Samsung: There are many factors, which are listed To implement the decision tree classifier, we start
below. by importing the “[Link]” module in our
Jupyter notebook. Then, we call the “DecisionTree
i. Cheaper build materials – Samsung has recently Classifier()” function to create an instance of the clas-
started adding glass backs to some of its A-se- sifier. For verification purposes, we can print the data
ries phones, but they still generally use lower- to check if it is in the appropriate array form and free
quality metal alloys and finishes than higher-end of errors. Once this is confirmed, we proceed with the
phones. prediction model for mobile prices.
ii. Weaker guts – The higher-end series always uses After creating the classifier instance, we use the
top-of-the-line specifications, while the A-series “fit()” function to train the model using the training
uses the latest mid-range processors with lower dataset and subsequently employ the “predict()” func-
performance but still optimized for battery con- tion to make predictions based on the test dataset.
sumption. This step-by-step process helps us utilize the decision
iii. Weaker camera – Weaker camera sensors are tree algorithm (Table 46.1).
used and less computational photography.
Second KNN used to predict the model
Each data values have some variation, which dis- The KNN algorithm can be contrasted with the most
tinguishes our model by a great margin. That is the precise models since it offers high accuracy for spe-
beauty of the pair plot graph. So, we used Pairplot cific models. Consequently, it finds utility in applica-
by simply called Seaborn library and use Pairplot tions that demand heightened precision without the
function. need for a human-readable model. The predictive per-
formance relies on the distance measure and is par-
ticularly effective for pattern recognition tasks. As a
Preparing data for the model
supervised learning algorithm, it is applicable to both
From here onwards we started our data to prepare, regression and classification problems, although it is
determining what we needed and what we did not. It commonly employed for classification tasks in the
depends on the features what we are choosing in our realm of ML.
model target. Price is our target and the rest of the Neighbors library files are used to predict the
data is used to test and train the model. Additional model. It is the same as the tree classifier, but there is
358 Forecasting mobile prices: Harnessing the power of machine learning algorithms
a difference in using the function to predict the model While logistic regression exhibits similarities with
(Figure 46.12). linear regression, it’s essential to recognize that they
are employed for distinct purposes. Linear regression
Third logistic regression is used here to predict the is employed to address regression problems, where the
model goal is to predict a continuous numerical value, while
Logistic regression is undeniably one of the most logistic regression is specifically tailored for classifica-
widely utilized ML algorithms, particularly in the tion tasks, where the aim is to categorize data into
realm of supervised learning. Its primary objective is predefined classes or groups (Philipp, Wright, and
to predict a categorical dependent variable based on a Boulesteix, 2018).
given set of independent variables. Unlike algorithms
that yield continuous outcomes, logistic regression Data with features and company columns
produces categorical or discrete results, such as “Yes”
or “No,” “0” or “1,” “true” or “false,” and so on. Tree classifier
However, instead of providing precise values like 0 or Supervised learning is a domain where data points are
1, it generates probability values that range between systematically organized based on their predefined
0 and 1. values, aligning with the problem the system aims to
solve. Within this context, decision tree algorithms
prove to be highly efficient and straightforward.
Table 46.1 Summary of parameters
They are often referred to as CART, which stands for
Summary “Classification and Regression Trees.”
Each decision tree comprises a root node from
Correctly Classified Instances 20 which branches extend based on specific conditions,
71.429% leading to leaf nodes. These internal nodes within the
Incorrectly Classified Instances 8 tree represent various test cases applied to the dataset.
28.571% Decision trees are versatile in that they can effectively
Kappa Statistic address both classification and regression problems.
0.6177 These techniques find widespread application across
Mean Absolute Error various industries, providing practical solutions to
0.2066 everyday challenges.
Root mean squared error An apt analogy for this algorithm is a tree structure
0.3668 where predictions are made through the use of dis-
Relative absolute error tinct branch parameters that have been finely tuned
54.2608% (Seifert, Gundlach, and Szymczak, 2019).
Root relative squared error
81.8652% Random forest
Total Number of Instances 28 The random forest algorithm is a versatile supervised
ML method applicable to both classification and
regression tasks. It employs the concept of ensemble
learning, where multiple classifiers collaborate to
address intricate problems and enhance model per-
formance. In our context, integrating random forest
into our price prediction model is likely to yield more
precise forecasts.
This algorithm operates as a classifier, employ-
ing numerous decision trees constructed from dif-
ferent subsets of the dataset. It then leverages the
mean of these predictions to improve the accuracy
of its forecasts. Unlike a single decision tree, ran-
dom forest aggregates predictions from multiple
decision trees, which significantly contributes to its
effectiveness.
Support vector regression (SVR)
The support vector machines (SVM) algorithm is
Figure 46.12 Predicting the model after applying the widely recognized for its effectiveness in address-
decision tree ing classification problems within the realm of ML.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 359
However, while SVM’s application in classification discarding 4 features that were deemed less informa-
tasks is well documented, its usage in regression is tive or potentially noisy.
less prevalent in the ML literature. Nevertheless, SVR Interestingly, as we introduced additional features
emerges as a potent supervised learning algorithm beyond this selected subset, we observed a decline
designed to predict continuous values. in precision. This decline can be attributed to the
SVR shares the fundamental principles of SVM but inclusion of non-useful data that does not contribute
diverges in its objective. Instead of classifying data positively to the specific combination of features and
points, SVR seeks to identify the most appropriate classifier we are using. The careful selection of fea-
line, referred to as a hyper plane that maximizes the tures is crucial in ensuring the model’s efficiency and
encompassment of data points within a predefined predictive power (Figure 46.13).
threshold. This threshold signifies the distance In this specific combination, we were able to attain
between the hyper plane and the boundary line. a commendable maximum accuracy of 91%. This
It’s worth noting that the time complexity of SVR achievement was made possible by selecting and using
escalates significantly with an increase in the number 5 key features for the model. We deliberately excluded
of samples, making it less suitable for scaling datasets any additional features beyond these 5 during the
with a large sample size, often exceeding several tens modeling process.
of thousands. In such scenarios, linear SVR or sto- What’s noteworthy is that when we introduced the
chastic gradient descent (SGD). Regression serves as feature related to RAM into the model, we observed
a swifter alternative for implementing our prediction a drop in accuracy. This decrease in accuracy sug-
model, albeit limited to considering the linear kernel. gests that the additional data represented by RAM is
A noteworthy characteristic of an SVR model is its not relevant for this specific combination of classifier
reliance on only a subset of the training data. This is and features. In fact, it appeared to introduce noise
due to the cost function disregarding samples whose or confusion, which had a detrimental effect on the
predictions are in close proximity to their target val- model’s performance.
ues. This selective utilization of data points contrib- The output of the decision tree classifier is dis-
utes significantly to the model’s efficiency. played above. The time taken to classify the model
Result of the entire algorithm that used given in is 0.03 seconds (s) to build the model and 0.2 s test
Table 46.2. it out. Twenty cases are classified correctly out of 29
In this phase of feature selection, we initially iden- accuracy rate is 75.63 %. This is the first classification
tified and removed 5–7 specific features. As a result where all the functions are used accordingly.
of this feature elimination, our model reached a peak
accuracy of 92%, representing a significant improve-
ment in predictive performance. However, an inter- Table 46.3 Bottom seven attributes with accuracy
esting observation emerged when we introduced the
feature related to random access memory (RAM) into # of attributes Accuracy % Removal of attributes
the model. Surprisingly, the inclusion of RAM led to
10 71.428 No
a decline in accuracy. It appears that, in this particu-
lar combination of features, RAM does not contrib- 9 71.42 Battery
ute meaningfully to the predictive capabilities of our 8 71.42 Weight
model and may even introduce noise or confusion, 7 71.42 Card slot
causing a reduction in accuracy (Table 46.3). 6 75 Display
In this particular combination, we managed to 5 75 Thickness
achieve the highest level of accuracy, reaching an
4 57.14 RAM
impressive 94%. Our feature selection process led
us to retain a subset of 5–6 relevant features while
Table 46.2 Top five attributes with accuracy.
# of attributes Accuracy % Addition of attributes
1 25 Display size
2 46.4 Memory
3 46.4 Card slot
4 75 Camera
5 75 Video
Figure 46.13 Attributes vs. accuracy of five attributes
360 Forecasting mobile prices: Harnessing the power of machine learning algorithms
Figure 46.14 Attributes vs. accuracy after adding RAM feature
This particular combination yields a maximum The trade-off between maximum accuracy and the
accuracy of 96% and all of the features chosen, with minimum number of features is a common challenge
the exception of the functions mentioned above, are in ML. Finding the right balance is often dependent
depressed. The introduction of this feature led to a on the specific problem and dataset. Ideally, a model
decrease in accuracy because it contains redundant or should use the minimum number of features neces-
irrelevant data for the specific classifier and feature sary to achieve a satisfactory level of accuracy, as this
selection algorithm. can lead to more efficient and practical solutions.
The number of variables drawn at random for each
split, the splitting rule, the minimum number of sam- Conclusion
ples a node must contain, the number of trees, and the
number of observations drawn at random for each In our research, we’ve explored various feature selec-
tree are just a few of the hyper parameters that need tion algorithms and classifiers, including combina-
to be set by the user when using the random forest tions like KNN, tree classifiers, decision trees, and
(RF) algorithm (Wenck et al., 2023). more. What’s interesting is that we’ve achieved com-
The utilization of surrogate variables holds great parable results with both feature selection and classi-
potential for effective variable selection and for fier combinations. By carefully selecting only the most
examining the intricate relationship between pre- relevant features while minimizing redundancy, we’ve
dictor and outcome variables in high-dimensional managed to attain maximum accuracy in our predic-
omics datasets (Arora, Srivastava, and Garg 2020) tions. It’s worth noting that during feature selection,
(Figure 46.14). the presence of irrelevant or redundant features in the
dataset can significantly compromise the performance
Comparative study of both classifiers in our prediction model. Conversely,
removing essential features from the dataset, espe-
In ML, model evaluations often revolve around two cially through reverse selection, can lead to decreased
primary criteria and they are as follows: efficiency. One of the primary reasons for reduced
Maximum accuracy: Achieving the highest accu- accuracy in our model is the limited number of
racy possible is a fundamental goal in machine learn- occurrences or instances in the dataset. It’s crucial to
ing. High accuracy indicates that the model is making acknowledge this limitation and its potential impact
correct predictions with a low rate of error. It implies on the model’s performance. Additionally, it’s impor-
that the model is effectively capturing the underly- tant to consider that transitioning from a regression
ing patterns and relationships in the data, leading to task to a classification task, or vice versa, can intro-
reliable predictions. However, maximizing accuracy duce more errors into the model. This highlights the
typically requires the use of more precise and relevant importance of choosing the most suitable modeling
data in the prediction model. approach for the specific problem at hand. Ultimately,
Minimum number of features: Reducing the num- our model has successfully predicted mobile prices
ber of features used in a model can have several accurately, leveraging the expressive power of their
advantages. It can lead to a more efficient and stream- features. The data gathered from the Internet for price
lined model with reduced memory requirements. prediction has proven to be accurate, contributing to
Additionally, fewer features can result in lower com- the overall reliability of our results.
putational complexity, making the model faster to
train and use in real-time applications. However, it’s
Outcome of the work
crucial to strike a balance because selecting too few
features may lead to a loss of important information Cost forecasting is a crucial aspect of both the mar-
and reduced model performance. ket and various business operations. The process of
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 361
estimating the cost of mobile phones can be applied spectrum of scenarios and market fluctuations,
to a wide range of products, including cars, food improving the model’s ability to generalize. Ad-
items, medicines, laptops, and more. This methodol- ditionally, feature selection plays a crucial role
ogy allows for a comprehensive understanding of the in enhancing accuracy. Identifying and including
pricing dynamics across various industries. relevant features that have a significant impact
An effective marketing strategy often revolves on price prediction is essential for building a
around identifying affordable products that offer highly accurate model. Overall, a large and com-
optimal specifications. This involves finding products prehensive dataset, combined with thoughtful
with the lowest possible price (p-minimum) while feature selection, is key to achieving higher ac-
providing top-notch features. By comparing products curacy in the selected prediction model.
based on their specifications, cost, manufacturer, and
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47 Deep learning-based chronic kidney disease (CKD)
prediction
J. Angel Ida Chellama, M. Preethi, R. Rajalakshmi and E. Bharathraj
Sri Ramakrishna Engineering College, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
Abstract
In the area of healthcare applications such as classification, illness prediction, etc., there is a growing emphasis placed on the
categorization of medical data. In addition to learning, neural systems also have other advantageous traits including poor
or absent data management, such as the capacity to separate noise, vulnerability, or imprecision. Hence the significance of
feature selection is that it decreases the classifier capacity to the measurements that are considered generally pertinent in
precise classification. The primary objective of this work is to arrange the medical data and investigate the viability of using
distinctive input features and classifiers to find the medical datasets. This work proposed deep neural network (DNN) for
classification. From the result outcome, it is observed that the proposed DNN classifier produces higher accuracy, sensitiv-
ity, and specificity rates than machine learning (ML)-based classification algorithms with respect to chronic kidney disease
(CKD) dataset.
Keywords: Deep learning, chronic kidney disease (CKD), feature extraction, classification
Introduction each kidney. Blood is pumped into the glomerulus via
blood arteries. Because kidneys function as a blood
The kidneys are one of the body’s most complicated
filter, they are one of the body’s most vital vascular
organs and perform several tasks. The elimination of
organs. The kidneys receive around 25% of what the
waste materials by the kidneys during the formation
heart pumps. Kidney function can be affected by car-
of urine helps to cleanse blood. The management of
diac disease. Heart issues are one of the main reasons
fluid, electrolytes, and acid-base balance also involves
of renal impairment. The filtration of blood is hap-
the kidneys. It is crucial to understand that the kid-
pened at the glomerulus, after ultrafiltration eventu-
neys are one of the primary organs that process and
ally what comes out in urine (Khamparia et al., 2020).
eliminate medications if the kidneys are not operating
Diabetes and hypertension are the two most typical
at their optimal level (Luck et al., 2016). Illness rates
causes of renal disease in India. There are other renal
from these conditions are speeding up worldwide,
diseases, predominantly affecting women, according
progressing across each region and plaguing every
to Feng et al. (2016) (Li et al., 2014). Infections of
financial class.
the urinary tract and autoimmune diseases including
Kidneys are involved in a lot of hormone functions
rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythema-
including preventing anemia and vitamin D defi-
tous (SLE) can cause kidney scarring. As the kid-
ciency. Vitamin D injected in the body will be active
neys begin to lose function, chronic kidney disease
after reaching the kidneys. Kidneys also involved in
(CKD) occurs. Either slowly or quickly is conceiv-
blood cell productions (Singh and Singh, 2020). The
able. Knowing the underlying cause might help you
hormone called erythropoietin is synthesized by kid-
start therapy on the right foot and keep your kid-
neys and acts on bone marrows and causes red blood
neys healthy (Mushtaq et al., 2022). Diabetes is the
cell (RBC) productions. If the kidneys are not work-
main cause of kidney disease. If someone has diabe-
ing properly this hormone goes down and the patient
tes and doesn’t take care of it, or if they’ve had it
tends to become anemic (Alloghani et al., 2020).
for a while, excess sugar that enters the bloodstream
Blood pressure regulation is the other aspect of
destroys blood vessels, which causes kidney function
renal function that is involved. Renin is a hormone
to decline. According to Adeniyi et al. (2016), renal
that the cells in the kidneys produce and is crucial for
failure is mostly caused by high blood pressure, also
regulating blood pressure in people. These are some
known as hypertension, which is the second most
of the functions of the kidneys and if the kidneys do
common factor impacting kidney function. If left
not work properly these manifestations will come
untreated, the blood veins in the kidneys that carry
forward. The structural and operational compo-
blood throughout the body risk permanent damage
nent of the kidney is the nephron (Harimoorthy and
(Fatima and Pasha, 2017) (Figure 47.1).
Thangavelu, 2021). There are millions of nephrons in
a
[Link]@[Link]
364 Deep learning-based chronic kidney disease (CKD) prediction
be conducted in India. The study’s goal is to deter-
mine the prevalence of CKD in India.
Chetty et al. (2015) was carried out in an outpa-
tient clinic, was to determine how well a self-mon-
itored blood pressure programme, follow-up visits
to the clinic, and motivational phone calls helped
persons with diabetes and kidney disease manage
their blood pressure and take their prescriptions
(Kunwar et al., 2016b). Participants were divided
into the intervention and control groups at random.
The intervention took place over the course of 3
months (n = 39) and was followed up on at 3, 6, and
9 months after the intervention (n = 41). The study’s
Figure 47.1 Causes of CKD findings revealed no statistically significant changes
between the groups, however, the intervention group
(n = 36) did have a 6 mm Hg drop in mean systolic
Literature review
blood pressure.
Bala and Kumar (2014) did a cross-sectional survey A randomized controlled study was conducted in
among 47,204 chinese adults with the aim to mea- Australia by Chen et al. (2019) (Singh et al., 2009;
sure the prevalence of CKD. Data was collected about Chetty et al., 2015). The intervention took place
lifestyle, medical history, blood pressure, serum cre- over the course of three months (n = 21) and was
atinine and albuminuria. In rural regions, the preva- followed up on at 3, 6, and 9 months after the inter-
lence of CKD was 10.8% overall. Compared to other vention (n = 8).
areas, the north (16.9%) and southwest (18.3%) had In 2015, Jerlin Rubini and Eswaran (Chen et al.,
the highest rates of CKD prevalence. Age, hyperten- 2019) compared the analysis of four different data
sion, sex, diabetes, a history of cardiovascular disease, classifier techniques such as random forest (RF), deci-
hyperuricemia, place of residence, and socioeconomic sion tree (DT), random tree (RT), and simple cart. It
level were additional characteristics that were inde- becomes important to have appropriate prediction
pendently linked to kidney injury. models for CKD for healthcare domain experts.
In order to determine the relationships between Since a huge chunk of medical information remains
kidney disease events and mortality and end-stage unstructured, which needs to implement efficient
renal disease (ESRD) in people with and without models and can produce insightful results. Machine
diabetes, Rubini and Eswaran (2015) conducted a learning (ML) techniques based on data classifica-
meta-analysis (Rubini and Eswaran, 2015; Thakur tion algorithms can contribute in a significant man-
et al., 2021). Papers chosen based on standards set ner. From UCI repository, the authors classified the
by the CKD prognostic consortium. The hazard CKD dataset into two categories. The outcomes sug-
ratios of mortality and ESRD linked to eGFR and gested that the proposed RF method attained the
albuminuria were calculated using the Cox propor- best classifier results in terms of accuracy, precision
tional hazards model. 128,505 people with diabetes and recall.
and 1,024,977 participants from 30 general popula-
tion, high risk cardiovascular, and 13 CKD cohorts System methodology
were included in the analysis. Those with diabetes
had 1.3 times higher mortality risks than people Pre-processing
without diabetes. The data to be analyzed is first screened in order to
According to Kunwar et al., (2016a), diabetes avoid misleading outcomes. So, the quality and repre-
and hypertension cause 40–60% of CKD patients in sentation of data are checked first. A huge volume of
India. Diabetes prevalence in the adult population of unstructured data contains a large number of redun-
India ranged from 5.3% in Jharkhand to 13.6% in dant and irrelevant information and the data is noisy
Chandigarh. About 10.4% of people in Tamilnadu’s and unreliable (Zheng et al., 2015). The training
Kanchipuram and Thiruvallur districts have diabetes phase is highly complex than the knowledge discov-
mellitus. Clearly, this is the main target demographic ered. In general, the processing time is prolonged to
to target due to the rising incidence of CKD in India ensure data filtering and preparation. The results are
as a result of the prevalence of these illnesses. In order affected by quality of data, missing values and incon-
to educate the public about the phases of CKD and sistency in the raw data. Pre-processing of the data in
how to control diabetes and hypertension to avoid data mining process ensures to improve the efficiency
complications, more CKD screening studies need to and the quality of data.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 365
Data pre-processing is one of the important steps
3) Constructing the adjacency graph
in data mining and this stage deals with transforma-
4) Any two nodes are obtained in this class
tion and preparation of the dataset to be processed.
information
During pre-processing, the non-numerical data is pro-
5) Choosing the weights
cessed to get the numerical data. After obtaining the
6) Computing the orthogonal basis function
numerical dataset, the non-numerical data is removed
7) Diagonal matrix M is calculated thereafter to
(Rubini and Eswaran, 2015). Any other attribute of
find the weight matrix
the dataset is never considered based on missing data.
The data of another attribute is observed according
Classification
to the distribution of missing value of an attribute. In
Classification aims at finding the open relation or hid-
the suggested study, CKD medical dataset from UCI
den regulations between the attributes in a set of class-
ML arsenal was taken into consideration for CKD
labeled instances. The general hypothesis is developed
diagnosis.
using these relations and/or regulations model. With
the availability of established predictor features as
Feature reduction
well as unidentified class labels, the hypothesis result
Feature dimension reduction is performed to improve
is applied to unseen future instances. The classifica-
the prediction accuracy. To lower the dimensions of
tion problems remain the model of medical prognosis
high-dimensional data, a deeper understanding of
and diagnosis. A patient’s medical data predicts the
the underlying data structure is advised. It is hard to
prognosis on the basis of clinical, pathological and
perceive and difficult to analyze data with such high
demographic data.
dimensions (Sornam and Prabhakaran, 2018). The fea-
ture transformation or feature selection is performed
by dimensionality reduction. When the number of Proposed DNN model
features is higher, classification becomes a challeng- The core component of DNN is the convolution
ing task to accomplish. Without losing classification layer, which majority of the complex computational
accuracy, the features should be reduced; thereby a work is done. This layer’s primary goal is to extract
feature dimension reduction method is applied in attributes or visual attributes from pictures via con-
this research. This process takes away the noisy or volution between the kernel and the input signal. A
redundant information and decreases the number of fully linked layer, a Softmax layer, and four convolu-
features. Feature vector dimension is reduced by the tional layers make up the proposed DNN model in
development of OLPP algorithm. Linear discriminant Figure 47.2. A spectrogram measuring 160 × 190 × 3
analysis (LDA) and PCA are two different analyses is the network’s input. Exponential linear units (ELU)
performed to differentiate the OLPP algorithm. and 3 × 3 is the max pooling layer size with stride 2
In dimensionality reduction, PCA is the initial step is placed after each convolution layer. ELU operate
while the OLPP is to build adjacency graph. The as activation functions rather than the more common
class relationship among sample points is reflected sigmoid functions, which improves the effectiveness
through optimal feature selection while OLPP is of the training process (Figure 47.3).
developed to build an adjacency graph. According The input layer (layer 0) is convolved using a 32-bit
to the structure present in low-dimensional space, kernel size, followed by ELU, to produce the top layer
it is possible to segregate the dimensionality reduc- (layer 1). The 3 × 3 filter is indicated by the kernel
tion methods into linear and nonlinear. In case of 32, to convolve the chosen region. Then each feature
mapping matrix, OLPP solves the issue involved in map is subjected to a max-pooling of size 3 and stride
orthogonal basis and it holds the characteristic of 2 after that (layer 2). The layer 3 is created by con-
dimensionality reduction. volving the feature map from layer 2 with a kernel (a
64-bit filter). Every feature map (layer 4) is subjected
Algorithm 47.1 Feature reduction
to another max pooling, which results in a reduction
Input of 40 × 48 × 64. Then layer 6 and ELU are created by
CKD dataset convolving a feature map from layer 5 with a filter
of size 128. Each feature map undergoes a maxpool-
Output ing of size 3 to lower the number of neurons to 20 ×
Extracted features 24 × 128. (layer 6). Afterwards, layer 7 is created by
1) Calculate PCA projection convolving the feature map in layer 6 with a kernel
2) The covariance analysis conducted for the (a filter with a size of 256). The result of layer 8’s
performance of features reduces the data max-pooling, which is executed once more, is 10 × 12
dimensionality × 256. Eventually, layer 9 provides 30,720 neurons
366 Deep learning-based chronic kidney disease (CKD) prediction
Figure 47.2 Block diagram of the proposed approach for CKD prediction
Figure 47.3 Architecture of proposed DNN mode
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 367
with complete connectivity before sending the neu-
7. Estimate the updated velocity as ve ← φv − εge
rons to layer 10, also known as the softmax layer.
8. Obtain the updated cost function as θ ← θ + ve
Algorithm 47.2 Proposed DNN 9. end while
Input
Result and discussion
^F: {f (1), . . . f (m)} represents ‘m’ instances of chronic
disease dataset, and xi ∈ {0,1} denotes the class Performance measures
label. Several performance measures are used to analyze the
efficiency of the proposed and existing algorithms.
Output The accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity have been
Obtain the cost function θ by considering the used to evaluate the performance of the proposed
updated momentum value and learning rate algorithm.
1. Let ε be the learning rate and φ be the
parameter of momentum
2. Let θ be the initial cost function and ve denote Accuracy
the prior velocity It calculates the global prediction rate is determined
3. Let T denote the threshold value by dividing the number of successfully classified CKD
4. while (min_stop<T) by the total number of CKD affected patients used for
5. Take into account the “m” instances from the classification, yielding the following ratio,
chronic disease dataset {f(1), . . . f(m)} with target
x(i). TP + TN
Accuracy =
6. Estimate the gradients as g ← 1 ∆θ ∑ L(f(f(i); TP+TN+FP+FN
mb
θ), x(i))
Table 47.1 CKD dataset description.
Attribute name Description of the attribute
Age Patients age is main criteria
Blood pressure The sign of heart rate should be measure
Specific gravity Measure urine density ratio compared with water density
Albumin The total amount of protein in the urine is indicated
Sugar The high level sugar in the urine must show
Red blood cells The high amount of red blood cells in urine must be specified
Pus cell Major and minor infections must be indicated
Pus cell clumps Bunch of pus cells and infections to be identified
Bacteria Identification of kidney infection and growth level of bacteria
Blood glucose random Glucose (sugar) level should be checked
Blood urea To measure the urea nitrogen in blood amount
Serum creatinine To identify the amount of creatinine in blood
Sodium To show the amount of sodium in blood
Potassium To show the amount of potassium in blood
Hemoglobin Protein in red blood cells must specify
Hypertension Top level blood pressure must be indicated
Red blood cell count Determine an amount of red blood cells in blood
White blood cell count Finding the amount of white blood cells in blood
Packed cell volume To measure the percentage of cells in blood
Diabetes mellitus Must show the top stage of blood sugar
Coronary artery disease Heart disease must be identified which affects the kidney function
Appetite Detecting the loss of appetite
Pedal edema Determination of legs swelling
Anemia Low level of red blood cells or hemoglobin must specify
368 Deep learning-based chronic kidney disease (CKD) prediction
Table 47.2 Performance of the proposed DNN.
CKD dataset
Classification Accuracy Sensitivity Specificity
methods
DNN (proposed) 98.89 98.56 93.23
Figure 47.5 Class analysis of CKD dataset
Table 47.3 Comparative analysis.
Algorithms Accuracy Sensitivity Specificity
Figure 47.4 Performance of the proposed DN DT 90 85 84
k-NN 92 88 85
RF 95 86 89
Sensitivity
Proposed DNN 97 94 92
Sensitivity is a metric that assesses the likelihood
that CKD will be present in the patient population.
It is determined by dividing the total number of CKD
patients by the proportion of correctly categorized
CKD dataset.
TN
Sensitivity =
TP+FN
Specificity
Specificity is a metric that establishes whether or
not a person has the CKD (Table 47.1). The ratio of
correctly categorized normal person to total CKD
affected patients is what determines follows,
Figure 47.6 Comparative analysis
Sensitivity = TN
TP+FN
Table 47.3 and Figure 47.6 represent the perfor-
DNN achieved the highest performance. The accu- mance analysis of classification algorithms. From the
racy, sensitivity and specificity measure of DNN experimental results, it is observed that the proposed
were 98.89%, 98.56% and 93.23%. Table 47.2 and DNN classifier produces higher accuracy, sensitivity,
Figure 47.4 illustrate the performance analysis of the and specificity rates than other ML-based classifica-
proposed DNN for CKD dataset. tion algorithms with respect to CKD dataset.
The presence or absence of CKD is often indicated
by the two classes, class 1 and class 2, in the CKD
Conclusion
dataset. In Figure 47.5, y-axis displays performance
metrics including accuracy, sensitivity, and specific- The evaluation of the optimal subset of features
ity while the x-axis displays the class. The suggested among the multiple variables contained in the taken-
approach has a class 1 accuracy of 96.5%, a sensi- into-account CKD dataset is the crucial problem in
tivity of 95%, and a specificity of 94%. The current medical data classification. The missing values were
study also achieved 97.86% accuracy, 84.5% sensi- first eliminated during the pre-processing step of
tivity, and 97.89% specificity for class 2. the data. Afterwards, the suggested OLLP algorithm
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 369
chose the best characteristics. Using the best subset of Rubini, L. and Eswaran, P. (2015). Generating comparative
characteristics, the dataset was then separated into 2 analysis of early stage prediction of chronic kidney
classes, which depending on the presence of CKD and disease. Int. J. Modern Engg. Res., 5(7), 49–55.
lack of CKD, [Link]. DNN algorithm was Rubini, L. Jerlin, and Perumal Eswaran. (2015). Generat-
ing comparative analysis of early stage prediction
used for this classification since it is the best suitable
of Chronic Kidney Disease. International Journal of
technique for data classification. From the result out-
Modern Engineering Research (IJMER). 5(7): 49–55.
come, it is observed that the proposed DNN classifier Singh, N. and Singh, P. (2020). A stacked generalization
produces higher accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity approach for diagnosis and prediction of type 2 di-
rates than ML-based classification algorithms with abetes mellitus. Adv. Intel. Sys. Comput., 990. doi:
respect to CKD dataset. In future, this research work 10.1007/978-981-13-8676-3_47.
will be integrated ML-based health monitoring sys- Alloghani, M., Al-Jumeily, D., Hussain, A., Liatsis, P., and
tems in the cloud platform, which have the required Aljaaf, A. J. (2020). Performance-based prediction
provision to access the disease data at any time and of chronic kidney disease using machine learning for
location. high-risk cardiovascular disease patients. Stud. Com-
put. Intel., 855. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-28553-1_9.
Harimoorthy, K. and Thangavelu, M. (2021). Multi-disease
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48 Cattle identification using muzzle images
J. Anithaa, R. Avanthika, B. Kavipriya and S. Vishnupriya
Sri Ramakrishna Engineering College, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
Abstract
Nowadays livestock management is critical for a country’s economy, which includes identification of breed, total count of
cattle in a region, and identification of unique cattle. The livestock management is very important for the government, when
insurance claims are made during floods or epidemic. Hence advanced techniques are required to use biometrics like muzzle
images to uniquely identify the cattle. The cattle identification system’s aim is to identify individual cattle with its unique
muzzle print. Similar to finger print of human being, every individual cattle possess unique muzzle patterns. With the feature
extraction techniques, the unique extracted features could be matched against the template of cattle to identify it. The feature
matching based on YOLO V5 algorithm has obtained an accuracy of 80%, whereas the system that uses feature extraction
and deep learning methodology like SIFT, CNN and VGG16 trained with more than 200 cattle images has obtained accuracy
of 95%. The extracted features are stored and could be used for matching and identifying the cattle in future. This would
prevent many issues like false insurance claim, help the abattoir to track their cattle, etc.
Keywords: Feature extraction, muzzle pattern, VGG16, muzzle images, CNN, YoloV5 model
Introduction and erroneous claim of insurance and also recast of
bovines at abattoirs. As a way to solve these draw-
Animal biometrics is a technique that is used to iden-
backs, the unique muzzle patterns could be used for
tify the cattle with the unique pattern they possess. It’s
distinct identification of cattle. The unique patterns of
similar to the human biometric process. As all human
blobs and ridges of muzzle images make it possible to
being possess unique fingerprint, iris pattern, the ani-
clearly distinguish different cattle.
mals also do possess. As for cattle muzzle patterns are
seemed to be the unique pattern. Identification of dis-
tinct cattle with the unique muzzle pattern has diversity Related work
of applications and uses. The use of computer vision Cattle identification is an essential process for farmers
techniques for representing and recognizing type of and livestock management systems. One of the com-
species has grown increasingly significant, and animal mon methods used for identification of cattle is with
biometrics do actually have a stronger influence on the use of muzzle images. This literature review sum-
animal or species recognition techniques. However, marizes the recent studies related to cattle identifica-
with conventional animal recognition systems, cattle tion with muzzle images.
recognition has been a significant concern for breed- Novianto et al. (2013) used speed-up robust fea-
ing organizations around the world. Additionally, it is tures approach (SURF) for identification of cattle
crucial for identifying and validating erroneous insur- using muzzle images and it has outperformed the
ance claims, livestock registration, and cattle track- Eigenface algorithm. Kumar et al. (2018) has intro-
ing. Traditional animal recognition could be classifies duced a deep learning approach that uses muzzle
into three categories: (i) Temporary identification print which can identify discriminatory feature with
methodology which include body sketch patterning limited dataset.
using dye or paint, (ii) Semi-permanent identification Ali Ismail et al. (2013) discussed a cattle identifi-
methodology: which includes using ear tags, ID collar cation method using muzzle print images and local
which is based on electrical signal or radio frequency invariant features. It enhances accuracy and process-
techniques, (iii) Permanent identification methodol- ing speed compared to traditional techniques like
ogy which uses invasive based techniques like inva- ear tags. The method employs scale invariant feature
sive microchips, ear notch and freeze branding comes transform and random sample consensus to achieve
under this category. 93.3% identification accuracy, surpassing traditional
Cattle identification using traditional methods methods that achieve 90% accuracy, all while main-
is constrained by the lack of effective, affordable, taining reasonable processing time.
non-invasive and efficient biometrics-based recogni- Andrew et al. (2017) demonstrated the successful
tion systems. The identification of missed, switched, application of deep neural networks for detection of
anitha.j@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 371
Holstein Friesian cattle and identification in agricul- algorithm for feature detection, and achieves a 96%
tural settings. It introduces new datasets and shows classification accuracy when classifying cattle muzzles
that deep learning can achieve 99.3% accuracy in into ten groups, outperforming traditional methods
cattle detection and 86.1% accuracy in individual with 90% accuracy.
identification using in-barn imagery, and 98.1% Mahmoud et al. (2021) presented a methodical
accuracy with UAV footage. These results suggest that review on deep learning applications in precision
marker-less cattle identification is feasible and robust cattle farming, emphasizing health and identifica-
in uncluttered environments, complementing existing tion. Among 678 studies, 56 meet criteria, with cattle
tagging methods. identification (58%) and health monitoring as major
Awad et al. (2019) investigated cattle identifica- applications. Convolutional neural networks (CNNs),
tion and traceability through the use of muzzle print particularly ResNet, are popular models. Challenges
photos and the bag-of-visual-words (BoVW) method. include image quality and data processing.
For feature extraction, it employs two feature detec- Qiao et al. (2021) developed a novel deep learning
tors, accelerated strong features and stable extremal approach for identifying cattle using video analysis.
regions in the BoVW model. The results demonstrate It combines Inception-V3 CNN, BiLSTM, and self-
the practicality of BoVW, with SURF achieving higher attention mechanisms to achieve 93.3% accuracy in
accuracy (up to 93%) than MSER (up to 67%) for identifying cattle from rear-view videos, surpassing
various training dataset sizes. This technology has existing methods. Additive attention outperforms
the potential to be used for cattle identification and multiplicative attention, and longer video sequences
traceability. enhance identification accuracy, offering potential for
The study by Bello et al. (2020) introduced the use automated cattle identification in precision livestock
of stacked denoising auto encoders and deep belief farming.
networks for cow nose image texture feature extrac- Shen et al. (2019) introduced a contactless cow
tion. These methods aid in animal biometrics, partic- identification approach using CNNs. It gathers
ularly cow recognition, a vital aspect of automated side-view images of cows, uses YOLO to recognize
animal registration. Experimental results indicate that objects, and fine-tunes a CNN model for individ-
the deep belief network achieves an impressive accu- ual cow classification Gera et al. (2021). With 105
racy of around 98.99% using a dataset of 4000 muz- images, the method achieves a 96.65% accuracy,
zle images from 400 cows, contributing to the field of surpassing previous experiments, indicating its effec-
animal biometrics. tiveness for cow identification and broader livestock
The research by Li et al. (2022) focused on beef applications.
cattle identification through unique muzzle patterns, Zin et al. (2018) proposed a precision dairy farm-
important for traceability and disease tracking. It col- ing, a key innovation in the fourth industrial revo-
lected a high-quality dataset of 4923 muzzle images lution, leverages IoT, AI, and cloud computing to
taken from 268 US feedlot cattle and tested 59 deep enhance cow health and farm profitability. A hybrid
learning models, achieving 98.7% accuracy with 28.3 visual stochastic approach combining image tech and
ms/image processing speed. The augmentation of data stats to monitor dairy cows for cow ID, body con-
and weighted cross-entropy loss function improves dition, estrus behavior, and calving time prediction,
accuracy, demonstrating the potential of deep learn- using Markov chains for decision-making based on
ing in precision livestock management. The dataset real-world and existing data.
is available for further research in the beef cattle
industry. Objectives
The study by Li et al. (2017) proposed an approach
for automated cow identification using tail head This paper is aimed to develop a deep learning model
images and Zernike moments as shape descriptors. that could identify individual cattle with their unique
Four classifiers were tested, with quadratic discrimi- muzzle image. This makes sure that no scam could be
nant analysis (QDA) achieving the highest accuracy at done during the claim of insurance and hassle free.
99.7% and support vector machines (SVM) achieving Another objective is to deploy the model in a mobile
the highest precision at 99.6%. QDA and SVM were application.
the most effective methods for precision animal man-
agement in dairy cow identification. Mahmoud et al. Methodology
(2015) developed a muzzle classification system for
cattle based on multiclass support vector machines The proposed method was tested with machine learn-
(MSVMs) to ensure livestock management and ing (ML) algorithms YOLOv5 model and CNN. The
product safety. It employs pre-processing techniques following algorithms are used to check which model
for image enhancement, utilizes the box-counting has the better accuracy.
372 Cattle identification using muzzle images
YOLOv5 epochs in which the model has been trained. The pre-
YOLO is ultralytics version 5 was published in June diction model has been trained for 100 epoch with a
2020 and is currently the most sophisticated object. It batch size of 32 and the learning rate was set by 0.01.
is a cutting-edge object detection model that is widely
utilized in a variety of computer vision tasks such CNN model
as video and image classification, segmentation, and Convolutional neural network (CNN) model is the
object detection. The YOLOv5 model is a significant advanced approach that is used in these days to train
improvement over previous versions of YOLO, pro- an efficient deep learning model. Collect all the data-
viding better accuracy and faster processing speeds. set of images for cattle muzzle breed detection includ-
In general, the YOLOv5 models are a good choice for ing the images for validating the model. Preprocess
mobile deployment. They are relatively lightweight the data by scaling the images to the same size and
and efficient, making them suitable for running on dividing the dataset into training, validation, and
mobile devices. They are also accurate, with a mean test sets. By using TensorFlow framework is helpful
average precision (mAP) of 58.1% on the PASCAL to build a CNN architecture which includes multiple
VOC dataset. Large number of cattle muzzle images convolutional layers to extract features from the input
with various breeds is collected and each image is images, which follows fully connected layers which
annotated by drawing the bounding boxes around the perform classification. Train the model with valida-
image. The dataset has to be annotated image which tion image that computes the loss and back propagat-
make the YOLOv5 model to extract the features from ing the error to update the network parameter, it also
the image efficiently. Tools like Robo flow could be calculates the accuracy of the model. A transfer learn-
used for annotating the image and labeling the image ing strategy with fine-tuning is used to convert VGG
in the format of “.txt”. Figure 48.1 displays the output 16 ImageNet CNN into a VGG 16 muzzle pattern
of the muzzle classification. Train the annotated data- identifier. Figure 48.2 displays the summary of the
set with the YOLOv5 model after it has been created CNN model using the pre-trained VGG16 network
which allows you to configure several hyper param- The network is developed with the flattened layer and
eters such as learning rate, batch size, and number of a dense layer, this technique will automatically extract
Figure 48.1 Output of muzzle classification using YOLOv5 model
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 373
Figure 48.2 Summary of CNN model
the features from the muzzle image. In order to do same step: acquiring the muzzle print of the cattle.
transfer learning with fine-tuning, the original VGG This can be done in two ways. You can directly take
16 ImageNet model’s final pooling and fully con- a clear picture of the muzzle image or apply ink to
nected layer must be eliminated, then it is followed the muzzle part of the cattle and try to get its print on
by the average, pooling and dense layers are added. paper. The latter method is very efficient as it provides
The first layer is the frozen convolutional layer where a clear view of the beads and ridges. The first method,
frequent image attribute is picked up from the pre- however, may have varying quality depending on the
trained ImageNet, the other portions are known as camera used.
the unfrozen layer. Overall, four distinct model train-
ing techniques were assessed. (a) Training the model Data pre-processing
from the ground-up, no pre-initialization is done in As mentioned earlier, the quality of the images cap-
the VGG-16 architecture. (b) Transfer learning with tured by the camera may exhibit variations, mak-
the pre-initialized ImageNet weights of VGG-16 ing data pre-processing a crucial phase in our cattle
where all layers are left frozen and the SoftMax layer identification system. This phase encompasses sev-
is added additionally to train the model for identifica- eral techniques aimed at improving the quality and
tion of cattle, and (c) The last convolutional layer is utility of the images, ensuring the model’s efficacy in
fine-tuned using transfer learning with the last convo- subsequent stages. In the initial step of data prepro-
lutional layer unfrozen so that it was weights could cessing, we address the presence of unwanted noise
be modified. in the images. Noise can arise from various sources,
including camera sensors and environmental factors.
Removing noise is essential to ensure that the sub-
Implementation
sequent feature extraction process is not adversely
The system generally proposes two perspectives on affected by extraneous artifacts in the images. Image
the approach. Both phases start initially with the enhancement techniques are employed to refine and
374 Cattle identification using muzzle images
clarify the visual information within the images. This in this feature vector corresponds to specific muzzle
enhancement process plays an important role in the pattern features, such as ridge patterns and texture
validation of features extracted in later stages. One details. These features, extracted from the CNN, are
notable technique we employ is contrast limited subsequently utilized for cattle identification, com-
adaptive histogram equalization (CLAHE). CLAHE paring them against stored templates in a database to
is used for improving the image quality due to poor determine if the input image matches any previously
lighting or low contrast. It operates by locally adjust- identified cattle using similarity scoring or classifica-
ing the contrast in different regions of the image, pre- tion techniques. This process translates visual infor-
venting over-amplification of noise and preserving mation into a comprehensive feature representation,
fine details. CLAHE divides the image into smaller, enabling precise and efficient identification of indi-
overlapping blocks or tiles. Within each block, the vidual cattle.
histogram of pixel intensities is equalized, ensuring a
more balanced distribution of pixel values. Adaptive Storage and retrieval
contrast limiting prevents extreme amplification of The extracted features are stored in the database.
contrast in areas with excessive noise. The results of With the help of similarity score, we can conclude
CLAHE application include improved image contrast whether two images match or not. Similarity score
and enhanced visibility of subtle features, making it calculation is an important step in many machine
particularly well-suited for biometric systems, such as learning and computer vision applications like image
cattle muzzle pattern identification. The application recognition and object detection. The similarity score
of CLAHE to images of muzzle points is pivotal for is a quantitative measure that indicates how similar
our biometric recognition system. These images, often two images, objects, or features are to each other.
used to identify animals, can present challenges due Figure 48.3 shows the enrolment and verification of
to variations in lighting conditions. CLAHE’s ability the cattle muzzle images.
to enhance contrast without amplifying noise ensures
that the unique patterns and features of the muzzle Results and discussion
are accentuated. This enhancement significantly con-
tributes to the accuracy of our recognition system. VGG16 model
This technique counts the number of blob and ridge The results obtained demonstrate the effectiveness of
regions in muzzle images that have regions where the YOLOV5 and VGG16 models in accurately iden-
blobs and ridges meet. Following pre-processing, tifying cattle based on their muzzle patterns. By using
the muzzle image is separated into various regions these models, the accuracy of cattle identification has
of interest using the texture segmentation technique
to obtain the discriminatory characteristics. The final
stage involves creating a feature vector for each cattle
muzzle image. The quality of the muzzle images is
initially evaluated during the feature extraction pro-
cess to see if it is suitable for additional processing.
Following the CLAHE technique’s improvement in
the quality of muzzle images, a notable set of features
(texture and pixel intensity features) are extracted
and represented.
Feature extraction
In the feature extraction process, preprocessed
cattle muzzle images are fed into the CNN model,
where each layer performs mathematical operations,
including convolutions, pooling, and non-linear acti-
vations. These operations progressively extract hier-
archical features, identifying patterns and structures
within the images. Outputs from selected interme-
diate layers are then collected, representing high-
dimensional image abstractions at varying levels of
detail. These intermediate outputs are combined to
create a feature vector, a numerical representation
encapsulating essential patterns recognized by the
CNN. Typically high-dimensional, each dimension Figure 48.3 Flow diagram of proposed system
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 375
been significantly improved, and this can help farmers commonly used metric in image classification, repre-
and researchers in monitoring the health and produc- senting the ratio of images classified correctly to the
tivity of their cattle. total cattle images in the dataset.
The YOLOV5 model, a variant of the You Only
Look Once algorithm, has proven to be effective in Mobile application
object detection tasks, including cattle identification The proposed system is integrated with a mobile
using muzzle patterns. Its ability to detect objects in application for easy access. The mobile application
real-time, while maintaining high accuracy, makes it helps farmers to register their cattle in the database,
a reliable model for identifying cattle. In our experi- and the cattle can be authenticated with the help of
ments, YOLOV5 achieved a mean average preci- the mobile application. Figure 48.6 shows the GUI for
sion (MAP) of 58.1%. The MAP metric quantifies the farmers to sign up for the application by register-
the overall precision of an object detection model ing their phone number and authentication is done
across multiple categories, making it a valuable mea- using OTP.
sure of performance in multi-class tasks like cattle Once the owner is signed in, the application asks
identification. for details of the cow, including ear tag number,
On the other hand, the VGG16 model, a CNN has breed, and muzzle images. Figure 48.7 displays the
demonstrated its effectiveness in image classification dashboard for details of the cattle. These details are
tasks. With its deep architecture, it has the capability
to learn complex features and patterns that make it
suitable for identifying cattle based on their muzzle
patterns. In our experiments, VGG16 achieved an
outstanding classification accuracy of 95% and loss
as depicted in Figures 48.4 and 48.5. Accuracy is a
Figure 48.4 Plot of accuracy Figure 48.6 Register page
Figure 48.5 Plot of loss Figure 48.7 Dashboard for details
376 Cattle identification using muzzle images
stored in the database and can be accessed when try- tool. Table 48.1 shows the descriptive statistics of
ing to find a match. feedback responses. With an overall mean score of 4.3
To verify a cattle, the muzzle image is captured out of 5, as shown in Table 48.1, this product stands
with the help of the camera. Figure 48.8 displays the out in every aspect.
results of the matched cattle. The captured image is The lowest feedback was regarding capturing the
then given to the model, and the final result is dis- muzzle image using the mobile camera. The average
played. If the cattle’s matching feature is found in the answer to the question “How efficient is the process
database the match is provided, if no data is available of capturing the muzzle image with the mobile cam-
then no results is provided as shown in Figure 48.9. era?” has a rating of 3.8 on a scale of 5. It implies that
All participants were then given access to a ques- participants encountered difficulties in capturing the
tionnaire to provide insight on the mobile application. muzzle image with a mobile camera, as the pixel lev-
Forty users completed the survey after employing els of each mobile’s camera might vary. Training the
every function of the mobile application. To quan-
tify general response, all questions were asked on a
5 point Likert scale (Strongly disagree: 1, Disagree: 2,
Neutral: 3, Agree: 4, Strongly agree: 5). This question-
naire has only five short sentences to analyze the mod-
el’s and mobile application’s efficiency and usefulness.
The feedback was examined using the Microsoft excel
Figure 48.9 Not matched result
Figure 48.8 Matched result Figure 48.10 Feedback responses
Table 48.1 Descriptive statistics of feedback responses.
Questions N Mean
Q1. User experience with the mobile application? 40 4.54
Q2. How well did the mobile application capture and store the details of your cattle? 40 4.7
Q3. How efficient the process is to capture the muzzle image with the mobile camera? 40 3.8
Q4. How reliable were the matched cattle results displayed by the application? 40 4.2
Q5. Will you recommend this product to others? 40 4.3
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 377
model with more variated pixel images could resolve Andrew, William, Colin Greatwood, and Tilo Burghardt.
the issue. Figure 48.10 depicts the feedback of the (2017). Visual localisation and individual identifica-
product in scale of 0–5. tion of holstein friesian cattle via deep learning. In
Proceedings of the IEEE international conference on
computer vision workshops, 2850–2859.
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words for cattle identification from muzzle print im-
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images is a promising method for individual animal
Bello, R.-W., Hj Talib, A. Z., and Bin Mohamed, A. S. A.
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that can be used to distinguish between different tion of cow using cow nose image pattern. Gazi Uni-
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in the livestock industry, including tracking animal Deep learning framework for recognition of cattle us-
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ing and camera angle, and the need for large datasets
learning techniques. Animals, 12(11), 1453.
to improve accuracy. The pre-trained model VGG-16
Li, W., Ji, Z., Wang, L., Sun, C., and Yang, X. (2017). Auto-
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49 Simulation-based evaluating AODV routing protocol
using wireless networks
Bhupal Arya1,a, Dr. Jogendra Kumar2, Dr. Parag Jain3, Preeti Saroj4,
Mrinalinee Singh5 and Yogesh Kumar6
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Roorkee Institute of Technology, Uttarakhand, India
1,3,4,5,6
2
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, GBPIET Ghurdauri Pauri Garhwal Uttarakhand, India
Abstract
For wireless ad hoc networks to function effectively and dependably, routing methods must be evaluated and enhanced.
The ad hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) routing protocol is the main topic of this study because of its popularity
and adaptability to dynamic contexts. Simulation-based evaluation with performance metrics has been used to evaluate
the protocol’s performance accurately. This study develops a complete simulation framework to simulate different network
circumstances and situations. A number of performance metrics, such as total bytes sent, total packets sent, first packets
sent, last packets sent, first packets received, total bytes received, total packets received, last packets received, average jitter,
average end-to-end delay, and throughput, are used to assess the effectiveness of the AODV routing protocol. The simulation
scenarios take into account different node densities, traffic loads, and mobility patterns in order to give a comprehensive
evaluation of the behavior of the protocol.
Keywords: Wireless networks, simulation tool, AODV routing protocol, performance metrics
Introduction insights gained from these metrics empower stake-
holders to tailor the AODV protocol’s deployment to
The ad hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) pro-
suit the specific requirements of the network, whether
tocol, as delineated in the dynamic context of wireless
that involves real-time communication demands,
ad hoc networks by Johnson et al. (2016) and Gupta
efficient data transfer, or seamless and dependable
et al. (2017), serves as a pivotal instrument for mitigat-
packet delivery. In essence, the endeavor to evaluate
ing the intricate challenges inherent in decentralized
the AODV routing protocol’s performance using these
communication. Given the evolution of networks, the
metrics is not just an academic exercise but a practi-
imperative assessment of routing protocols arises to
cal necessity in navigating the complexities of modern
guarantee the efficacy of data delivery, the dependabil-
wireless communication landscapes. This evaluation
ity of communication, and the judicious utilization of
aids in gauging AODV’s viability in diverse network
resources. In order to ascertain the effectiveness and
scenarios, contributing to the continued refinement
proficiency of the AODV protocol, an exhaustive
and enhancement of ad hoc networking solutions
array of performance evaluation metrics is deployed,
(Martinez et al., 2018; Kim et al., 2019).
encompassing diverse facets of its operational capa-
bilities. This evaluation traverses a spectrum of met-
rics, each of the shedding light on specific aspects of Related work
the AODV protocol’s behavior and efficiency. These • Data transmission efficiency: Researchers such
metrics encompass facets ranging from data transmis- as Johnson et al. (2001) and Perkins and Royer
sion efficiency and temporal coordination to delivery (1999) have delved into AODV’s data transmis-
reliability and throughput optimization. By dissecting sion efficiency. Johnson et al. (2001) highlights
these facets, a holistic understanding of the AODV the significance of “Total Bytes Sent” and “Total
protocol’s performance can be achieved, enabling Packets Sent” as crucial indicators of AODV’s
network architects and researchers to make informed resource utilization and packet propagation ef-
decisions regarding its implementation. This explo- ficiency. Perkins and Royer (1999), in their semi-
ration of metrics encapsulates not only the ability nal work, emphasize the importance of dynamic
of protocol to propagate data, but also its finesse in route establishment in AODV, corroborating
orchestrating timely transmissions, ensuring reliable the protocol’s approach to conserving network
data delivery, mitigating variations in delivery tim- resources during data transmission (Wu et al.,
ing, and optimizing data throughput. The nuanced 2020; Smith et al., 2021).
bhupalarya@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 379
• Temporal coordination and delivery reliabil- plays a crucial role in preventing the occurrence
ity: Temporal coordination and delivery reliability of loops.
have been examined by Lee and Gerla (2001), who • Route reply generation: Once RREQ packet
investigate AODV’s temporal benchmarks, includ- reached either the final destination node or either
ing “First Packet Sent Time” and “First Packet a node that possesses a valid route to the final
Received Time.” Their research underscores the destination, a frequent route reply packet (RREP)
protocol’s efficiency in promptly initiating and con- is formulated. The RREP is then unicast through
cluding transmissions. On the other hand, (Brar et the reverse path set, a compilation of nodes that
al., 2022; Casetti et al., 2002) delve into AODV’s collectively remember the path back to the source.
“Average End-to-End Delay” metric, elucidating • Maintenance of routes: Nodes sustain a continu-
its implications for reliable data delivery (Zhang et ous exchange of Hello messages to monitor the
al., 2016; Khattar et al., 2020; Garcia et al., 2022). status of links. Should a link failure or disruption
• Jitter analysis and throughput optimization: In in the route arise due to factors such as node mo-
the realm of delivery reliability and jitter analy- bility, a route error packet (RERR) is generated.
sis, Azzouni et al. (2006) assess “Average Jitter” This packet informs affected nodes to modify
as a measure of the uniformity of packet delivery their routing tables, thereby steering clear of the
timing, emphasizing its role in maintaining con- compromised route.
sistent data delivery patterns. Tang et al. (2010) • Forwarding of data: Subsequent to the establish-
extend the evaluation to throughput optimiza- ment of a route, the source node can efficiently
tion, exploring how AODV’s “Throughput” met- send data packets to the destination using the es-
ric influences its capacity to manage data traffic tablished pathway. Intermediate nodes effectively
efficiently, thus enhancing network performance forward data packets by referencing their routing
(Liu et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2018). tables.
• Holistic evaluations and multi-dimensional in- • Route expiration: Routes have a pre-determined
sights: Holistic evaluations that encompass a lifespan. If a route remains inactive for a desig-
range of metrics have been conducted by Maltz nated period, it is deemed obsolete and subse-
and Broch (1999), demonstrating the interplay quently discarded.
between “Total Bytes Received,” “Total Packets • Through these mechanisms, the AODV protocol
Received,” and “Average Jitter.” Through such tackles the intricacies of routing within dynamic
multi-dimensional analyses, they reveal AODV’s and resource-constrained network environments,
ability to achieve effective data acquisition while showcasing its ability to provide efficient and
mitigating delivery timing variations (Gupta et responsive data communication (Johnson et al.,
al., 2018; Wang et al., 2018). 2016; Kim et al., 2017; Martinez et al., 2018; Wu
et al., 2020; Garcia et al., 2022).
Ad hoc on-demand (AODV) distance vector
routing protocol Simulation setup and performance metrics
• AODV routing protocol has gained significant Table 49.1 Parameters list (simulation setup).
popularity within WSN and mobile ad hoc net-
Parameters Values
works (MANETs) due to its effective manage-
ment of network resources. AODV operates un- Area 1500 m × 1500 m
der a reactive paradigm, dynamically establishing
Channel frequency 2.4 GHz
routes between nodes as needed. This approach
effectively minimizes the burden of control mes- Model (fading) Rayleigh
sages and optimally utilizes available resources. Battery model (Mica Linear simple model
Presented below is an outline of the operational Motes)
principles of the AODV protocol. No. of nodes 100 nodes
• Route discovery: When a node aims to dispatch Node placement model Random waypoint model
data to a destination node but lacks route infor- Routing protocols AODV
mation, it triggers the method of discovery route Shadowing model Constant energy model
process.
Simulation time 900 seconds
• Propagation of (RREQ) route request: The source
node disseminates a route request packet contain- Terrain file Digital elevation model
(DEM)
ing essential particulars, including the source and
final destination addresses, along with a distinc- Traffic source Constant bit rate (CBR)
traffic load
tive sequence number. This sequence number
380 Simulation-based evaluating AODV routing protocol using wireless networks
Figure 49.1 Wireless networks scenario for routing protocols
Figure 49.2 Simulation view
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 381
Table 49.2 Performance metrics.
Metrics Equations
Total bytes sent B_total_sent = ∑ (Size of each sent packet)
Total packets sent P_total_sent = Count of sent packets
First packet sent T_first_sent = Time of sending the first packet
Last packet sent T_last_sent = Time of sending the last packet
First packet received T_first_received = Time of receiving the first packet at the destination
Total bytes received B_total_received = ∑ (Size of each received packet)
Total packets received P_total_received = Count of received packets
Last packet received T_last_received = Time of receiving the last packet at the destination
Average jitter Jitter_avg = Average delay variation between consecutive received packets
Average end-to-end delay Delay_avg = ( End-to-End Delay of all received packets) / P_total_received
Simulation results and discuss
Figure 49.3 Total byte sent
Figure 49.4 Total packet sent
382 Simulation-based evaluating AODV routing protocol using wireless networks
Figure 49.5 First packet sent
Figure 49.6 Last packet sent
Figure 49.7 Average jitter
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 383
Figure 49.8 First packet received
Figure 49.9 Total byte received
Figure 49.10 Total packet received
384 Simulation-based evaluating AODV routing protocol using wireless networks
Figure 49.11 Last packet received
Figure 49.12 Average end to end delay(s)
Figure 49.13 Throughput (bits/s)
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 385
When evaluating the overall performance of AODV Conclusion
routing protocol, a comprehensive set of metrics is
In summary, a thorough grasp of AODV routing
utilized to gauge its efficiency, reliability, and adapt-
protocol’s operational effectiveness, dependability,
ability to diverse network conditions. These metrics
and adaptability for many network circumstances
collectively yield valuable insights into the protocol’s
may be gained by employing these measures.
behavior and its ability to handle data transmission
Depending on particular network requirements,
in dynamic wireless ad hoc networks. Data transfer
such as throughput requirements, reliability expec-
metrics, such as total bytes sent (B_total_sent) and
tations, and delay sensitivity, each indicator has a
total packets sent (P_total_sent), offer a numerical
different level of significance. Researchers and net-
representation of the amount of data transferred and
work designers can decide whether or not to use
the quantity of packets sent from the source node to
AODV as a routing solution in dynamic wireless
the destination. These metrics illuminate the proto-
ad hoc networks by taking into account all of these
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50 Smart agriculture using machine learning algorithms
Tript Manna and Jashandeep Kaur
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India
Abstract
India has become the most populous country in the world and food is an essential necessity for human beings. The major
source of food production is agriculture. In addition, agriculture is India’s largest sector of employment. But widely tradi-
tional methods are used in agriculture that does not provide a great deal of efficiency. A solution system is deployed by the
use of machine learning (ML) which will contribute to the improvement of the agricultural sector. The proposed solution
will provide the best crop for seeding using specific traits. On the basis of soil data collected, it will suggest the necessary
fertilizer which can be used in the field. The system will assist in irrigation scheduling, which will also inform when to irrigate
the field. This will result in the saving of a significant amount of groundwater and freshwater, which is currently a concern.
Using specific inputs, the model will also provide the soil moisture of the field.
Keywords: Machine learning, crop recommendation, fertilizer recommendation, irrigation scheduling, soil moisture levels
Introduction irrigation scheduling assists in telling when to irrigate
the field using ML.
By 2050, world’s population is expected to increase
to 10 billion, which will raise agricultural production
in an environment of modest financial development Literature survey
by around 50% as compared to 2013 (FAO, 2017). Nischitha et al. (2020) performed classification algo-
Agriculture comprises of 18% of India’s gross domes- rithms to recommend an appropriate crop for a spe-
tic product. So, it is crucial to enhance the sustainabil- cific land and predicted rainfall. They implemented
ity of agriculture in our country. It will increase the decision tree model for crop recommendation. This
efficiency and helps farmers in gaining more profits. improved the yield production of farmers by growing
Mostly farmers use old methods for agriculture prac- the appropriate crop in their fields.
tices in India. Modernization of agriculture is also Bondre and Mahagaonkar (2019) described how
needed like all other sectors which will drastically the ML algorithms are used for recommending the
change the lifestyle of farmers. So, the system has been necessary fertilizer required for a field. It reduces
provided to improve the agriculture sustainability. excess use of unnecessary chemicals which contrib-
Decision-making is the most important concept in utes in saving our environment.
the modern world. The rational decision-making has Prakash and co-authors (Prakash et al., 2018)
been taken to next level by the use of machine learn- described soil moisture prediction in advance by using
ing (ML). These models use ML algorithms to find ML algorithms like multiple linear regression, sup-
optimum solutions for specific problems (Zhou et al., port vector regression, etc., for different variation of
2020). It uses algorithms for classification and regres- subset of days. These were applied on three datasets
sion like linear regression, Gaussian Naïve Bayes, taken from different repositories available.
SVM, XG boost, etc. Ritesh et al. (2021) described crop growth primar-
Machine learning acts as a game changer in proposed ily. They suggested that selecting only two models
solution. ML models are used for making predictions can’t give us the required output. Out of support
based on the previous data. The solution consists of vector machines (SVM) and decision tree algorithm,
crop recommendation system, fertilizer recommen- greater accuracy score was of SVM with a sore of
dation system, soil moisture predictor and irrigation 92%.
scheduling. In crop recommendation, best suitable Kasara et al. (2020) provided solution for IoT-
crop is predicted by using past data from trustable based smart agriculture. They used datasets which
resources. This is being done using SVC algorithm. In contained various features related to climate. Decision
fertilizer recommendation, various algorithms have tree algorithm was implemented on these features and
been used to recommend the required fertilizer on the then applied it on the sensed datasets which provided
basis of certain soil parameters. Soil moisture can also an output telling whether there is need of watering
be predicted using XG boost algorithm and further the crop or not.
a
triptmann11@[Link]
388 Smart agriculture using machine learning algorithms
Veenadhari et al. (2014) developed a website to After collecting dataset, the process starts with
search the effect of parameters on production of crops loading the external dataset. Firstly, the target for a
in Madhya Pradesh, India. The crops selected could model will be defined and then we perform splitting
be wheat, paddy, soybean and maize. They used the of data into train and test sets. The further step is to
decision tree algorithm for methodology. apply classification algorithms and the best accuracy
Pavan Kumar (2022) conducted the study to cat- is provided by SVC which is defined as – Let us sup-
egorize the crop. They implemented random forests pose a random point A and examine whether it lies
for improving yield production. This model provided on the left side of the plane (negative) or the right
the least mean squared error and greatest R2 value one (positive). After that, make a vector x which is
among all other regression algorithms. perpendicular to hyperplane. Consider vector x from
Jhajharia and Mathur (2022) suggested the ML origin to decision boundary is at distance “c”. Then
model implementation in the agriculture field in some project A vector on x. Thus, decision rule for this will
previous years. Out of various algorithms deployed, be defined as:
neural networks and SVMs are found to provide
®®
more precision (Thakur et al., 2021). A .x – c ≥ 0
Proposed system Putting -c as b, we get
Proposed system is capable of doing a number of ®®
tasks such as crop recommendation, fertilizer recom- A .x + b ≥ 0
®®
mendation, irrigation scheduling and prediction of y = +1 if A .x + b ≥ 0
soil moisture levels based on several different param- ®®
eters. First of all, raw data is collected from various y = –1 if A .x + b < 0
resources. Then, data pre-processing takes place that
involves several things like data wrangling and deal- Flow chart for whole process can be shown as below
ing with missing and null values of the dataset. After (Figure 50.1).
that, several ML algorithms are applied for training
the model like Naïve Bayes, SVM, XG boost, etc., on Fertilizer recommendation
various cases mentioned above. The data for recommendation of fertilizers is col-
lected by researching various websites and sources.
Crop recommendation This dataset consists of various features and they are
The process takes place with the first step of collect- comprised in Table 50.2.
ing data from different sources. Various datasets for Fertilizer name will be defined as a target vari-
rainfall and climatic data of India are augmented. It able which includes several different fertilizers such
has twenty two different crops like rice, chickpea, as Urea, DAP, 14-35-14, 28-2, 17-17, 20-20, 10-26-
kidney beans, etc. It comprises of climatic conditions 26. After this, data analyzing and data visualization
required to grow the crops like temperature, humid- is performed for better understanding of data. It is
ity, rainfall. The dataset contains soil conditions too. necessary step for getting familiar with collected data.
These features are described in Table 50.1. For model implementation, after splitting the data-
set into training and testing sets, various classifica-
tion algorithms are applied by making use of sklearn
library which further helps in predicting the suitable
Table 50.1 Features description for dataset of crop fertilizer. Decision tree classifier provides the best
recommendation. results in this case. The flow chart for the same can be
shown in Figure 50.2.
Features Description
N Ratio of nitrogen content in soil
Irrigation scheduling
The initial step in the whole process is data collec-
P Phosphorus content in soil
tion which is performed by collecting data for irri-
K Potassium ratio in soil gation from various resources. The dataset, thus
pH Soil pH composed, consists of several features which is dis-
Temperature Temperature of the area in degree celsius played Table 50.3.
Humidity Humidity of the area where field is After loading this external dataset, data pre-pro-
situated cessing has been performed. It involves removing a
Rainfall Rainfall in the region where field is few missing values (NaN,nan,na) which were present
situated in column altitude and filling them with the average
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 389
Figure 50.1 Flow chart for crop recommendation
Table 50.2 Feature description for dataset of fertilizer recommendation.
Features Description
Temperature Temperature of atmosphere
Humidity Humidity of the surroundings
Moisture Moisture of the particular area
Soil type Type of soil on which crop is grown (e.g. sandy, loamy)
Crop type Crop grown on the field (e.g. sugarcane, cotton)
Nitrogen Nitrogen ratio in soil
Potassium Potassium content ratio in soil
Phosphorus Phosphorous content in soil
Figure 50.2 Flow chart for fertilizer recommendation
value of the whole column. It also includes remov- predicted for the respective algorithms. The flow chart
ing the unnecessary columns such as id number. After for this whole process is given Figure 50.3.
this, Exploratory data analysis (EDA) takes place
using various visualization libraries. Then, for imple- Soil moisture prediction
mentation of model, firstly encoding of these categori- The process starts with collecting the data and load-
cal values is done by using sklearn library. The further ing the respective dataset which consists of several
step is to split 80% data into training dataset and features which are summarized in Table 50.4.
20% into testing dataset and then training the model Here the amount of soil moisture will be the target
using various classification algorithms of machine variable for the model. Then, the process continues
learning which involves logistic regression, Gaussian with performing data wrangling and exploratory
Naïve Bayes classifier, SVC. Thus, the output will be data analysis. The further step is to implement models
390 Smart agriculture using machine learning algorithms
Table 50.3 Features description for dataset of irrigation scheduling.
Features Description
Id Unique identity number
Temperature Temperature of surrounding
Pressure Pressure in atmosphere
Altitude Height at which the all the details are collected
Soil moisture Soil moisture at specific time
Class The condition of land according to soil moisture
Date Date at which data is collected
Time Specific time at which data is collected
Figure 50.3 Flow chart for irrigation scheduling
Table 50.4 Feature description for dataset of soil moisture Some famous regressors like XG boost regressor are
prediction. employed which helps in predicting the soil mois-
ture levels. The flow chart for the same is given in
Features Description
Figure 50.4.
Time Specific time at which data is
collected Results
sm Soil moisture
The solution developed helps in making agriculture
pm1, pm2, pm3 Particulate matter
more sustainable by recommending the best suitable
temp Temperature of the area in degree crop required to be sown, telling us the necessary fer-
celsius
tilizer required in the field, predicting the moisture
humd Humidity of the area where field present in soil using specific traits and help in irri-
is situated
gation scheduling. In crop recommendation system,
pres Pressure in atmosphere multiple algorithms were used. For instance, logis-
tic regression gave the accuracy of 96.36%, how-
ever, SVC algorithm provided the best accuracy i.e.
and training it by using various regression algorithms 98.63% and important classification metrics for it are
as the amount of soil moisture will be continuous. given in Table 50.5.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 391
Figure 50.4 Flow chart for soil moisture prediction
Table 50.5 Classification metrics for crop Table 50.6 Classification report for fertilizer
recommendation system. recommendation system.
Precision Recall F1-score Support Precision Recall F1-score Support
Accuracy 0.99 440 0.0 0.94 1.00 0.97 17
Macro average 0.99 0.99 0.99 440 1.1 1.00 0.67 0.80 3
Weighted 0.99 0.99 0.99 440 Accuracy 0.95 20
average Macro avg 0.97 0.83 0.89 20
Weighted avg 0.95 0.95 0.95 20
Table 50.7 Regression metrics for soil moisture prediction.
Table 50.8 Classification report for irrigation scheduling.
Metrics for regression
Precision Recall F1-score Support
Mean absolute error 250.971
Median absolute error 64.482 0.0 0.91 1.00 0.95 853
Mean squared error 392853.245 1.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 85
Max error 4065.497 Accuracy 0.91 938
R2-score 0.958 Macro avg 0.45 0.50 0.48 938
Explained variance score 0.958 Weighted avg 0.83 0.91 0.87 938
In fertilizer recommendation system, the algorithms R2-score was calculated for all regressors in which
logistic regression and random forest both provided score given by decision tree regressor was 95.83%.
90% accuracy in predicting the results for fertilizer. However, XG boost algorithm gives slightly different
Hence, the required fertilizer is predicted using deci- R2-score of 95.84% which is considered as the best
sion tree that provides best results with accuracy of among others and important regression metrics for it
95% and its classification report is displayed in Table are given in Table 50.7.
50.6. In irrigation scheduling, various classification
In soil moisture prediction, various regression algo- algorithms are used like Gaussian Naïve Bayes,
rithms have been used which includes linear regres- SVM, etc., out of which Gaussian Naïve Bayes
sor, XG boost regressor, decision tree regressor. The provided the accuracy of 86.99% whereas SVM
392 Smart agriculture using machine learning algorithms
gave best accuracy of 90.93% and its classification Zhou, Yan, and Murat Kantarcioglu. (2020). On transpar-
report is in Table 50.8. ency of machine learning models: A position paper. In
AI for Social Good Workshop. 1–5.
Nischitha, K., Vishkarma, D., Mahendra, N., Ashwini, and
Conclusion and future scope Manjuraju, M. R. (2020). Crop prediction using ma-
Conclusion chine learning approaches. Int. J. Engg. Res. Technol.,
23–26.
This paper proposes a system which comprises of set
Bondre, D. A. and Mahagaonkar, S. (2019). Prediction of
of solutions that are developed using ML models.
crop yield and fertilizer recommendation using ma-
This will help in increasing the crop yield and in sav- chine learning algorithms. Int. J. Engg. Appl. Sci. Tech-
ing the environment. The farmers will get to know nol., 4(5), 371–376.
the best crop they should sow for having maximum Thakur, D., Singh, J., Dhiman, G., Shabaz, M., and Gera,
profit. This system will intensely lower the farmers T. (2021). Identifying major research areas and mi-
costs by only telling them what fertilizer they should nor research themes of android malware analysis
use. It will also assist in minimizing use of excess fer- and detection field using LSA. Complexity, 2021,
tilizers which is very harmful for our environment. It 1–28.
will save freshwater which is only 3% of water pres- Prakash, S., Sharma, A., and Sahu, S. S. (2018). Soil moisture
ent on earth by soil moisture detection and irrigation prediction using machine learning. 2018 Second Int.
Conf. Invent. Comm. Comput. Technol. (ICICCT),
scheduling.
1-6. IEEE, 2018.
Ritesh, D., Dash, D. K., and Biswal, G. C. (2021). Classifi-
Future scope cation of crop based on macronutrients and weath-
er data using machine learning techniques. Results
The considered datasets have been previously col- Engg., 9, 100203.
lected by trustable sources. The system will become Kasara, Y. M. R., Kovvada Rajeev, L. N., and Sai Nandan,
more precise by adding new and extensive data from N. (2020). IoT based smart agriculture using machine
several GPS spots. More models can be developed in learning. 2020 Sec. Int. Conf. Invent. Res. Comput.
future like disease prediction. The system can further Appl. (ICIRCA), 130–134. IEEE, 2020.
extended as per user and administrative requirements Veenadhari, S., Misra, B., and Singh, C. D. (2014). Machine
to encompass other aspects of the model. learning approach for forecasting crop yield based on
climatic parameters. 2014 Int. Conf. Comp. Comm.
Informat., 1–5. IEEE 2014.
Acknowledgments Pavan Kumar, D. (2022). Smart farming through machine
We extend our sincere appreciation to all individuals learning - A review. Int. J. Res. Publ. Rev., 3(11), 792–
797.
and organizations which assist us a lot to complete
Jhajharia, K. and Mathur, P. (2022). A comprehensive re-
this research project. The assistance, uplifting and
view on machine learning in agriculture domain. IAES
support of these people is really irreplaceable. Int. J. Artif. Intel., 11(2), 753.
References
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for peace and food security. Rome, FAO (2017).
51 Cloud computing empowering e-commerce innovation
Zinatullah Akramia and Gurjit Singh Bhathal
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Punjabi University, Patiala, India
Abstract
As of the recent technology, cloud computing has become as a significant driver of innovation, particularly on the e-com-
merce industry. Its influence on this sector has been profound. This research paper delves into the transformative impact
of cloud computing on e-commerce innovation. It sheds light on how cloud computing empowers businesses to overcome
obstacles, harness advanced technologies, improve customer experiences, and stimulate growth. Through a comprehensive
analysis of the strategic use of cloud computing in fostering innovation within the e-commerce landscape, the current study
unveil the pivotal role it plays in enabling online businesses to embrace some fresh approaches, adapt to ever-changing mar-
ket, and thrive in the digital era.
Keywords: Cloud computing, customer experience, digital transformation, e-commerce, technology adoption
Introduction The advent of cloud computing has revolutionized
the e-commerce landscape, empowering businesses
As we know that the internet has become an indispens-
to harness cutting-edge technologies and streamline
able for communication and information exchange,
their operations. Cloud computing has permeated
revolutionizing the way businesses operate. In recent
the e-commerce industry, injecting newfound vigor
years, there has been a profound shift in the way busi-
and propelling businesses to unprecedented levels of
nesses practices, largely influenced by rapid advance-
growth and innovation.
ments in technology, particularly in cloud computing
The emergence of cloud computing has fostered
and digitalization. These changes has had some big
an environment of seamless resource sharing among
impact on various industries, including e-commerce
e-commerce entities, enabling businesses to collabo-
and e-business. In today’s rapidly evolving business
rate and scale effortlessly. This thesis delves into the
landscape, businesses are experiencing significant
profound impact of cloud computing on e-commerce,
changes and a growing need to remain competitive
exploring its integration and transformative effects on
and cater to evolving consumer demands. To meet
the online business landscape. By meticulously analyz-
these challenges, businesses are increasingly embrac-
ing the benefits, challenges, and implications of cloud
ing cloud computing solutions to enhance their e-com-
computing in e-commerce, this research endeavors to
merce operations. This research paper explores the
provide valuable insights into the potential oppor-
empowering role of cloud computing in driving digi-
tunities and disruptions that stem from this digital
tal transformation within the realms of e-commerce
transformation. Through a comprehensive review of
and e-business, shedding light on how it enables busi-
the literature and empirical analysis, this study strives
nesses to stay competitive, meet changing consumer
to offer a holistic understanding of cloud computing’s
needs, and enhance their overall operations.
role in e-commerce and its far-reaching consequences
In recent the cloud computing has revolutionized
for both businesses and consumers.
the e-commerce landscape, fundamentally reshaping
the way industries and enterprises conduct their busi-
nesses. By providing dynamically scalable and virtual- Related work
ized resources as a service over the internet, it has laid Based on the comprehensive information already pre-
a solid foundation for e-commerce and brought about sented on the topics of e-commerce and cloud com-
a paradigm shift in the business scenario. This trans- puting, it is worth mentioning that cloud providers
formative model presents businesses with fresh oppor- have developed various geo-replication approaches
tunities to harness advanced technologies, streamline and implemented diverse strategies to enhance the
operations, and drive growth. Widely acknowledged accessibility of cloud services. For instance, Amazon
as the next major transformation in the IT industry, has introduced CloudFront, a web service dedicated
cloud computing has gained immense popularity and to content delivery.
adoption in e-commerce, injecting newfound vigor One notable service offered by Amazon is
into this rapidly expanding sector. CloudFront, which utilizes their extensive global
a
zinatullahakrami@[Link]
394 Cloud computing empowering e-commerce innovation
network of edge locations to efficiently deliver web encompasses a wide range of business transac-
content. This service automatically directs requests tions, administrative operations, and information
for web content in the Amazon Cloud to the nearest exchanges that are facilitated through various infor-
edge location. However, it is worth mentioning that mation and communications technologies. Businesses
e-commerce websites often require frequent access to can leverage a scalable and flexible infrastructure that
large-scale backend databases, and the CloudFront seamlessly supports e-commerce activities. The con-
service does not directly aid in database access (Wang vergence of cloud computing and e-commerce revo-
and Jian, 2016). lutionizes the business landscape, enabling businesses
Another solution that enhances cloud application to leverage advanced cloud-based resources and fos-
performance is the Microsoft SQL Azure Data Sync ter innovation. The integration of cloud computing
Service. With the Microsoft SQL Azure approach, into e-commerce operations has unleashed a wave of
developers can geographically distribute data to one innovation, revolutionizing traditional business mod-
or more SQL Azure data centers worldwide, utiliz- els and empowering businesses to optimize opera-
ing the data sync service. This approach allows for tional efficiency, scale seamlessly, and meet evolving
effective data distribution and synchronization across customer demands (Hao et al., 2013).
multiple locations (Wang and Jian, 2016). This seamless integration has propelled advance-
Due to some cloud computing disrupts the con- ments across the four broad categories of e-commerce
ventional network architecture model by providing transactions: business-to-business (B2B), business-to-
the flexibility and cost-effectiveness. It eliminates the consumer (B2C), consumer-to-consumer (C2C), and
negative consequences and impact of single computer consumer-to-business (C2B). Each category repre-
equipment failures, safeguarding and ensuring users sents a distinct market segment with its own dynam-
are unaffected by issues such as inaccessible devices ics and specific requirements, and cloud computing
or data loss, resulting in greater reliability and acces- has emerged as a transformative force, driving agility,
sibility to resources. Through the utilization of cloud cost-effectiveness, and technological advancements
computing, users can overcome these limitations and across the online marketplace.
experience enhanced reliability and accessibility to In today’s digital age, it is commonplace for major
their resources (Rao et al., 2013). retail companies to establish a robust online pres-
ence through websites and e-commerce platforms.
E-commerce This paradigm shift has unlocked the vast potential of
The process of purchasing essential commodities e-commerce, empowering businesses to expand their
that we often require be time-consuming, costly, and reach, streamline transactions, and generate new rev-
involve unnecessary expenditures. However, the tech- enue streams. Cloud computing serves as the corner-
nology has helped the new fortunes by the shape of stone of these online operations, providing the critical
electronic commerce, commonly known as e-com- infrastructure, storage, and computing resources nec-
merce. E-commerce helps individuals the opportunity essary for seamless e-commerce experiences (Faccia et
of buying and selling of goods and services over the al., 2016).
internet. It provides customers, partners, and other E-commerce systems help retailers by provid-
individuals to engage in a wide range of transactions ing both commercial information (such as the price
capabilities and access different services (Krypa and of products, availability of quantities, and product
Anni, 2016). reviews) and facilitating various commercial actions
The emergence of e-commerce has significantly (such as buying, selling, and returning products). As
reduced the costs associated with some different technology is growing rapidly, the exponential growth
enterprise product development and production. and use of information technology in this area has led
Moreover, it has also led to a substantial decrease to fundamental changes in the way these commercial
in circulation of commodities. This shift towards activities are performed. E-commerce has become one
e-commerce has resulted in some efficiency and con- of the main business transaction methods between
venience, benefiting both businesses and the buyer’s online merchants and consumers due to the conve-
alike (Shi et al., 2017; Singh et al., 2019). nience and efficiency it offers (Baghdadi, 2013).
Cloud computing has brought some new features The popularity of mobile communication technol-
and transformation in the field of technology, which ogy and Wi-Fi has led to the rise of mobile e-com-
enables and empowers innovation in the field of merce, which allows users to perform all kinds of
e-commerce. By harnessing the power and capabilities e-commerce activities through their mobile devices. In
of cloud computing, businesses could leverage a scal- a mobile e-commerce model based on mobile cloud,
able and flexible infrastructure that seamlessly sup- e-commerce companies do not need to build their
ports e-commerce activities. Based on the definition own service platforms. Instead, they can quickly and
of the Electronic Commerce Association, e-commerce easily operate their e-commerce processes by simply
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 395
Figure 51.1 Shows global ecommerce retail sales reached $5.7 trillion in 2022. This share is expected to increase by
10% in 2023 and reach $6.3 trillion.
Figure 51.2 Comparison of traditional e-commerce and cloud e-commerce
leasing cloud services on demand from cloud service provisioning and release with minimal management
providers. Consumers, on the other hand, only need effort (Rao et al., 2013).
to have a simple mobile device to access the mobile Cloud computing, a transformative force shaping
cloud and enjoy the services of the e-commerce plat- the digital landscape, has become an indispensable
form (Li et al., 2019) (Figures 51.1 and 51.2). tool for businesses of all sizes seeking to maintain
their competitive edge. This convergence of distrib-
Cloud computing uted, parallel, grid, and virtualization technologies
The rapid development of the internet has led to the empowers businesses to access computing resources
growth of many trends that are based on the internet, on-demand, eliminating the need for substantial hard-
such as cloud computing. Cloud computing is a term ware and software investments, resulting in cost sav-
with multiple definitions, one of the most renowned ings and enhanced scalability (Liu, 2011).
being IBM’s description as “a pool of virtualized com- In the dynamic realm of e-commerce innova-
puter resources that can be rapidly provisioned and tion, cloud computing unveils three distinct service
released, managed through a centralized dashboard.” models: Infrastructure Cloud, Platform Cloud, and
Cloud computing revolutionizes how businesses Application Cloud, each tailored to specific needs and
access and utilize resources, providing them with the facilitating diverse transactions. Infrastructure cloud
necessary tools precisely when needed, eliminating primarily focuses on providing users with computing
the need for upfront infrastructure investments and and storage resources, complemented by authoriza-
associated costs. This transformative approach has tion services.
unleashed significant time and cost savings, enabling Its core function involves virtualizing computing
businesses to optimize operations and enhance their and storage resources in one or multiple data centers,
agility and responsiveness to market fluctuations (Liu, enabling flexible resource allocation. Notable exam-
2011). ples of this model include Amazon’s elastic compute
Cloud computing redefines resource access and uti- cloud and IBM’s Blue Cloud. These cloud comput-
lization, enabling users to tap into a shared pool of ing models play a significant role in enabling inno-
computing resources on-demand, facilitating rapid vation within the e-commerce sector. By leveraging
396 Cloud computing empowering e-commerce innovation
Infrastructure Cloud, businesses can efficiently man- This cost-effective approach maximizes return on
age and scale their computing and storage resources. investment, empowering businesses to thrive in the
Platform Cloud, on the other hand, empowers ever-evolving e-commerce landscape.
developers to create cutting-edge applications with- Accessibility and availability: Cloud-based e-com-
out worrying about the underlying infrastructure. merce platforms democratize the online marketplace,
Together, these cloud computing models contribute to empowering businesses to transcend geographical
the advancement of e-commerce innovation, foster- boundaries and provide customers with ubiquitous
ing growth and enabling novel business opportunities access to their products. This seamless and borderless
(Treesinthuros, 2012). experience fosters a sense of connection and conve-
Another essential cloud computing model rel- nience for customers, enabling them to shop and pur-
evant to e-commerce innovation is the Application chase goods effortlessly, regardless of their location or
Cloud, which directly caters to end software users, device. As a result, cloud-based e-commerce platforms
often in the form of Software as a Service (SaaS). The ignite a surge in sales growth, elevate customer satis-
Application Cloud serves as a platform where users faction, and propel businesses to new heights of suc-
can customize, configure, assemble, install, and test cess in the ever-evolving e-commerce landscape.
each module of a software system. This level of flex- Data storage and backup: Cloud storage services
ibility empowers end users to obtain software systems empower businesses to securely and efficiently safe-
that precisely meet their needs and fulfill their specific guard their e-commerce data, ensuring business
requirements. In this model, applications such as Sales continuity and safeguarding against data loss or cor-
Force CRM, Google Apps, and Zoho have emerged ruption. With robust security measures, advanced
as highly valuable tools. These applications exemplify encryption techniques, and seamless disaster recov-
the capabilities of the Application Cloud, providing ery capabilities, cloud storage provides businesses
users with versatile and adaptable software solutions with the peace of mind to focus on growth and
that can be tailored to their unique preferences and innovation.
business demands (Liu, 2011).
Leveraging the power of sentiment analysis and Indirect role of cloud computing in e-commerce
employing a fuzzy cloud-based model, the proposed Enhanced performance and scalability: Cloud com-
system provides invaluable assistance to users in the puting unleashes a surge of computational power for
complex task of product selection. It facilitates the e-commerce businesses, enabling them to seamlessly
identification of optimal products that align with navigate traffic spikes, process vast datasets with
users’ individual preferences and requirements, while ease, and deliver exceptional performance to custom-
also incorporating the collective sentiment expressed ers. This translates into lightning-fast loading times,
by fellow customers. Through the integration of enhanced user experiences, and unwavering customer
these advanced technologies, the system enhances satisfaction, propelling businesses to the vanguard of
the decision-making process, empowering users to the ever-changing e-commerce landscape.
make informed choices amidst a vast array of product Advanced analytics and personalization: Cloud com-
options available across multiple e-commerce plat- puting unlocks a limitless reservoir of computational
forms (Yang et al., 2023). power for e-commerce businesses, enabling them to
seamlessly navigate traffic spikes, effortlessly process
Direct role of cloud computing in e-commerce vast datasets, and deliver exceptional performance to
Cloud-based infrastructure: Cloud computing customers. This translates into lightning-fast loading
empowers e-commerce businesses with scalable and times, enhanced user experiences, and unwavering
flexible infrastructure for hosting their applications customer satisfaction, propelling businesses to the
and websites, eliminating the need for costly hard- vanguard of the ever-changing e-commerce landscape.
ware investments and enabling seamless resource
scaling based on demand. This robust infrastructure Collaboration and integration: Cloud computing
ensures reliable and efficient performance for e-com- empowers e-commerce businesses to connect their
merce platforms, ensuring seamless customer experi- systems with a vast network of third-party services,
ences and operational excellence. fostering effortless integration across the entire
Cost reduction: Cloud computing fosters cost-effi- ecosystem. This seamless integration streamlines
ciency by eliminating the need for upfront investments operations, elevates customer experiences, and fuels
in physical infrastructure, maintenance, and software business growth.
licensing. By embracing a pay-as-you-go model, busi- Innovation and experimentation: Cloud comput-
nesses can dynamically align their IT expenses with ing offers a platform for e-commerce businesses to
actual usage, optimize resource allocation for other experiment with new ideas, test new features, and
growth initiatives, and enhance budgeting processes. quickly deploy innovations. This fosters a culture of
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 397
innovation and enables businesses to stay competitive eliminating the need for in-house installation and
in a rapidly evolving market. maintenance. Cloud vendors manage a vast pool of
computing resources, allocating specific resources
Cloud computing with e-commerce to each client. This distributed cost structure makes
Mastering the intricate dance of cloud computing cloud services more affordable for retailers, expand-
and e-commerce regulations requires a deep grasp of ing accessibility to a broader range of users (Xiaofeng
their intertwined legal frameworks. While both indus- et al., 2013).
tries can function autonomously, their true brilliance The foundation of e-commerce rests upon com-
emerges when they seamlessly converge. This syner- puter networks, traditionally demanding substantial
gistic fusion unleashes a symphony of innovation, investments in hardware and software. However,
transforming the digital commerce landscape. the advent of cloud-based e-commerce has revolu-
This convergence empowers businesses to leverage tionized this landscape, significantly reducing the
the scalability, security, and agility of cloud computing need for upfront hardware and software expendi-
to drive innovation and achieve success in the dynamic tures. By leveraging cloud services, businesses can
e-commerce landscape (Xuecong et al., 2021). reap the benefits of professional maintenance at
The intertwined nature of cloud computing and a lower cost or even for free. This drastic reduc-
e-commerce underscores the necessity of their inte- tion in enterprise investment costs not only benefits
grated utilization to maximize efficiency and achieve businesses financially but also promotes the overall
desired outcomes. When organizations deploy an development of e-commerce enterprises (Shi et al.,
e-commerce system within a cloud computing environ- 2017).
ment, conducting a thorough risk assessment becomes The cost-effectiveness of cloud computing in e-com-
paramount. This evaluation is critical for identify- merce plays a pivotal role in helping enterprises mini-
ing and implementing appropriate security measures mize expenses. Instead of investing in-house software
that safeguard the e-commerce system’s integrity and development, companies can utilize the vast reposi-
ensure its seamless operation (Li et al., 2019). tories of cloud service providers to access essential
Cloud computing in e-commerce refers to “the enterprise management software. This is an effectively
policy of paying for a specific bandwidth and storage caters to more customers while ensuring a relatively
space on a scale based on the usage”, as it is far away secure environment for data storage and management
different than the traditional method, where the user (Shi et al., 2017).
were paying for a certain amount of hard disk space
and bandwidth (Taherkordi et al., 2018). 2. Speed of operations
Cloud computing heralds a new era of e-commerce, Cloud platforms excel in harnessing vast computa-
empowering businesses to elevate their operations tional resources, enabling clients to experience light-
and achieve a competitive edge (Li et al., 2019). ning-fast and efficient operations. This advantage is
Cloud computing offers a significant advantage for particularly beneficial for e-commerce platforms, as
e-commerce businesses by optimizing costs. Unlike the streamlined installation and execution process
traditional brick-and-mortar stores, e-commerce busi- offered by cloud platforms significantly reduces the
nesses can leverage cloud computing’s utility-based, time and effort required to get started. The cloud
on-demand model, paying only for the resources they environment already possesses the requisite IT infra-
use. This flexibility allows e-commerce websites to structure to host the application, minimizing the
reduce costs during periods of lower traffic, enhanc- need for clients to invest in their own infrastructure.
ing their overall cost-effectiveness (Taherkordi et al., This, in turn, expedites the execution time of vari-
2018). ous application modules, leading to enhanced overall
The symbiotic relationship between cloud com- efficiency. Furthermore, vendors expertly handle the
puting and e-commerce has fostered mutual ben- setup process, allowing clients to seamlessly utilize
efits, particularly in the realm of cost reduction for the resources as per their specific requirements (Rao
storing vast amounts of business data. By leveraging et al., 2013).
cloud data centers, companies can significantly mini- Cloud computing’s robust data processing capa-
mize the expenses associated with data storage. The bilities empower businesses to seamlessly scale their
advantages of cloud computing for e-commerce plat- computing resources in real-time, effortlessly aligning
forms are numerous, and briefly highlighted a few key with fluctuating demands. This agility enables busi-
benefits. nesses to tackle previously intractable tasks, unlock-
ing new avenues for growth and innovation. Cloud
1. Cost-effective computing’s ability to optimize resource utiliza-
Cloud computing’s pay-per-use model has revolu- tion and eliminate costly overprovisioning enhances
tionized cos-effectiveness for e-commerce businesses, operational efficiency and cost-effectiveness, driving
398 Cloud computing empowering e-commerce innovation
economic benefits for organizations of all sizes (Shi challenges to the security of e-commerce systems.
et al., 2017). Ensuring the security of e-commerce systems relies
on continuous risk assessment and management
3. Scalability throughout the system’s life cycle. This involves iden-
Scalability is a key feature of cloud computing that tifying assets, identifying new threats, and mitigating
makes it so attractive to businesses. The ability to eas- relative risks to maintain security within acceptable
ily increase or decrease resources as needed empow- limits without compromising system operations.
ers businesses to optimize costs and always have the Cloud computing’s centralized management style
resources they need. This flexibility is especially valu- amplifies the potential consequences of a security
able for businesses with fluctuating demands. breach, posing a greater risk to users. The openness
Cloud computing’s scalability makes it an adapt- and complexity of cloud environments make securing
able and cost-effective solution for businesses of all e-commerce systems based on cloud computing more
sizes. This scalability feature is particularly beneficial challenging compared to traditional network environ-
for retailers, as it helps manage the expenses associ- ments (Al-Jaberi, 2015).
ated with hosting and maintaining their platforms. Cloud computing security exhibits more complex
Additionally, scalability improves the load time of manifestations due to the virtualization and service-
applications, ensuring optimal performance even dur- oriented nature of cloud computing. In cloud envi-
ing periods of high traffic. Therefore, from an eco- ronments, user data and computations are executed
nomic standpoint, retailers using cloud computing and controlled by the cloud computing center, mak-
can greatly benefit from the scalability functionality ing it difficult for users to effectively manage them.
it offers (Rao et al., 2013). Auditing user behavior becomes essential to ensure
the successful implementation of security risk pre-
4. Security vention and control measures (Li and Junfeng,
Traditional business trends have been plagued by 2020).
numerous weaknesses, particularly in terms of secu- The Gartner report highlights seven major secu-
rity. The concerns surrounding information loss and rity risks associated with current cloud comput-
network intrusion have been effectively addressed ing technologies. These risks include privileged user
with the introduction of various standards estab- access, auditability, data location, data isolation, data
lished by organizations like ISO for cloud vendors. recovery, support for surveys, and long-term survival.
Only vendors that adhere to these standards are These vulnerabilities indicate that data and services
authorized to provide cloud services. Additionally, are susceptible to attacks within a cloud computing
customers have become more knowledgeable about environment. These attacks exploit security vulner-
the concept of cloud computing, leading them to abilities stemming from the use of cloud servers and
choose certified vendors endorsed by such organi- technologies by cloud users. As a result, the security
zations. In terms of security, the backup of data is risks in cloud-based e-commerce are significantly
a noteworthy aspect of cloud computing. Data is higher compared to traditional e-commerce.
stored in multiple locations, ensuring its protection The security system of e-commerce based on cloud
and reducing the risk of loss. Furthermore, cloud computing comprises several layers, including a net-
computing data centers are strategically located in work service layer, an encryption technology layer,
different geographical areas, adding an extra layer of a security authentication layer, a transaction proto-
security. Consequently, we can confidently state that col layer, and a business system layer. If any of these
our data with cloud providers is highly secure, allevi- security requirements are compromised, the entire
ating any concerns about potential data loss (Li and system becomes vulnerable to risks (Li and Junfeng,
Junfeng, 2020). 2020).
Cloud-based e-commerce offers enterprises a
dependable and secure data storage center, enhancing 6. Environmental impact reduction
management efficiency with a professional, safe, and By incorporating sustainable manufacturing prac-
reliable approach. By renting cloud computing serv- tices, e-commerce SMEs can minimize their carbon
ers, enterprises gain access to highly stable and reli- footprint, reduce energy consumption, and promote
able services, ensuring uninterrupted operations and responsible sourcing. The integration of cloud com-
optimal performance (Almarabeh et al., 2019). puting empowers small and medium-sized enterprises
(SMEs) to monitor and analyze their environmental
5. Risk assessment impact in real-time. This real-time visibility facilitates
While cloud computing presents significant develop- the implementation of eco-friendly initiatives, propel-
ment opportunities for e-commerce, it also introduces ling SMEs towards a greener and more sustainable
inherent security risks. These risks, in turn, pose new business model (Singhal et al., 2023).
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 399
Methodology Qualitative phase
To maintain the rigor and credibility of the research
This study adopted a mixed-methods research design,
findings, a multi-pronged approach incorporat-
employing a quantitative cross-sectional survey to
ing member checking and data triangulation will be
gather data at a specific point in time and analyze
implemented. Member checking involves present-
the impact of cloud computing on e-commerce. The
ing the research findings to the participants to verify
comprehensive survey instrument captured detailed
the accuracy and authenticity of their perspectives,
information on cloud computing adoption, perceived
encouraging participant feedback that can refine the
advantages, challenges, and its overall influence on
research and bolster its trustworthiness. Additionally,
e-commerce operations.
data triangulation will be employed by comparing
and contrasting the qualitative and quantitative find-
Data collection
ings to solidify the overall understanding and robust-
To safeguard the trustworthiness and dependability of
ness of the research. This multifaceted approach
the research, a meticulously constructed questionnaire
ensures that the research findings are anchored in
will be crafted, drawing upon an extensive literature
both quantitative and qualitative data, delivering a
review and expert consultations. The questionnaire
more comprehensive and insightful understanding of
will undergo rigorous pilot testing to meticulously
cloud computing’s impact on e-commerce.
assess its clarity, validity, and reliability. Data col-
lection will be conducted over a designated period,
Limitations
providing ample time for respondents to complete
Potential limitations of this research include the
the survey. To further enhance the effectiveness of
possibility of self-reported data biases, restricted
the questionnaire, a pre-test will be conducted with a
applicability due to the selection of a specific sample
representative sample of e-commerce businesses. This
group, and potential recall bias in qualitative inter-
pre-test will help identify any areas that require refine-
views. To address these limitations, several mea-
ment in terms of clarity and validity, with necessary
sures will be implemented – ensuring anonymity to
modifications made based on the feedback received.
encourage participants to provide candid and honest
responses; minimizing the influence of social desir-
Sample selection
ability bias, employing robust sampling techniques to
With a focus on e-commerce businesses that have
enhance the representativeness of the sample; trian-
adopted cloud computing solutions, this study will uti-
gulating findings with both qualitative and quantita-
lize a purposive sampling technique to foster a diverse
tive data to strengthen the validity and reliability of
representation of the target population. Factors such
the research, and conducting sensitivity analyses to
as size, industry, and geographic location will be
further examine the impact of potential self-reported
carefully considered during the sampling process to
data biases.
achieve a well-balanced sample. For the quantitative
phase of the study, a combination of stratified random
sampling and convenience sampling techniques will Results
be employed to select the sample. This approach will Cloud computing has emerged as a transformative
help ensure that the sample accurately reflects the tar- force in the e-commerce landscape, empowering busi-
get population and encompasses a mix of businesses nesses to navigate the dynamic digital realm with
with varying characteristics. enhanced agility, scalability, and insights. Its impact
manifests in diverse ways, tailored to the specific
Data analysis implementation strategies, industry dynamics, and
Quantitative phase overall business objectives.
Descriptive statistics will be used to comprehensively By providing seamless access to cutting-edge tech-
portray the demographic characteristics of the sam- nologies, cloud computing empowers e-commerce
ple and key variables. To explore the connections businesses to innovate, gain a competitive edge, and
between variables and assess the significance of cloud stay ahead of the curve. Businesses can leverage cloud
computing’s impact on e-commerce, inferential statis- infrastructure to rapidly deploy new features, applica-
tics such as correlation analysis and regression analy- tions, and services, fostering a culture of innovation
sis will be conducted. These statistical techniques and agility. Additionally, cloud computing enables
will shed light on the strength and direction of the businesses to effectively analyze and extract valuable
relationships between variables. Data analysis will insights from customer data, leading to improvements
be performed using appropriate statistical software, in the overall shopping experience, personalized
ensuring effective analysis, meaningful insights, and product recommendations, and enhanced customer
valid conclusions. satisfaction.
400 Cloud computing empowering e-commerce innovation
Cloud computing simplifies the expansion of global cloud computing’s capabilities in mass data storage,
reach for e-commerce businesses, enabling them high-speed computing, and resource allocation can
to effortlessly offer their products and services to a enable the creation of an e-commerce application
wider audience worldwide. This enhanced accessibil- model.
ity fosters significant sales growth, new market explo- Given the current trend towards cloud computing,
ration, and ultimately, an expanded global presence. we anticipate a growing number of e-commerce web-
Businesses can seamlessly scale their operations to sites migrating to the cloud. Our approach aims to
meet fluctuating demands and adapt to changing mar- bring both the applications and data of e-commerce
ket conditions, ensuring a smooth and uninterrupted websites closer to the clients, thereby enhancing the
customer experience. performance of cloud-based e-commerce site hosting
As technology advances, cloud computing will services. The robust storage, operational, and secu-
continue to play a pivotal role in shaping the future rity functions of cloud computing, coupled with its
of e-commerce, providing businesses with the agil- efficient resource allocation and sharing, establish a
ity, scalability, and insights necessary to navigate the solid foundation for the development of e-commerce
ever-changing digital landscape and achieve long- recommendation engines, leading to a novel business
term success. recommendation approach.
By utilizing cloud computing, e-commerce organi-
Discussion zations can significantly reduce the hardware and soft-
ware costs associated with web mining, consequently
Cloud computing has emerged as a transforma- increasing enterprise profitability. Furthermore, the
tive force in the e-commerce landscape, empow- adoption of cloud computing, which offers a pay-as-
ering businesses of all sizes to harness its power to you-use model, can substantially reduce setup and
achieve remarkable growth and success. Embracing maintenance expenses.
cloud computing solutions can pave the way for
rapid growth and long-term success for e-commerce
Future work
startups, enabling seamless adaptability to chang-
ing demands, flexible operations expansion without Security and privacy enhancements: Future research
significant infrastructure investments, and enhanced should prioritize the development of robust secu-
cloud-based security measures that safeguard cus- rity and privacy measures tailored to e-commerce
tomer data and foster consumer trust and loyalty. transactions in cloud computing environments.
E-commerce startups can access advanced analyt- To safeguard sensitive user data and ensure
ics and machine learning capabilities through cloud the confidentiality and integrity of e-commerce
computing. These tools provide valuable insights into transactions, it is crucial to implement advanced
customer behavior, optimize pricing strategies, and encryption techniques, multi-factor authentica-
deliver personalized shopping experiences. This level tion, secure data storage protocols, and robust
of customization enhances customer satisfaction and access control mechanisms.
fosters loyalty, contributing to the overall success of Scalability and performance optimization: With the
the e-commerce startup. e-commerce industry’s relentless growth, re-
They are able to effortlessly handle increased searchers should delve into strategies to bolster
website traffic, expand their product inventory, and the scalability and performance of cloud-based
efficiently manage their operations without any per- e-commerce systems. This entails a thorough
formance issues. The scalability, cost-effectiveness, examination of techniques like load balancing,
flexibility, and enhanced data security offered by resource allocation, and caching mechanisms to
cloud computing contribute significantly to their effectively manage surging user demands and en-
overall business growth and competitiveness in the sure seamless user experiences, even during peak
e-commerce industry. traffic periods.
Cost efficiency and sustainability: Enhancing the cost-
Conclusion efficiency and sustainability of e-commerce op-
erations in cloud computing necessitates future
With the exponential growth of the internet and research that explores strategies to reduce in-
commercial websites, the volume of information in frastructure costs, energy consumption, and the
e-commerce systems continues to increase rapidly. carbon footprint associated with running e-com-
E-commerce has emerged as the prevailing business merce applications in the cloud. Additionally, re-
model in contemporary society, providing numerous search can focus on implementing green comput-
shopping and consumption platforms for people. ing practices and optimizing resource utilization
Based on our research, we believe that leveraging
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 401
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52 Navigating blockchain-based clinical data sharing: An
interoperability review
Virinder Kumar Singlaa, Amardeep Singh and Gurjit Singh Bhathal
University College of Engineering, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India
Abstract
Blockchain technology holds significant promise for revolutionizing the healthcare industry by eliminating the need for
trusted third parties and enhancing data security. However, despite substantial progress, challenges such as interoperabil-
ity, performance, access control, scalability, and integration persist, hindering widespread adoption. This paper focuses on
exploring the critical issue of interoperability in healthcare systems. Clinical data, encompassing patient vitals, medical im-
ages, medications, and more, is now managed digitally through electronic medical records (EMR), electronic health records
(EHR), and personal health records (PHR). These systems, while offering convenience, are susceptible to security breaches
and data fragmentation. This paper identifies these research gaps and proposes a comprehensive solution to address block-
chain interoperability in healthcare, aiming to create an efficient, secure, and integrated healthcare data management eco-
system. The research seeks to benefit patients, healthcare providers, and the medical research community by facilitating the
seamless exchange of critical healthcare information.
Keywords: Blockchain, blockchain-based healthcare, blockchain interoperability, interoperability, clinical data, data security,
healthcare systems
Introduction Confidentiality, integrity, authentication, anonymity,
availability, unlink-ability and non-repudiation.
Clinical data is central to healthcare consumers,
All these vulnerabilities pose some serious threats
healthcare practitioners, and the medical research
like medical identity theft, medical data breach, siloed
community. Clinical data may include a whole or
and fragmented and information blocking.
subset of patient vitals, radiology images, medica-
tions, immunization, allergen information, lab results,
administrative/claims. It is sourced from a variety of Blockchain
origins viz., wearable devices, diagnostic procedures, Blockchain is a chain of time-stamped blocks con-
some health surveys or clinical trial (Maloy, 2021). nected using cryptographic hashes, is distributed-
Contrary to the cumbersome traditional approaches ledger-system that shares data among the nodes
for its handling, clinical data is now managed digitally distributed over network working in peer-to-peer
through prevalent use of affordable systems viz., elec- arrangement. The transactions between nodes are
tronic health record (EHR), personal health record validated by some subset of nodes participating in
(PHR), and electronic medical record (EMR). With a the blockchain network, called miner nodes, using
narrow separation among them; EMR is inter-orga- some consensus protocol in a decentralized manner.
nizational and EHR is intra-organizational, whereas Once verified, the block containing transactions is
PHR facilitates patient-centric, self-management then appended permanently to the blockchain. This
computer online platform for effective and transpar- eliminates the requirement for a third party, com-
ent participation. These systems may be hosted over monly trusted, to validate the transactions happening
a variety of platforms using different standards and between entities. The use of asymmetric cryptogra-
technologies (Heart, Ben-Assuli, and Shabtai, 2017). phy and one-way cryptographic hash functions are
Recent technological advancements, user friendly intrinsic to blockchain technology. Benefits offered
interfaces and better internet connectivity have by blockchain over traditional ledger systems include
increased the affordability, portability and adoptabil- decentralization, immutability, a trust-free environ-
ity to a great extent. The related global market is esti- ment, anonymity, auditability and programmability
mated to witness a considerable growth in the years (Hölbl et al., 2018). Figure 52.1 shows the structure
to come ([Link], 2020). of a blockchain and its blocks.
With increasing popularity and usage, these sys- A variety of blockchain architectures are prevalent
tems stand vulnerable to various exploits by scoun- depending on the nature, availability and operational
drels. Various security and privacy issues include:
vksingla@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 403
Figure 52.1 Blockchain structure
requirements of data. The most popular are as follows
(Hölbl et al., 2018):
• Public – Anyone is free to participate in the block-
chain, as a user or miner, without any authori-
tative approval (thus also categorized as permis-
sionless). Data on this blockchain is publically
accessible and encrypted partially to support
anonymity. Some economic incentives are offered
to miner nodes for managing blockchain. Bitcoin
or Ethereum are examples of public blockchains.
• Private – Also categorized as permissioned block-
chain, only a selected set of nodes could partici-
pate in this blockchain network. It is owned and
Figure 52.2 Blockchain applications in healthcare
managed by a single organization for its private
use, thus distributed yet centralized. IBM’s hy-
perledger fabric is an example of such.
• Consortium – This type of blockchain allows only billing, contracting, clinical trials, anti-counterfeiting
a selected group of nodes, either from a single or- drugs and auditing medical activities are some of the
ganization or from several organizations, to join areas that could be benefited from blockchain tech-
in the consensus process. The blockchain is open nology (Figure 52.2). Storing sensitive patient data in
for limited public access having partially central- the healthcare system and guarding it against cyber-
ized trust. attacks are important as well as challenging tasks.
Moreover, healthcare services are transforming to
be more patient-centric utilizing the technology as it
Blockchain in healthcare
would enhance the reliability and security of patient
The healthcare sector has a great potential for the data by giving them control over their healthcare
application of blockchain technology. Blockchain records. Doing so, helps consolidate patient data
could facilitate data management across disparate facilitating its exchange across healthcare organiza-
systems and more effective EHRs. Drug prescrip- tions. Blockchain technology is highly resistant to
tion, supply chain management, access control, data events of attack & failure and provides a variety
sharing, healthcare provider credential management, of access-control methods. Hence it offers a strong
404 Navigating blockchain-based clinical data sharing: An interoperability review
platform for managing healthcare data (Hölbl et al., research. They analyzed its evolution and various
2018). issues. They explained basic structure of a smart con-
The traditional healthcare systems depend largely tract and its working principle for blockchain archi-
on trusted third parties. Many a time these parties tecture, analyzed installation procedure across the
have proven to be trust breaching (Schmeelk, Dragos, hyperledger fabric, Ethereum and electro-optical sys-
and Debello, 2021). Blockchain technology offers a tem (EOSIO) blockchains, and produced a contrast-
potential solution to this problem as it relies on dis- ing study. They further introduced the deployment
tributed consensus against central authority in tradi- process and potential of direct acyclic graph (DAG)
tional healthcare systems. based blockchain smart contracts over Byteball,
Durneva et al. (2020) presented the use of block- InterValue and IOTA platforms. They investigated
chain technologies in healthcare. They discussed sev- the state of smart contract applications using the
eral health care applications utilizing the potential Ethereum and hyperledger fabric platforms, consid-
offered by blockchain technology. These applications ering supply chain management, Internet of Things
include: (IoT), financial transactions, and medical applica-
tions. Future research directions suggested include
• Medical information management systems (EHR issues like interoperability, integration, performance,
and EMR) privacy, formal verification and design & security
• Personal health record (PHRs) mechanism.
• Telemedicine and mHealth ElRahman and Alluhaidan (2021) presented a user-
• Data preservation system (DPS) friendly blockchain-based IoT-edge framework offer-
• Pervasive social network (PSN) ing many features to healthcare institutions such as
• Health information exchange (HIE) complete preservation of patient data, its confiden-
• Remote patient monitoring systems (RPMS) tial transmission and safe submission of the patient
• Medical research systems (MRS). examination results. However, system interoperability
still needed to be examined. Also, system performance
All these applications have revamped patient partici- under various other computational intelligence algo-
pation and control, healthcare providers’ accessibility rithms and the development of clinical decision sup-
to medical information and use of this data for medi- port system needed to be explored.
cal research. Xie et al. (2021) reported that healthcare services
can be improved by the use of blockchain technol-
Literature review ogy as it offers decentralized, immutable, transpar-
ent, and secure methods of information storage and
The use of blockchain in healthcare, like in other transport. Its integrated development with other
fields, is on the rise. Recent literature was reviewed budding technologies like AI, IoT, wearable devices,
to figure out applicability of the technology in health- cloud computing and big data, etc., could offer long-
care. Some of the literature accessed is summarized term benefits including user empowerment to exer-
below. cise better control over their health data, enabling
Adere (2022) concluded that blockchain, in health- a tamper-proof medical history and encouraging
care and IoT, is primarily used for data management better medical responsibility with ease. However,
with a prime focus on data security comprising of concerns like interoperability, efficiency, scalabil-
data-integrity, access-control and privacy-preserva- ity, security and regulatory framework were also
tion. Popular techniques used are encryption, archi- reported.
tectural designs, third-party solutions, smart contracts Fetjah et al. (2021) described a blockchain based
and authentication techniques for autonomous pro- smart healthcare system involving three-layered archi-
cessing. Also, the integration of IoT and blockchain tecture: smart medical instrument (IoT) layer, fog-
IoT, including health-IoT, is reviewed with integra- layer, and cloud-layer for remote patient monitoring.
tion mechanisms ranging from combining blockchain Data analysis was done using artificial intelligence
completely with data transfers among IoT devices (AI) and smart contracts. The proposed framework
to using it only for maintaining meta-data. Several was put to use to monitor patients with diabetes
research gaps viz., issues involving the use of a var- remotely. In addition to making proactive predictions,
ied number of smart contracts affecting the system’s anticipating future problems, and alerting a doctor
performance, data retrieval issues specifically from in the event of an emergency, the system was able to
encrypted files, and issues involving the integration of recommend treatments. Major implementation chal-
disparate healthcare systems were highlighted. lenges reported include scalability, interoperability
Lin et al. (2022) outlined the blockchain smart and limited data access control due to permissioned
contract’s operation and the state of its application blockchain used.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 405
Liu et al. (2021) presented a blockchain-based and bandwidth overhead, not favorable to IoT
distributed access-control mechanism for securing networks.
IoT data. It made use of the alliance chain and fog Yaqoob et al. (2021) presented various case stud-
computing concepts. On an edge node, the IoT data ies utilizing blockchain technology in healthcare in
was encrypted using the least significant bit (LSB) different countries of the world. The study included
and mixed linear and non-linear spatiotemporal Estonia’s e-health system, UAE’s national block-
chaotic systems (MLNCML) approaches. This data, chain-based platform for maintaining healthcare and
is then, further uploaded onto the cloud. Thus, solv- pharma data, Swiss hospitals using hyperledger-based
ing the issue of failed access control by providing permissioned blockchain for tracking medical devices
dynamic and fine-grained access control for IoT data. and the U.S.-based Patientory Inc.’s blockchain-based
However, further research gaps highlighted were the DApp solution facilitating health institutions to share
need for developing a lightweight consensus proto- medical data with their patients. The authors high-
col for quick confirmation and increased throughput lighted major challenges demanding research focus to
and the use of smart contracts for effective automated be scalability, regulatory framework, interoperability,
access control. potential threat issues arising out of recent advance-
Hussien et al. (2021) discussed use of blockchain ments in quantum computing, tokenization, inte-
in telecare medical information systems and e-health gration, accuracy and adoption and technical skill.
systems, reviewed and evaluated the same in terms Further future research recommendations included:
of security and privacy. The study discussed poten- the convergence of blockchain and AI, IoT-based
tial future challenges such as scalability and storage healthcare systems, integration of blockchain into leg-
capacity, blockchain size, universal interoperability acy healthcare systems, establishing blockchain legal
and standardization. Future blockchain prospects for framework, smart contracts and latency and through-
use in patient empowerment in healthcare data man- put barriers.
agement and sharing, clinical-trials, counterfeit drug Khatri et al. (2021) reported that interoperabil-
prevention, Big data, AI, 5G ultrasonic device, secu- ity, integrity, privacy, security and access control are
rity and privacy were also highlighted. the major issues of blockchain application in health-
Ejaz et al. (2021) proposed a framework, Health- care. The majority of the research covered focused
BlockEdge, with the integration of edge computing on algorithm/protocol, framework and structural
and blockchain technology. It provided friendly, secure design. Application areas for healthcare include dis-
and reliable mean for aid and remote-monitoring of tributed ledger, consensus mechanism and smart
the elderly people at home. The presented system contracts over private blockchain like Etherium and
tends to be secure, reliable, cost-effective, and resil- hyperledger framework. Also, it is reported that the
ient to network issues and offered prolonged usage major domains in healthcare using blockchain include
under diverse network issues. The proposed frame- EHR, PHR and inter & intra-institutional migration
work was compared against no blockchain system on support. Various concerns raised include security and
the parameters of power usage, delay, computing load privacy issues due to the use of personal keys, immu-
and network usage. Further future research direc- tability issues arising out of maliciously recorded
tions suggested by the author include optimization inaccurate data, scalability, interoperability and speed
using AI of collective usage of edge computing and issues.
blockchain approaches in healthcare for efficiency Newaz et al. (2020) presented an exhaustive survey
and performance improvement, developing solutions on the security and privacy issues in modern health-
for building trust among various users of to maxi- care systems. They reported that the increasing use
mally utilize the features of the blockchain in bringing of technologies like IoTs, implantable medical devices
trust between different stakeholders of multi-faceted (IMDs) and body area networks (BANs) in healthcare
distributed communication and data management not only improved the quality of patient care and
healthcare systems. treatment; but had exposed the healthcare systems
Liang and Ji (2021) reported that privacy issues to numerous cyber threats breaching their integrity,
are prevalent viz. a viz. IoT network’s nature of confidentiality, availability, privacy and security. They
scale and distribution. Blockchain has been useful listed different blockchain-based approaches, among
in overcoming various maintenance, security, data other approaches, to counter the potential challenges.
protection, and privacy & authentication issues Research directions discussed include the develop-
of IoT systems. Also, it could provide distributed ment of lightweight and symmetric cryptographic
storage, transparency, trust, and secure distributed protocols considering the emergency where communi-
IoT networks, while guaranteeing the security and cation with unauthorized personnel may be required,
privacy of the users. They reported various issues development of standard communication protocols,
such as scalability, computing complexity, latency, fault-tolerant design, intrusion detection mechanism,
406 Navigating blockchain-based clinical data sharing: An interoperability review
fine-grained access control and privacy-preserving Findings
healthcare systems.
It is evident from the literature survey that blockchain
Durneva et al. (2020) reviewed the ongoing
technology has also disrupted healthcare other than
research for use of blockchain technology in patient
revolutionizing business, finance and other fields.
care. They concluded that personal health records,
Blockchain technology is being intermingled with
mobile health and telemedicine, medical informa-
almost every existing technology to harness its intrin-
tion systems, data preservation systems and social
sic features to improve healthcare. Though a lot of
networks, health information exchanges and remote
work has been done, still some issues remain to be
monitoring systems, and medical research systems
addressed for it to be readily adoptable. Table 52.1
were the major healthcare applications using block-
shows the identified problematic areas with the fre-
chain technology. They reported various blockchain
quency of publication highlighting them.
implementation challenges like security and privacy
Major research gaps observed (Figure 52.3) from
vulnerabilities, weak access control mechanisms, high
the literature reviewed are briefly discussed below:
computing power and implementation costs, latency
issues, blockchain adoption issues, compatibility
• Interoperability, the ability whereby a blockchain
issues with existing healthcare systems, data storage
can freely interact to access/exchange data with
limitations, etc. They advocated the use of smart con-
other blockchains, among the various blockchain
tracts to build decentralized autonomous organiza-
based healthcare systems is missing. This leads to
tions (DAOs) and distributed applications (DApps) to
completely isolated disparate healthcare systems,
disrupt patient care.
unable to communicate and exchange important
Patel (2019) proposed a blockchain-based cross-
healthcare information vital for saving precious
domain framework for secure and decentralized
lives (ElRahman and Alluhaidan, 2021; Fetjah et
sharing of medical images and patient defined access
al., 2021; Khatri et al., 2021; Xie et al., 2021; Lin
permissions. The proposed framework eliminated
et al., 2022).
third-party access to protected health information,
• Blockchain based healthcare systems, as in other
facilitated interoperable health systems, and gener-
use cases, too are suffering from performance is-
alized to domains other than medical imaging. The
sues (Thwin and Vasupongayya, 2019; Ejaz et al.,
complexity of the privacy and security models and
2021; ElRahman and Alluhaidan, 2021; Adere,
an unclear regulatory environment were reported
2022; Lin et al., 2022).
to be the major concerns. Moreover, the large-
• Data access control, especially in case of certain
scale feasibility of such an approach was still to be
emergency, is still a challenge (Durneva et al.,
established.
2020; Newaz et al., 2020; Fetjah et al., 2021; Liu
Hassan et al. (2019) discussed the privacy chal-
et al., 2021).
lenges with the integration of blockchain tech-
nology in IoT applications. Different privacy
preservation strategies and their weaknesses were
discussed in blockchain-based IoT systems named Table 52.1 Frequency of identified problem areas.
as anonymization, encryption, private contract,
mixing, and differential privacy. Highlighted future Problem area Frequency
research directions include the development of light- Regulatory/ legal framework 2
weight privacy-preserving encryption approaches
Access control 4
and application-specific use of improved blended
strategies. Latency 2
Thwin and Vasupongayya (2019) proposed a Scalability 4
blockchain-based privacy-preserving access control Privacy 3
model for the PHR system. It used hyperledger fabric Performance 5
– a private blockchain, cloud storage, and other cryp-
Security 3
tographic techniques consisting of proxy re-encryp-
Interoperability 5
tion, hashing, and digital signature to meet the set
goals. It offered features such as enabling individuals Integration 3
to securely store and shares their PHR data, grant/ smart contract 4
revoke access to individual PHR data, and establish Use of AI 3
the integrity of the PHR data. However, since the Consensus protocol 1
proposed model used the default hyperledger fab-
Encryption 1
ric parameter, its performance under configurable
Search 1
parameters was not established.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 407
Figure 52.3 Identified research gaps
• Scalability of blockchain based healthcare systems Objective of the proposed research is to present
remains persistent (Fetjah et al., 2021; Khatri et a feasible solution for the problem of blockchain
al., 2021; Liang and Ji, 2021; Xie et al., 2021). interoperability for effective healthcare.
• Blockchain-based healthcare systems cannot
be seamlessly integrated with existing classical Methodology
healthcare systems (Yaqoob et al., 2021; Adere,
2022; Lin et al., 2022).
• Regulatory/legal framework for the use of block-
chain based healthcare systems; nationwide and
worldwide is not well defined (Xie et al., 2021;
Yaqoob et al., 2021).
Work proposal
Contemporary blockchain based healthcare systems
face many challenges and barriers hindering seamless
implementation of the technology. These include pri-
vacy and security issues, consensus algorithms, com-
putational power requirements, implementation costs
and integration challenges with existing healthcare
information system (Durneva et al., 2020).
Though the research is in progress to fix these issues,
almost negligible attention is drawn toward interoper-
ability aspect till present (ElRahman and Alluhaidan,
2021; Fetjah et al., 2021; Khatri et al., 2021; Xie et
al., 2021; Lin et al., 2022). A variety of blockchains
are used in healthcare systems to harness intrinsic
benefits of the technology. All such implementations
are being worked/reworked upon in isolation to fix/ Conclusion
improve any performance issues. But no work is being
carried out to make such implementations to interop- Blockchain technology is emerging as a powerful solu-
erate i.e., to communicate and exchange healthcare tion to address vulnerabilities in traditional healthcare
information, which may be vital for realizing effective systems heavily reliant on third-party intermediaries.
healthcare for mankind. Electronic medical records (EMR), electronic health
408 Navigating blockchain-based clinical data sharing: An interoperability review
records (EHR), and personal health records (PHR) Heart, T., Ben-Assuli, O., and Shabtai, I. (2017). A review
have digitized clinical data, offering greater accessi- of PHR, EMR and EHR integration: A more personal-
bility but also exposing security and privacy concerns. ized healthcare and public health policy. Health Pol-
Blockchain’s decentralized ledger and cryptographic icy Technol., 6(1), 20–25. [Link]
hlpt.2016.08.002.
features eliminate the need for central authorities,
Hölbl, M., Kompara, M., Kamišalić, A., and Zlatolas, L.
transforming data sharing in healthcare.
N. (2018). A systematic review of the use of block-
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ment, access control, healthcare credential manage- [Link]/10.3390/sym10100470.
ment, clinical trials, and research, giving individuals Khatri, S., Alzahrani, F. A., Md Tarique, J. A., Agrawal,
control over their records. However, challenges per- A., Kumar, R., and Ahmad Khan, R. (2021). A sys-
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IoT-based blockchain: a systematic review. Cluster
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53 Analysis of data backup and recovery strategies in the
cloud
Sumeet Kaur Sehra1,a and Amanpreet Singh2
1
Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, Canada
2
Lovely Professional University, Punjab, India
Abstract
This study examines modern data backup and recovery techniques in cloud computing settings. An in-depth literature
analysis highlights the changing environment by examining the effects of various techniques. This study offers empirical
insights into strategy choices and difficulties by employing a rigorous methodology that involves data collecting from diverse
cloud service providers and enterprises. The results have demonstrated that choosing a cloud provider impacts how a plan is
implemented and perennial concerns about data security, compliance, and cost management. Further, the latest technologies,
including blockchain-based data integrity and artificial intelligence (AI)-driven anomaly detection, have also been discussed.
Keywords: Blockchain, data integrity, artificial intelligence, anomaly detection, diverse cloud service
Introduction lowering the danger of data loss, a significant concern
in today’s data-centric environment.
Modern information technology (IT) architecture
This study explores cloud backup and recovery
must include cloud-based backup and recovery of
procedures to balance accessibility, security, and cut-
data techniques. They entail securing digital data in
ting-edge technology successfully. This study offers
cloud environments to guarantee data availability
empirical insights into strategy choices and difficulties
and integrity (Dalal, 2023). The flexibility and man-
by employing a rigorous methodology that involves
ageability benefits of cloud-based backup solutions
data collecting from diverse cloud service providers
enable businesses to preserve their data effectively.
and enterprises.
These tactics frequently make regular automated
The remainder of the study has been organized as
backups to keep data maintained and available in
follows: The literature review, followed by elaborated
information loss, hardware problems, or emergen-
methodology. The dataset is discussed, followed by
cies. Organizations may quickly and effectively
the discussion of empirical results which finally con-
retrieve data with cloud-based recovery solutions,
cludes the study.
reducing delay and the risk of data loss. They provide
a range of restoration options, including snapshot
restoration, file-level recovery, and complete system Related work
recovery. An expansion of specific applications within the com-
Further strengthening data resiliency, cloud-based munication system is made possible by the secure
recovery solutions frequently offer geographical and deployment of the Internet of Things (IoT) as an
redundancy dispersion. In the current data-driven additional service within the information network
workplace, these measures are essential for protecting (Dajun, 2021). Three primary components make up
and safeguarding digital assets. These procedures guar- the IoT industry’s development. The first component
antee the integrity, security, and accessibility of digital is recognition, which is a fundamental pre-condition.
information stored in cloud settings. Companies are Second, it becomes clear that communication is a cru-
given the resources they need to effectively protect cial platform and support. The ultimate goal that best
their priceless data assets due to their scalability and captures the IoT’s underlying purpose is application.
usability advantages. Automating frequent backups, High technological standards are required for the
which serve as a layer of protection against data loss, IoT’s development and use, with solutions acting as
system problems, or unplanned occurrences, is one of a catalyst for advancement (Durga, 2022; Kiranpreet,
the system’s primary advantages. Data maintenance 2022).
is greatly aided by cloud-based backup techniques, The fundamental architecture of the IoT is shown in
which allow businesses to quickly and effectively Figure 53.1, which consists of a thorough application
recover their data. This reduces downtime while layer, av network infrastructure layer, a management
a
sksehra@[Link]
410 Analysis of data backup and recovery strategies in the cloud
Figure 53.1 Fundamental IoT architecture
service layer, and a perceptual recognition layer. The IoT devices, which are frequently sensitive to network
central link bridging the material and informational attacks (Dalal, 2023). Focusing on Spark is a quick
worlds comprises the visual recognition layer pow- and comprehensive framework for handling massive
ered by perception technology. This layer includes amounts of data. Spark performs at speeds that are
specialized adaptive electronic devices for human 100 times faster than Hadoop and MapReduce when
data retrieval and automatic data collecting tools, memory resources are abundant. It outperforms these
e.g., radio frequency identification (RFID) and sensor rivals by a factor of 10 when leaking data to disk,
networks. even when memory is limited. Spark’s capabilities for
The network infrastructure layer’s primary respon- complex directed acyclic graphs (DAGs), intended for
sibility is to connect the Internet with lower-layer in-memory data processing, give it its performance
evaluation and recognition tools, providing access to prowess. Spark is an object-based and operational
applications at the upper layers. The Internet and the programming framework implemented in Scala,
next generation form the basis of the IoT, supported allowing for the fluid manipulation of remote datas-
by various wireless networks that provide Internet ets akin to local collection objects (Brar et al., 2022;
access and rely on robust computation and mass stor- Rahul, 2022). Its defining characteristics are rapid
age capacities for significant data collection. implementation, user-friendly operation, adaptability,
The extensive application layer reflects the chang- and compatibility (Lai, 2022).
ing environment of online applications, which is A significant question is handling the difficult data
influenced by the development of processing power backup task (Ramesh, 2023). Previously, compa-
(Iwona, 2023). Early data services focused on email nies or integrators were in charge of building these
and file transfers, but modern user-centric network systems and ensuring they complied with all speci-
applications include social networking, video stream- fications and performed at their best. The IT envi-
ing, and online gaming. Despite its increasing popu- ronment in businesses has changed over time. Still,
larity, the IoT has inherent weaknesses caused by the backup procedures frequently experienced alterations
enormous number of endpoints and difficulties asso- without a systematic methodology, omitting to con-
ciated with connectivity and collaboration among sider the importance of syncing with basic standards
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 411
Figure 53.2 Important blocks of the proposed model
Figure 53.3 Components of the centralized backup
system
throughout future phases. Understanding that a data
safety system is only one part of a more extensive
data security approach when developing one within “Oracle Standby with Flashback” may be required
a business is crucial. A system admin is responsible for more important systems.
for keeping track of backup client PCs and record- Finally, it is essential to mitigate hidden flaws,
ing hardware and storage devices while planning which can be done by evaluating the efficacy of back-
backup operations. The recovery management server ups through restoration attempts. This procedure
has a specialized database keeping all relevant data. can be sped up by implementing efficiently recover-
To backup data in line with chosen rules, schedules, able computer instances, such as backup and standby
or operator directions, the management server sends systems. Some systems also have automated testing
commands to agent applications installed on client capabilities, allowing for recurring checks of data
PCs. These agent programs collect and send the data extraction, application accessibility, consistency, and
intended for backups to the copy server designated by reactivity. Different blocks of the proposed model
the management server. have been shown in Figure 53.2 which includes
Several techniques are emerging to address con- backup, recovery, content analysis, contextual search,
cerns with data backup and recovery. The need to mobile data access, seamless integration, and infor-
separate the quickness of these procedures from the mation security.
amount of data is first and foremost. This can be In this situation, a centralized backup system
done with the help of several tools that data storage includes a multi-layered design, as shown in Figure
devices, application programs, and resource manage- 53.3. It consists of client PCs with backup agent soft-
ment systems (RMS) vendors recommend (Rehman, ware. This backup management server can also per-
2022). For instance, snapshots allow for quick data form data copy server duties, one or more data clone
backup and restoration with little performance impact servers linked to backup devices, a backup system
and are frequently included in a larger policy frame- administration console, and data copy servers.
work. Second, the emphasis is on making it possible
to recover particular data segments, eliminating the Methodology
requirement for complete data restoration. Making
functioning copies of production systems is made Probability and data loss (PDL)
more accessible by solutions like “Oracle Standby”, The probability of data loss can be calculated for
“DB2 HADR”, and “MS SQL” constantly on, ensur- data loss in the cloud from Equation 1.
ing a speedy recovery from failure. Thirdly, there is a
focus on closing the gap between the creation of data PDL = 1 – (1 – R)N (1)
and its protection. Snapshots can be used as restore
points to shorten backup intervals for less critical sys- R denotes the reliability of a single backup copy,
tems. Still, continuous data protection methods like and N represents the number of backup copies.
412 Analysis of data backup and recovery strategies in the cloud
For example, let R = 7 and N = 4, then PDL = 1 research studies and industry publications show valu-
- (1-7) ^ 4 = -1295. This implies that PDL is ex- able data and insights. Official government publica-
tremely low, or it can be said that it is effectively tions and regulations provide an additional source
zero. of reliable information. The most recent techniques
Backups created from snapshots and advancements in protecting data in the cloud can
A snapshot of the cloud’s resources is taken using be found in the documentation provided by cloud
snapshot technology. It is a productive backup service providers and on technology news websites.
method without affecting system performance Online discussions, social networking sites, and spe-
(Twana, 2022). Snapshots can retrieve informa- cific groups encourage debate and user experiences,
tion and are particularly useful when you need adding practical insights to the research. Books, con-
to return to a certain condition quickly. Vendors ference proceedings, and seminars are all excellent
provide snapshot services, including AWS, Azure, resources for learning how recovering and backing
and Google Cloud. up data in the cloud is changing (Xiaojun, 2022).
Replication and redundancy Researchers can develop a comprehensive picture of
Implementing data redundancy and replication the best practices, difficulties, and emerging trends
across many cloud servers or zones of avail- in this vital topic by utilizing these secondary data
ability improves data availability and durability sources.
(Surbhi, 2015). This method stores data in sever- The secondary data included in the Scopus author-
al places to protect against calamities or outages ing project was taken from various journal articles. It
at data centers. This is made more accessible by consists of a broad range of data drawn from these
services like “Azure Geo-Replication” and “AWS publications that have been carefully collected and
S3 Cross-Region Replication”. arranged into Excel files. Many useful visualizations
Cloud-to-cloud restoration and graphic representations have been created using
Cloud-to-cloud backup methods can benefit these Excel sheets. Data collection provides insight-
businesses employing various cloud-based re- ful information on various study problems and is the
sources, such as SaaS apps. You can back up data basis for the study’s analytic approach.
using these services, such as “Veeam” or “Dru-
va,” from one cloud environment (such as Mi-
Empirical results
crosoft Office 365 or G Suite) to another cloud
(such as “AWS, Azure, or Google Cloud”). For The performance of data restoration and backup pro-
the protection of crucial corporate data kept on cedures in the cloud can be better understood through
numerous cloud platforms, it is crucial. empirical data. These findings offer quantifiable infor-
Cost-benefit analysis mation on restoration speed, recovery time, afford-
It draws insights into profitability when organi- ability, and dependability. They empower businesses
zations shift to cloud computing in each layer. to make wise judgments, improve their methods for
The three layers are base cost estimation, data cloud-based data security, and guarantee data resil-
pattern-based, and project-specific cost estima- ience in changing cloud settings.
tion. Equation 2 can be used to calculate the Figure 53.4 represents the challenge-response-
cost-benefit ratio. verification process time overhead. It is clear that
the processing overhead for challenge-response veri-
Cost – benefit Ratio = fication gradually increases as the number of chal-
Value of Data-Cost of Backup and Recovery lenge data blocks increases. Even if it exists, the rise
(2)
Cost of Backup and Recovery in the process of verification overhead is still barely
noticeable. Usually, the time cost of generating prob-
lems is far lower than that of generating responses.
Description of dataset
However, this cost gradually increases as more chal-
To get knowledge about this crucial field of IT, sec- lenging data blocks are added. However, when the
ondary data collecting for studying cloud-based number of data blocks exceeds a critical threshold,
backup and recovery of data solutions entails explor- such as 2000, the challenge’s time cost significantly
ing current sources. Researchers can access various increases and converges with the confirmation pro-
information from research databases, publications, cess’s cost.
and articles through a thorough literature review. Choosing proper algorithms is crucial for building
Whitepapers, reports, and analyses that offer valu- an effective processing system for keeping data and
able data and trends are frequently found on sector- backups within the Spark platform. The “APCA seg-
specific websites and in the documentation of cloud mentation”, “ratio R”, “differential D”, and “dura-
service providers (Surbhi, 2015). Additionally, market tionik T” techniques are all considered in this analysis.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 413
Figure 53.4 Challenge-response-authentication process time overhead
Figure 53.5 Reference sequence segmentation error comparison
Figure 53.5 shows that the errors related to the other shows the comparison to information backup
three two-stage approximation approaches are sig- management.
nificantly lower than those associated with APCA It is essential to provide quick access to vital recov-
segmentation. The trials have shown that the ratio R ery data. Off-site data storage is a component of the
method outperforms the efficiency of duration-based described strategy, which calls for keeping backups
point identification and produces the lowest aver- elsewhere. Two methods are used: physically mov-
age error. As a result, when evaluating the results of ing the data and writing it into removable drives. In
Spark-based processes, the ratio R method is the best the case of a failure, it is crucial to have quick access
option for picking key points (Figure 53.6). procedures in place for adequate recovery. Figure
Events may have unfavorable effects on the IT infra- 8 shows the comparison study of off-server copy
structure and the broader business operations. Fires management.
in buildings, problems with central heating systems in The benefit of this strategy is its simplicity of orga-
server rooms, and unexpected equipment theft are a nization. The difficulties in media retrieval cause the
few examples. One successful approach is to establish requirement to move data to preservation and the
procedures for recovering data during a disaster. potential for media damage while in transit. It entails
In such circumstances, a strategy to reduce data copying data to a different location across a network
loss is to keep backup storage at a distant place, away channel. Figure 53.9 shows an example of storage
from the main server equipment area. Figure 53.7 device management.
414 Analysis of data backup and recovery strategies in the cloud
Figure 53.6 Comparison with native system throughput
Figure 53.7 Comparison of data backup management
Figure 53.8 Comparison of off-server copy management
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 415
Figure 53.9 Comparison of storage device management
Conclusion Iwona, K., Jackowski, A., Lichota, K., Welnicki, M., Dub-
nicki, C., and Iwanicki, K. (2023). InftyDedup: Scal-
In conclusion, this study investigated cloud-based able and cost-effective cloud tiering with deduplica-
data backup and recovery techniques in depth. A tion. 21st USENIX Conf. File Stor. Technol., 23,
thorough literature study revealed these tactics’ 33–48.
expanding importance in response to rising cloud use Rahul, K. and Venkatesh, K. (2022). Centralized and de-
and related data threats. Using a strong approach, it centralized data backup approaches. Proc. Int. Conf.
gathered data from numerous cloud service providers Deep Learn. Comput. Intel. ICDCI, 2021, 687–698.
and companies and learned important lessons. doi:10.1007/978-981-16-5652-1_60.
Empirical findings showed various backup tech- Lai, Y. L., Rana, M. E., and Al Maatouk, Q. (2022). Criti-
niques, with firms choosing methods following data cal review of design considerations in forming a
cloud infrastructure for SMEs. 2022 Int. Conf. Dec.
volume, recovery goals, and budgetary restrictions.
Aid Sci. Appl. (DASA), 1537–1543. doi: 10.1109/
As enterprises prioritize data redundancy and disaster
DASA54658.2022.9765167.
recovery capabilities, the choice of cloud provider has Ramesh, G., Logeshwaran, J., and Aravindarajan, V. (2023).
emerged as a crucial aspect. Data security, compliance A secured database monitoring method to improve
and cost management were problems, but AI-driven data backup and recovery operations in cloud com-
anomaly detection and blockchain-enhanced data puting. BOHR Int. J. Comp. Sci., 2(1), 1–7. doi:
integrity were promising advancements. To success- 10.54646/bijcs.019.
fully balance accessibility, security, and cutting-edge Brar, P. S., Shah, B., Singh, J., Ali, F., and Kwak, D. (2022).
technology, it is essential to continually assess and Using modified technology acceptance model to eval-
change cloud backup and recovery procedures, as this uate the adoption of a proposed IoT-based indoor
study highlights. disaster management software tool by rescue work-
ers. Sensors, 22(5), 1866, [Link]
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54 Landslide identification using convolutional neural
network
Suvarna Vani Koneru, Harshitha Badavathula, Prasanna Vadttityaa and
Sujana Sri Kosarajub
Velagapudi Ramakrishna Siddhartha Engineering College, Andhra Pradesh, India
Abstract
Landslide identification poses a significant challenge in ensuring the safety of vulnerable regions. Accurate detection is cru-
cial for timely mitigation efforts. In this study, we propose a convolutional neural network (CNN) model based on transfer
learning for classifying landslide-prone areas using a diverse dataset. The dataset comprises satellite images of landscapes
categorized into distinct classes. Addressing class imbalance, we employ preprocessing techniques and oversampling meth-
ods. The images are resized to a standardized 32 × 32 pixel format to enhance model efficiency. The model leverages a
pre-trained CNN architecture and incorporates additional layers for fine-tuning. Training utilizes the Adam optimizer and a
suitable loss function. These strategies are vital for optimizing the model’s performance and ensuring precise classification of
landslide-prone areas. Evaluation is conducted based on accuracy metrics, showcasing the model’s proficiency in capturing
essential features of landscapes prone to landslides. Our proposed approach holds promise for geologists and environmental
experts, offering a high-accuracy solution for identifying landslide-prone regions and facilitating effective mitigation strate-
gies (MDPI, 2023)
Keywords: Landslide identification, convolutional neural networks (CNN), transfer learning, oversampling, pattern recogni-
tion
Introduction resources, rendering it an economical and proficient
resolution for extensive geospatial study.
One major natural danger that can seriously harm
In order to examine how Transfer Learning with
both human settlements and the environment is
CNNs might revolutionize the process of identify-
landslides. Early identification and precise mapping
ing and evaluating landslide risks, we delve into its
of areas susceptible to landslides are essential for
complexities in this study. Our paper seeks to make
disaster preparedness and mitigation. The subject of
a substantial contribution to the field of disaster
geographic information has seen a transformation in
management and geospatial analysis by utilizing the
recent years due to the integration of modern machine
DeepGlobe Land Classification dataset. Our effort
learning (ML) techniques, especially convolutional
aims to advance the state of landslide detection by
neural networks (CNNs) examination. A subset of ML
a mix of state-of-the-art technology and extensive
called transfer learning enables pre-trained models
dataset utilization, opening the way for more effective
may be customized for certain tasks, allowing precise
disaster preparedness and ultimately, the protection
forecasts even with scant information. Our research
of vulnerable communities and landscapes.
uses the DeepGlobe Land Cover Classification dataset
to apply Transfer Learning with CNNs for landslide
identification in this particular setting. Related work
A wide range of diversified and comprehensive The approach used in the research “GIS-based land-
high-resolution satellite pictures covering different slide susceptibility modeling: A comparison between
terrains and land cover types are available in the fuzzy multi-criteria and ML algorithms” involves
DeepGlobe Land Classification dataset. With the use a systematic assessment and comparison of vari-
of this extensive dataset, we want to use Transfer ous landslide susceptibility models in the Slovakian
Learning to create a reliable and accurate model for Kysuca river basin. To forecast landslide suscepti-
identification of landslides. Through the utilization of bility, the study uses three models: the random for-
pre-trained CNN architectures, the model is able to est (RF) classifier, the Naïve Bayes (NB) classifier,
identify complex patterns and subliminal indicators and the fuzzy decision-making trial and evaluation
of areas vulnerable to landslides. This methodology laboratory combined with the analytic network pro-
not only improves the precision of landslide identifi- cess (FDEMATEL-ANP). First, 2000 landslide and
cation but also streamlines the application of existing
vadttityavsprasanna@[Link], bksujanasri31@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 417
non-landslide sites are randomly split into training monitoring essential soil moisture levels and ground
(70%) and testing (30%) groups to build a landslide movement, is one of the project’s key components.
inventory map. Sixteen landslip conditioning ele- Utilizing geographic information systems (GIS) tech-
ments relating to topography, hydrology, lithology, nology, this real-time data is incorporated into an
and land cover are incorporated into a GIS database. intricate geospatial framework. Algorithms for ML
The ReliefF approach is used to assess these aspects’ are used to model the intricate interactions between
importance and provide guidance for model construc- rainfall quantity, topography, and previously recorded
tion. Landslide susceptibility maps (LSMs) are then landslides, allowing the system to produce precise and
generated with the models of the NB classifier, RF timely alerts. Three things are expected to happen as
classifier, and FDEMATEL-ANP. Metrics including a result of the project: first, data-driven insights will
the area under the curve (AUC), mean absolute error increase the accuracy of landslip prediction; second,
(MAE), root mean square error (RMSE), Kappa index an intuitive and user-friendly interface will be created;
(K), and overall accuracy (OAC) are used to assess the and third, efficient channels of communication will be
effectiveness of the model. Based on the data, the RF established to inform local communities and relevant
classifier is the most promising and ideal model for authorities about alerts. To protect people and prop-
landslide susceptibility in the studied area. It has an erty in landslide-prone areas, the “SESAMO Early
elevated K and OAC value of 0.8435 and 92.2%, a Warning System for Rainfall Triggered Landslides”
low MAE (0.1238), RMSE (0.2555), and a high AUC aims to close the gap between scientific research and
value of 0.954. This thorough approach highlights the practical disaster management (Puma et al., 2015)
RF classifier’s superior performance over other mod- The “Deep Learning-Based Landslide Susceptibility
els and offers insightful information for assessing the Mapping” paper offers an original and thorough solu-
Kysuca river basin’s susceptibility to landslides. (Sahin tion to the problems associated with reliably determin-
et al., 2020; Ali et al., 2021; ResearchGate, 2023) ing and mapping landslide susceptibility in geologically
The research “Landslip detection in the Himalayas sensitive locations. Traditional approaches to landslip
using ML algorithms and U-Net” approaches the susceptibility mapping frequently entail human inter-
challenging issue of landslip hazards, which are fre- pretation and analysis of numerous geographic datas-
quent in the Himalayan region, in an original and ets, which can be time-consuming, biased, and unable
cutting-edge way. The Himalayas are known for their to capture intricate interactions between contributing
rough topography, geological instability, and suscep- elements. This project suggests using state-of-the-
tibility to a variety of natural occurrences, such as art deep learning methods into the procedure to get
landslides, which pose serious risks to communities, around these constraints. The paper depends on the
infrastructure, and the environment. This project uses collection and preparation of sizable datasets includ-
a comprehensive approach to address these issues. ing pertinent geographical characteristics. The deep
The project’s core consists of the integration of state- learning models are trained and fine-tuned using these
of-the-art technology, with a particular emphasis on datasets, allowing them to learn the underlying cor-
ML techniques and the U-Net architecture. While the relations and produce susceptibility maps with a bet-
U-Net architecture, a CNN, specializes in segmenting ter level of accuracy. greater accuracy and detail than
images – a vital duty in landslip detection – ML allows permitted by conventional approaches. The project is
computers to learn from data and make informed expected to produce high-resolution landslide suscep-
judgments. The endeavor makes use of these tools for tibility maps, which will give important insights into
analyzing a broad dataset made up of high-resolution landslide-prone regions and classify them according
satellite images, elevation data from LiDAR data, and to a gradient of vulnerability. These maps provide a
topographical details of the Himalayan environment crucial resource for decision-makers and urban plan-
(Meena et al., 2022). ners to set priorities for risk reduction initiatives, cre-
A comprehensive method to deal with the impend- ate sustainable land use plans, and create effective
ing threat of rainfall-induced landslides is offered by disaster preparedness systems (Azarafza et al., 2021).
the “SESAMO Early Warning System for Rainfall The methodology for the paper titled “Landslide
Triggered Landslides” paper. The paper seeks to Recognition by Deep CNN and Change Detection”
create a robust early warning system that improves involves a comprehensive four-step process. First, a
preparedness and lessens the impact of landslides on deep CNN is constructed and trained using datasets
sensitive regions by utilizing cutting-edge technologies derived from remotely sensed (RS) images contain-
and real-time data integration. The system aims to ing historical landslide information. This CNN serves
reliably forecast landslip events in response to shifting as the foundation for subsequent stages. Second, an
rainfall patterns by integrating meteorological data, object-oriented change detection CNN (CDCNN)
ground monitoring sensors, and geospatial analysis. with a fully connected conditional random field
The creation of a vast sensor network, capable of (CRF) is implemented, leveraging the insights gained
418 Landslide identification using convolutional neural network
from the trained CNN to detect changes indicative of images provide enlarged, high-resolution views that
landslides. The third stage involves the optimization enable detailed inspection of hilly terrain. The data-
of the preliminary CDCNN through post-processing set exhibits considerable variety in area parameters,
methods tailored to refine and enhance the accu- illumination, and image quality, which poses oppor-
racy of change detection. Finally, the results are fur- tunities and problems for the creation of reliable and
ther augmented by information extraction methods, effective classification algorithms. The study intends
including trail extraction, source point extraction, to enhance the effectiveness of landslide detection
and attribute extraction. Image block processing and and classification algorithms by utilizing this exten-
parallel processing strategies are employed through- sive dataset. This will allow for the more accurate
out to significantly improve speed, a crucial aspect and dependable identification of particular patterns,
when dealing with RS images covering extensive geo- structures, and features indicative of different hill
graphical areas. The methodology is validated using situations.
two landslide-prone sites in Hong Kong, demonstrat-
ing high speed, exceeding 80% accuracy, and practical Pre-processing and exploratory data analysis
applicability in real-world scenarios. This integrated To learn more about the dataset, exploratory data
approach showcases the effectiveness of combining analysis is done before to training the models. With a
deep learning, change detection, and information count plot, the frequency distribution of the classes is
extraction techniques for accurate and efficient land- shown, giving a brief overview of how certain features
slide recognition from RS images (Shi et al., 2021; are distributed throughout the data set. Furthermore,
ResearchGate, 2023). the way that each feature is distributed is examined to
identify patterns or correlations.
Objectives
Data augmentation and pre-processing
The main objective of this paper is to identify land- Different data augmentation techniques were used
slides and analyze those that may occur in the future to improve the generalizability and robustness of
and to distinguish between images that depict land- the model. These techniques include using random
slides and images that do not. transformations such as rotating, panning, zoom-
ing, and moving training images to create enhanced
Methodology versions of the original database. By exposing the
model to a wider range of variables, the expanded
Dataset data set improves the model’s ability to generalize
The deepglobe land classification dataset, which con- unseen information. In addition, the image is scaled
sists of a varied collection of images depicting hilly to a standard size of 32 × 32 pixels, which provides
landscapes with various land structures, is used in consistent dimensions for post-processing. The pixel
this work. This 4188-image dataset includes examples values of the reconstructed images are normalized to
of both landslide events and non-events, displaying encourage better approximation during training and
a range of hill topography with varying elevations to keep the magnification constant. This normaliza-
and slopes. Extensive attributes and metadata are tion process involves subtracting the mean and divid-
appended to every image, offering significant insights ing by the standard deviation of the database to bring
into the characteristics of hills that are essential for the pixel values to a standard range (MDPI, 2023)
classification and analysis. These satellite-captured (Figure 54.1).
Model architecture
The envisioned model architecture for landslide iden-
tification harnesses the power of CNN with transfer
learning to proficiently detect and classify pertinent
features associated with landslides. The architectural
design unfolds in the following sections.
The model commences with an input layer tailored
to accommodate RGB images of dimensions 32 ×
32 pixels. To exploit prior knowledge and optimize
performance, a pre-trained CNN model serves as
the foundational base. This base model is initialized
with weights gleaned from the “imagenet” dataset,
allowing the model to inherit valuable insights from a
Figure 54.1 Resized landslide image diverse array of image classification tasks.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 419
Following the transfer learning base, customized The testing set was kept solely for assessing the
convolutional layers are introduced. These layers model’s performance on hypothetical data, enabling
are meticulously crafted to fine-tune the model spe- an evaluation of its generalization skills. In order to
cifically for the task of landslide detection, capturing enable efficient training, suitable components were
intricate patterns and spatial information inherent to selected, utilizing the sparse categorical cross-entropy
landslide features. loss function to address cases involving several classes
A critical flattening operation ensures after the con- of categorization. and the effective gradient-based
volutional layers, converting the output feature maps optimization tool, the Adam optimizer. The model was
into a coherent one-dimensional vector. This stra- trained over several epochs. Additionally, to evaluate
tegic transformation ensures seamless connectivity the model’s performance on unknown data at each
with subsequent layers, facilitating the extraction of epoch and guarantee its generalization skills through-
high-level representations. Following this, the output out the training process, a validation set – typically a
consists of any of the ones among landslide detected portion of the training data was employed. The model
and landslide not detected, representing the prob- incorporates dropout, a regularization technique, to
abilities of the input image belonging to each of the minimize unnecessary risk. Every training update,
2 classes of landslide detection. The softmax activa- dropout arbitrarily eliminates a portion of the input
tion function is applied to the output layer to obtain a units to keep the model from becoming overly depen-
probability distribution across the 2 landslide classes, dent on any one characteristic and strengthening gen-
enabling effective classification. eralization capacity. The model’s performance was
assessed using an alternative set of tests. The model
Model training and evaluation is trained with image tests, and its prediction ability
In this study, the landslide classification model pro- is assessed using performance metrics like accuracy,
posed was trained and evaluated using the deep- precision, recall, and F1 scores. By measuring overall
globe land cover classification dataset. This dataset accuracy, the ratio of true positive predictions to true
consists of a diverse collection of satellite images of positive predictions, the ratio of true positive predic-
hills and mountains, encompassing different types of tions to all true positive examples, and the balanced
situations, including both landslide-occurrence and F1. score, this metric offers a thorough understand-
non-occurrence cases. To ensure reliable results, the ing of the performance of the model. Think about
dataset was partitioned into distinct training and test- recall and accuracy. Furthermore, a thorough analysis
ing subsets, enabling rigorous evaluation of the mod- of this model’s performance is conducted to obtain a
el’s performance. The training set served the purpose greater knowledge of its efficacy in accurately catego-
of optimizing the model’s parameters and capturing rizing landslides and in delivering useful information
intricate patterns within the images (Figure 54.2). for advancement and development.
Figure 54.2 Transfer learning architecture
420 Landslide identification using convolutional neural network
Figure 54.3 Accuracy of the model
By adjusting learning rates and model architecture, Results
hyperparameter tuning can be carried out to further
Promising results from the landslide classification
maximize the model’s performance. The robustness
study demonstrated the model’s capacity to correctly
and generalization properties of the model can also
categorize landslides. The model performed admira-
be assessed using methods such as k-fold cross-vali-
bly on the test dataset, with an astounding accuracy of
dation. This methodology can help the field of disas-
95.75%. This high accuracy shows how precisely the
ter management by effectively training and evaluating
model can classify and identify landslide occurrences,
the suggested landslide identification model and pro-
even with their complexity and variability taken into
viding insightful data.
account. The loss function consistently decreased over
Using the train-test split technique, the dataset was
the training process, reaching a value of 0.0415 by
split into two sets: a training set and a testing set,
the 20th epoch, demonstrating the effectiveness of the
(Singh et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2023) with a pre-
method (Figure 54.3).
defined ratio (e.g., 80% for training and 20% for test-
The results obtained indicate the potential of
ing). Furthermore, additionally, the training set was
the proposed paradigm. The remarkable precision
divided into mini-batches to enable effective training.
attained on the test set underscores the efficacy of the
The models were assembled using suitable optimizers,
model in assisting researchers in precisely classifying
evaluation metrics, and loss functions. The models
instances of landslides. This accomplishment high-
were trained during the entire procedure. Checkpoints
lights its potential as a useful instrument for strength-
were saved based on the training set and validation
ening and advancing identification. The model can
accuracy, guaranteeing that the top-performing model
help with quicker and more accurate diagnoses by
is chosen for further assessment. Ultimately, on the
automating this procedure, which will improve the
testing set, models were evaluated to gauge their per-
result (Figures 54.4–54.7).
formance in terms of F1, recall, accuracy, and preci-
The satellite images are used to identify the land-
sion score, offering thorough insights about their
slides. By identifying the landslides in that specific
efficiency.
area, the satellite images of landslides are pre-pro-
cessed and taught to provide the right findings. The
Comparative analysis
result is indicated as a “landslide” if one is found. If
A thorough comparative study is done to see how
not, the result is displayed as normal.
effective the suggested models are. Well-known mod-
els in the field are chosen as benchmarks for compari-
son, such as VGG, CapsNet, and ResNet. A range of Conclusion
performance indicators are utilized in order to evalu- The primary aim of this research was to develop
ate and compare the suggested models with these and assess a landslide classification model that can
existing models. The assessment takes into account accurately classify landslide occurrences (Becker
variables like resilience, computational complexity, et al. 2022). The results obtained demonstrate the
and accuracy in order to determine whether the sug- potential of the proposed model in aiding research
gested models are superior in any way. in landslide prediction. With an impressive accuracy
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 421
Figure 54.4 Loss of the model
Figure 54.5 Select the input image
Figure 54.6 Input image
422 Landslide identification using convolutional neural network
Figure 54.7 Output
of 95.75% on the independent test set, the model References
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55 Retinal vessel segmentation using morphological
operations
Vishali Shapara and Jyoti Rani
GZSCCET, MRSPTU BATHINDA, Punjab, India
Abstract
This study presents an optimized multi-level thresholding technique for the retinal vessel segmentation in fundus images. The
proposed methodology involves pre-processing steps such as illumination compensation and adaptive histogram equaliza-
tion to enhance vessel visibility. The segmentation is performed using a Tsallis-based multi-level thresholding algorithm, and
the results are evaluated using ground truth images. Performance metrics including sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy are
calculated, demonstrating the effectiveness of the proposed method in detecting blood vessels accurately. The average values
of specificity, sensitivity and are found to be higher compared to an existing method. The proposed technique also shows
promising results in differentiating normal and abnormal retinal images.
Keywords: Retinal vessel segmentation, fundus images, multi-level thresholding, Tsallis thresholding, illumination compensa-
tion, adaptive histogram equalization, sensitivity, specificity, accuracy
Introduction Literature survey
The extraction of blood vessel-structures from retinal The segmentation of retinal blood vessels from the
fundus images plays a pivotal role in medical imag- fundus images is a crucial step in the analysis of
ing, offering critical insights into the diagnosis and ocular health and disease diagnosis. Numerous tech-
monitoring of ocular and systemic diseases. Accurate niques have been presented over the years to address
segmentation of the retinal vessels enables early detec- the challenges posed by vessel structures’ intricacies
tion of conditions such as hypertension, diabetes, and, and image quality variations. This chapter reviews the
vascular abnormalities. Over the years, researchers existing approaches, highlighting their strengths and
have explored diverse methodologies to enhance the limitations, and provides insights into the evolution
precision and reliability of this process, capitalizing of retinal vessel segmentation methodologies.
on advancements in image processing and machine Prior research has extensively explored the seg-
learning. mentation of the retinal blood vessels in fundus
This research investigation delves into the advance- images. Notably, Abramoff et al. (2010) adopted
ments and challenges within retinal vessel segmenta- a methodology involving morphological gradi-
tion, seeking to refine the efficiency and the accuracy ent operations and adaptive histogram equaliza-
of this fundamental procedure. The accurate iden- tion for pre-processing low-contrast fundus images.
tification of blood vessels necessitates a multi-stage Morphological gray level with multi-structuring ele-
approach encompassing pre-processing, segmenta- ments of varying orientations was utilized for blood
tion, and post-processing techniques. This study vessel-background separation (Al-Diri et al., 2009;
proposes a novel methodology that integrates mor- Fraz et al., 2012).
phological operations and thresholding techniques to Another prevalent approach involves the utilization
enhance the quality of vessel segmentation. of matched filters. Chaudhuri et al. (1989) introduced
In this context, subsequently this study provide a the vessel detection method using two-dimensional
comprehensive exploration of the existing literature, matched filters, while Cinsdikici and Aydin (2009)
establish the research problem and objectives, pres- incorporated the ant colony algorithm and matching
ent the proposed methodology, showcase results, and filter for blood vessel identification (Chutatape et al.,
conclude with a discussion on the implications and 1998).
future directions for this innovative approach. By Active contour models have also been employed
bridging the existing gaps and leveraging a combined for vessel segmentation. Barrett and Mortensen
morphological and threshold-based approach, this (1997) presented the interactive live-wire boundary
research contributes to the enhancement of retinal extraction approach, providing an interactive tool for
vessel segmentation, thereby advancing the realm of delineating object boundaries. Similarly, Chan and
medical imaging and diagnosis. Vese (2001) and Gill and Singh (2021) introduced
vishalishapar78@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 425
the active contours without edges method for image Remove objects below a certain threshold to smooth-
segmentation. en the image (e.g., optic disc and lesions).
Enhance contrast using histogram equalization tech-
Existing approaches nique.
One prevalent approach in the literature involves uti-
lizing morphological operations for vessel extraction. Step 2: Vessel segmentation
Abramoff et al. (2010) applied wavelet-transform-
assisted-morphological gradient operation, along Convert the pre-processed image to grayscale.
with the CLAHE to pre-process the low-contrast fun- Apply thresholding to convert the grayscale image in
dus images. The Morphological gray level hit as well to a binary image, where pixels above a certain
as the miss transform, incorporating multi-structur- threshold are considered vessels and the rest one
ing elements of varying orientations, was employed are background.
for blood vessel-background separation (Robinson et Use morphological operations (e.g., dilation, opening,
al., 1997). erosion) to extract structurally suitable vessel
pixels.
Proposed approach
To address the limitations of existing methods, this Step 3: Post-processing
study proposes an integrated approach combining
morphological pre-processing and threshold-based Convert the binary image back to grayscale.
segmentation. The morphological pre-processing Apply another thresholding to remove unwanted ar-
phase focuses on identifying linear vessel structures eas from the foreground.
(Dasgupta et al., 2009). The subsequent thresholding- Use morphological operations to further remove
based segmentation separates blood vessels from the noise and unwanted regions from the segmented
retinal fundus image. Further refinement involves vessels.
skeletonization to pinpoint vessel intersections,
enhancing segmentation accuracy. Step 4: Performance evaluation
Performance parameters Compare the segmented vessels with the ground truth
The research’s success will be evaluated using per- using metrics like specificity sensitivity and ac-
formance parameters such as specificity sensitivity, curacy.
and, accuracy. These metrics provide a comprehensive Assess the quality of vessel segmentation using receiv-
assessment of the proposed method’s ability to accu- er operating characteristic (ROC) analysis and
rately segmenting the blood vessels from the retinal other relevant performance measures.
fundus images.
In the following study, the proposed methodology The existing approach involves pre-processing the
will be elaborated, experimental results will be pre- input image to enhance vessel visibility, followed by
sented and analyzed, and the overall conclusions and thresholding and morphological operations for ves-
implications of the research will be discussed. sel segmentation. Post-processing steps are performed
to refine the segmented vessels and performance met-
Algorithm of existing technique rics are used to evaluate the accuracy of segmentation
against the ground truth.
Input: Retinal fundus image
Output: Segmented blood vessels
Algorithm of proposed technique
Step 1: Pre-processing
Input: Colored retinal fundus image
Extracting the green channel from RGB image, and it Output: Segmented blood vessels
provides better vessel-background contrast. Step 1: Pre-processing
Apply 2D wavelet transform to decompose the im-
age into smaller sections with different frequency Load the colored retinal fundus image from the local
components. disk.
Remove low-frequency and keep only the high-fre- Convert the RGB image to grayscale using the RGB2
quency components from the wavelet coeffi- gray function.
cients. Apply thresholding, for convert the grayscale image
Denoise the image using a Gaussian filter to ensure to a black and, white binary image based on Ot-
uniform intensity distribution. su’s method.
426 Retinal vessel segmentation using morphological operations
Smooth the cross-section points where blood vessels mitigate this issue. Figure 55.3 displays the illumina-
intersect, by enhancing ridge and bridge points. tion-corrected images of normal subjects, along with
Perform dilation to identify and remove small objects their filtered low- frequency components. Similarly,
(disks) from the image. Figure 55.4 presents the illumination-corrected
Apply erosion to fill the disk areas with the back- abnormal images and their corresponding filtered
ground color, removing unnecessary regions. components. These results demonstrate that the illu-
mination correction method enhances vessel edges
Step 2: Vessel segmentation and overall contrast, improving vessel segmentation.
If the size of identified disks is below a certain thresh-
old, remove them and perform reconstruction by
erosion to fill the removed areas.
Otherwise, calculate the threshold value based on the
intensity levels of the image.
Extract the foreground pixels using the calculated
threshold as a marker.
Reconstruct the image using the marker and thresh-
old-based mask to remove unwanted back-
ground.
Step 3: Post-processing
Convert the reconstructed image to grayscale.
Use morphological operations (e.g., dilation, opening,
erosion) to further refine the segmented vessel re-
gions and remove noise.
Step 4: Performance evaluation
Compare the segmented vessels with the ground truth
using metrics like sensitivity, specificity, and ac-
curacy. Figure 55.1 Normal gray scale images
Evaluate the performance using ROC analysis and
other relevant measures.
Results and discussions
This study, offers the results of proposed blood vessel
segmentation method and provides a comprehensive
discussion of the findings.
Pre-processing of retinal images
The present study utilized both normal and abnormal
retinal images obtained from the DRIVE and ARIA
public databases. Figure 55.1 depicts the representative
grayscale images of normal retinas, while Figure 55.2
illustrates the corresponding abnormal images.
Notably, abnormal retinas exhibit dilated and tortuous
blood vessels compared to the straight or gently curved
vessels in normal retinas. To enhance vessel informa-
tion, a series of pre-processing steps were applied.
Illumination compensation
Uneven illumination in retinal images can hinder
the accuracy of segmentation. The cubic spline illu-
mination compensation technique was employed to Figure 55.2 Abnormal gray scale images
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 427
Figure 55.3 Illumination corrected normal images (a) Figure 55.4 Illumination corrected abnormal images
and corresponding low frequency components (b) (a) and corresponding low frequency component (b)
Adaptive histogram equalization
Grayscale variations in normal and abnormal images
were addressed by applying adaptive histogram
equalization. Figures 55.5 and 55.6 presents’ normal
as well as abnormal images, respectively. Adaptive
histogram equalization resulted in smoother inten-
sity pixel variations, enhancing the visibility of retinal
structures and blood vessel edges, particularly in low-
contrast regions. The method also improved the vis-
ibility of disease-related features in abnormal images.
Clique function
To further enhance vessel edges, the illumination-
corrected and histogram-equalized images under-
went treatment with the clique function. Figures 55.7
and 55.8 exhibits the improved edges in normal and
abnormal images, respectively. This process not only
enhanced the vessel edges but also improved the edge
pixels contributing to microvasculature information, Figure 55.5 Illumination corrected and, adaptive his-
alongside other anatomical features. togram equalized normal images
428 Retinal vessel segmentation using morphological operations
Figure 55.8 Clique function treated abnormal images
Figure 55.6 Illumination corrected and adaptive histo-
gram equalized abnormal images Table 55.1 Average value of sensitivity, specificity and
accuracy for different normal retinal images.
Method Average Average Accuracy
(N=80) sensitivity (%) specificity (%) (%)
Proposed 89 93 93.2
Existing 79 89 86
Table 55.2 Average values of vessel-to-vessel free area for
proposed and existing methods.
Methods Type of image Average ratio of vessel
to vessel free area
Proposed Normal 0.43
Abnormal 0.27
Existing Normal 0.28
Figure 55.7 Clique function treated normal images
Abnormal 0.19
Performance evaluation
The performance evaluation of proposed blood vessel Table 55.2 presents the average ratios of vessel to
segmentation method was conducted using two key vessel-free area for both the proposed and existing
metrics, true positive fraction (TPF) and false positive methods. The proposed approach exhibited higher
fraction (FPF) which were employed for comparison ratios for both normal and abnormal images, show-
with an existing approach. casing its efficacy in distinguishing between vessel and
non-vessel regions. This characteristic contributes to
Average sensitivity, specificity and accuracy its effectiveness in differentiating between normal and
Table 55.1 provides the average specificity sensitivity abnormal images.
and accuracy values for both the proposed and exist-
ing methods. The proposed optimized Tsallis multi- ROC analysis
level threshold method demonstrated higher average Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis was
sensitivity (89%) and specificity (93%) compared used to evaluate the approaches diagnostic accu-
to the existing method. This superior performance racy. The ROC curves for the proposed method are
implies the proposed approach’s ability to detect depicted. The area under the curve (AUC) for the pro-
blood vessels accurately, even in challenging cases. posed method was 0.95, indicating its superior per-
Moreover, the higher specificity highlights the pro- formance in blood vessel detection. This high AUC
posed method’s efficiency in detecting relevant vascu- value confirms the proposed algorithm’s efficiency
lature, including those in abnormal images. and accuracy in detecting blood vessels.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 429
Conclusion Chutatape, O., Zheng, L., and Krishnan, S. M. (1998). Reti-
nal blood vessel detection and tracking by matched
In this study, a comprehensive approach to retinal Gaussian and Kalman filters. Proc. 20th Ann. Int.
image analysis was presented, focusing on blood ves- Conf. IEEE Engg. Med. Biol. Soc. Vol. 20 Biomed.
sel segmentation using an optimized Tsallis multi-level Engg. Towards Year 2000 and Beyond (Cat. No.
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the accuracy of retinal image analysis, a crucial task for Frangi, A. F., Niessen, W. J., Vincken, K. L., and Viergever,
medical diagnosis and disease assessment. The study M. A. (1998). Multiscale vessel enhancement filter-
began with pre-processing techniques to enhance retinal ing. Med. Image Comput. Comp. Assist. Interv. MIC-
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pensation, adaptive histogram equalization, and clique the adaptive detection of blood vessels in retinal im-
function treatments collectively improved vessel visibil- ages. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Engg., 53(2), 341–343.
ity and overall image quality, enhancing the subsequent Fan, S.-K. S. and Lin, Y. (2007). A multi-level thresholding
segmentation process. The proposed method demon- approach using a hybrid optimal estimation algo-
strated notable performance improvements compared rithm. Patt. Recog. Lett., 28(5), 662–669.
to an existing approach. The method achieved higher Centor, R. M. (1991). Signal detectability: the use of ROC
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ing its ability to accurately identify blood vessels while
Anagnostopoulos, G. C. (2009). SVM-based target recogni-
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56 Liver segmentation using shape prior features with
Chan-Vese model
Veerpala and Jyoti Rani
GZSCCET, MRSPTU Bathinda, Punjab, India
Abstract
Accurate liver segmentation in a computed tomography (CT) images are essential for various medical applications. This
study presents a novel liver segmentation method that combines shape prior features and a modified Chan-Vese (CV) model.
The proposed algorithm extracts shape characteristics from a training set using statistical shape modeling. A comprehensive
comparison of the proposed approach with existing methods is conducted based on performance parameters like maximum
symmetric surface distance (MSD), relative volume difference (RVD), average symmetric surface distance (ASD), root mean
square symmetric surface distance (RMSD), and volumetric overlap error (VOE). Experimental results on SLIVER and IR-
CAD datasets showcase the superiority of proposed method. The algorithm demonstrates enhanced segmentation accuracy
and efficiency, making it a valuable asset in medical image analysis.
Keywords: Liver segmentation, CT images, shape prior features, CV model, medical image analysis, performance evaluation,
statistical shape modeling, SLIVER dataset, IRCAD dataset, segmentation accuracy
Introduction Literature survey
Advancements in medical imaging technology have An essential step in medical image processing is liver
revolutionized the diagnosis and treatment of vari- segmentation from CT scans which helps with patient
ous diseases. Among these modalities, computed monitoring, therapy planning, and illness diagnosis.
tomography (CT) has emerged as a pivotal tool Over the years, numerous techniques have been pro-
for non-invasive visualization of internal anatomi- posed to tackle the challenges posed by liver shape
cal structures, enabling clinicians to make informed variations, noise, and artifacts. This literature sur-
decisions. Regarding medical image analysis, accu- vey delves into the existing liver segmentation meth-
rate segmentation of organs from CT images holds ods, highlighting their strengths, weaknesses, and
paramount significance, facilitating disease detection, advancements.
treatment planning, and patient monitoring.
To segment the liver using CT images have garnered Intensity-based approaches
substantial attention due to the organ’s critical role in Early liver segmentation methods primarily relied
metabolic processes, detoxification, and maintaining on intensity-based approaches, such as threshold-
overall health. Accurate liver segmentation is essential ing and region growing. While these methods are
for diagnosing liver diseases, monitoring changes over straight forward, they often struggle to handle vari-
time, and guiding surgical interventions. However, ations in intensity caused by noise, artifacts, and
the complex and diverse shapes of the liver, coupled pathologies. Moreover, they fail to account for the
with potential deformations caused by pathologies, intricate shape variations of the liver, leading to sub-
pose formidable challenges for precise and efficient optimal segmentation results (Chen et al., 2009; Siri
segmentation. et al., 2022).
While various liver segmentation techniques have
been proposed, achieving accurate and efficient Active contour models
results remains a challenge, particularly when dealing Active contour models, is also called as snakes,
with variations in shape and the presence of noise and emerged as a promising approach to address the
artifacts in medical images. Traditional methods often limitations of intensity-based methods. These models
rely on intensity-based approaches that struggle to utilize energy minimization techniques to delineate
handle these complexities. This has led to the explo- object boundaries accurately. While they demon-
ration of advanced methodologies that integrate ana- strated improvements in shape adaptability, They
tomical knowledge, statistical models, and machine were sensitive to initialization and struggled with
learning techniques. noise and weak edges.
veerpalsync@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 431
Level set methods stands out as a prominent approach. This model com-
Level set methods extended the capabilities of active bines active contours and level set methods to achieve
contours by enabling the evolution of curves in a robust segmentation results. An overview of the CV
higher-dimensional space. These methods allowed model and its key components are discussed in the
for better handling of complex shapes and topology following sections.
changes. However, they were computationally inten-
sive and required careful parameter tuning (Saito et Chan-Vese model
al., 2017). The Chan-Vese (CV) model is a widely used technique
for image segmentation, particularly for medical
Graph cut and region-based approaches images like liver segmentation. It is formulated as an
Graph cut and region-based methods brought about energy minimization problem that aims to find a con-
significant advancements by modeling liver segmen- tour that divides the image into regions correspond-
tation as an optimization problem. These techniques ing to the object of interest and the background. The
integrated image data with spatial information and key advantage of the CV model is its ability to handle
have shown promising results in handling shape vari- intensity in homogeneity and adapt to object shape
ations. Nevertheless, they often required extensive variations (Getreuer et al., 2012).
manual intervention and were sensitive to initializa-
tion (Kitrungrotsakul et al., 2015; Li et al., 2015). Components of the CV model
• Energy functional: The CV model defines an
Machine learning-based methods energy functional that consists of data fidelity
Machine learning techniques, including random for- and regularization terms. The data fidelity term
ests, Support Vector Machines, and, Convolutional makes sure that the evolving contour aligns with
Neural Networks, have gained traction in recent years. intensity gradients, where the regularization term
CNNs, in particular, have demonstrated remarkable encourages smoothness of the contour (Heimann
capabilities in capturing intricate features and learn- et al., 2009).
ing shape variations directly from data. However, • Level set evolution: The active contour evolves
they demand substantial computational resources and based on the minimization of the energy function-
extensive training data (Jin et al., 2017; Pawar et al., al over iterations. The evolution is achieved using
2020). partial differential equations (PDEs) that modify
the contour’s shape while adhering to the image’s
Statistical shape models (SSMs) intensity properties (Zhang et al., 2010).
Statistical shape models have emerged as a poten- • Region-based energy: The CV model employs
tial solution for handling shape variations in liver region-based energy terms, which are calculated
segmentation. These models capture the shape vari- within the evolving contour and its complement
ability within a training dataset and utilize statistical (outside the contour). These energy terms capture
measures to guide the segmentation process. They the difference in intensities between the object
offer adaptability to shape changes but may struggle and background regions (Li et al., 2015).
with unseen variations not present in the training data • Balloon force: An additional term, known as the
(Zheng et al., 2017). balloon force, is often incorporated to adjust the
contour’s shape and handle concavities or con-
Integration of shape prior information vexities in the object boundary.
One key limitation of many existing methods is their
inability to efficiently handle liver shape variations
caused by pathologies or anatomical differences. To Proposed algorithm
address this, some recent approaches have integrated The proposed algorithm seeks to improve the liver
shape prior information into the segmentation process. segmentation from CT images by enhancing the exist-
These methods leverage training datasets to learn the ing CV model with the incorporation of shape prior
liver’s expected shape variations, aiding in accurate information. This additional information helps over-
segmentation even in the presence of deformations. come some of the limitations of the CV model and
leads to more accurate and efficient liver segmenta-
Existing algorithm tion results. An overview of the proposed algorithm’s
key components and steps are discussed below.
The existing liver segmentation algorithms have
undergone continuous evolution to address the chal- Step 1: Input CT image – Begin by inputting the CT
lenges posed by shape variations, noise, and artifacts image containing the liver region that needs to be
in CT images. Among these algorithms, the CV model segmented.
432 Liver segmentation using shape prior features with Chan-Vese model
Step 2: Shape prior information – Introduce shape It consists of CT images of liver structures, allow-
prior information extracted from a training dataset, ing for validation on a different dataset assessing the
such as the SLIVER dataset. This information pro- algorithm’s generalization capability.
vides knowledge about the expected shape of the liver Volumetric overlap error (VOE): Measures the
and aids in guiding the segmentation process. overlap error between segmented and ground truth
volumes.
Step 3: Structural and statistical features extraction
Relative volume difference (RVD): Quantifies the
– Extract structural and statistical features from the
relative difference in volume between segmented and
input CT image. These features may include entropy,
ground truth regions.
homogeneity, dissimilarity, and fractal characteristics.
Average symmetric surface distance (ASD):
These features help capture important information
Measures the average distance between surfaces of
about the liver’s characteristics.
the segmented regions (Figures 56.1–56.4).
Step 4: Enhance CV model – Modify the existing CV It amply illustrates how much superior the pro-
model to incorporate the extracted shape prior infor- posed work segmentation is to the current method.
mation and the structural and statistical features. This
enhancement aims to improve initialization, conver-
gence, and accuracy of the segmentation process.
Step 5: Segmentation using enhanced model – Utilize
the enhanced CV model to segment the liver from the
CT image. The integration of shape prior information
and feature-based constraints guides the contour evo-
lution process more effectively.
Step 6: Performance evaluation – Quantitatively
assess the performance of the segmentation by cal-
culating various metrics such as relative volume dif-
ference (RVD), volumetric overlap error (VOE), root
mean square symmetric surface distance (RMSD),
average symmetric surface distance (ASD) and maxi-
mum symmetric surface distance (MSD).
Step 7: Comparison with existing model – Compare
the segmentation outcomes produced by the proposed
algorithm with those obtained using the traditional
CV model. Evaluate the improvement in terms of
Figure 56.1 The comparison of existing and the pro-
accuracy, robustness, and efficiency.
posed methods. (a) Represents the original images. (b)
Represents the ground truth images. (c) Represents
Dataset and parameters the existing method and (d) Represents the proposed
method.
The proposed algorithm for the liver segmentation
and, enhancement of the CV model is evaluated using
two well-known datasets: the SLIVER dataset and the
IRCAD dataset.
SLIVER dataset
This dataset provides a comprehensive collection of
CT images containing liver structures. It serves as the
training dataset for shape prior information extraction.
The SLIVER dataset includes a variety of liver
images with different shapes, sizes, and pathological
conditions, making it suitable for robust algorithm
training.
IRCAD dataset
The IRCAD dataset is used as the testing dataset for Figure 56.2 Shows the original image belongs to the
evaluating the performance of the enhanced algorithm. SLIVER dataset
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 433
Performance metrics SLIVER dataset results
The proposed algorithm’s performance metrics are
Performance for the proposed algorithm is quantified
compared with the existing CV model on the SLIVER
using several metrics, including RVD, VOE, RMSD,
dataset which is shown in Table 56.1.
ASD and MSD.
VOE: The proposed algorithm achieves a VOE
of 7.3%, indicating improved overlap between seg-
mented and ground truth volumes compared to the
existing model’s VOE of 7.6%.
RVD: The proposed algorithm’s RVD is -0.08%,
indicating a closer match between segmented and
ground truth volumes compared to the existing mod-
el’s RVD of -0.1%.
ASD: The proposed algorithm’s ASD value is 0.64
mm, showing better average surface distance com-
pared to the existing model’s ASD of 0.8 mm.
RMSD: The proposed algorithm achieves an RMSD
of 1.32 mm, indicating reduced root mean square dis-
tance compared to the existing model’s RMSD of 1.5
mm.
MSD: The proposed algorithm’s MSD is 19.2 mm
while the existing model’s MSD is 20.8 mm, show-
Figure 56.3 Shows the intensity histogram for the ing improvement in maximum symmetric surface
whole CT image distance.
IRCAD dataset results
Similarly, the proposed algorithm’s performance met-
rics are compared with the existing CV model on the
IRCAD dataset which is displayed in Table 56.2.
VOE: The proposed algorithm achieves a VOE of
6.1%, improved over the existing model’s VOE of
6.5%.
RVD: The RVD of the proposed algorithm is 3.8%,
compared to the existing model’s RVD of 4.1%.
ASD: The proposed algorithm’s ASD value is 1.3
mm, showing enhancement over the existing model’s
ASD of 1.9 mm.
RMSD: The proposed algorithm’s RMSD is 1.2
mm, whereas the existing model’s RMSD is 2.1 mm.
Figure 56.4 The intensity histogram for the whole CT MSD: The proposed algorithm’s MSD is 17.4 mm,
image better than the existing model’s MSD of 18.9 mm.
Table 56.1 Results for SLIVER
Data Method VOE RVD ASD RMSD MSD
SLIVER Existing 7.6 -0.1 0.8 1.5 20.8
Proposed 7.3000 -0.0800 0.6400 1.3200 19.2000
Table 56.2 Results for IRCAD
Data Method VOE RVD ASD RMSD MSD
IRCAD Existing 6.5 4.1 1.9 2.1 18.9
Proposed 6.1000 3.8000 1.3000 1.2000 17.4000
434 Liver segmentation using shape prior features with Chan-Vese model
Discussion Incorporating advanced machine learning techniques,
such as deep learning, might enhance the algorithm’s
The results obtained from the SLIVER and IRCAD
performance. Moreover, exploring real-time imple-
datasets demonstrate the effectiveness of the pro-
mentation and integration into medical imaging soft-
posed algorithm in the liver segmentation compared
ware could make the proposed method accessible for
to the existing CV model. The proposed algorithm
practical clinical applications. Finally, the algorithm’s
consistently outperforms the existing model in terms
applicability to segmenting other organs and struc-
of all performance metrics, indicating its accuracy
tures within medical images could broaden its scope
and robustness in segmenting liver regions from CT
and impact in the area of medical imaging analysis.
images.
The reduction in VOE and RVD values for both
datasets signifies improved volume overlap and simi- References
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57 Online video conference analytics: A systematic review
Vishruth Raj V. V.a and Mohan S. G.
NITTE Meenakshi Institute of Technology, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
Abstract
The significance of video analytics in online conferencing has grown quite a lot due to the drastic increase in the usage of
online conferencing platforms in recent years. Deep learning techniques have shown potential across various applications
within video analytics, including tasks such as object detection, scene classification, and event recognition. This review paper
takes a look at a comprehensive overview of the research on the use of deep learning for video analytics in the context of
online conferencing. The paper summarizes the various approaches used for video analytics, including convolutional neural
networks, various machine learning models, and other techniques, and evaluates their performance on a range of datasets
and usecases. The review also shows the challenges and limitations associated with these methods, including scalability
and variability in accuracy, and the need for further research in these areas. The paper concludes by discussing the future
potential of deep learning for video analytics on online conferencing and the potential for new and innovative approaches
to emerge in the future.
Keywords: Video analytics, video conference analytics, deep learning, neural network, transformers, convolution neural
network
Introduction Another breakthrough is in cloud-based video analyt-
ics, where video data is processed and analyzed in the
Video analytics is a fast-growing area that looks at vid-
cloud instead of on local devices. This means we can
eos and figures out important information automati-
handle a lot of video data at once, making video ana-
cally. The main aim is to handle a lot of video data and
lytics much more efficient.
get useful insights. There are three main parts to video
In conclusion, the future of video analytics is
analytics. (1) Object detection: This is about finding
bright, and the potential impact of this technology is
and pinpointing objects in a video. (2) Tracking: It
enormous. We can expect to see continued advances
involves keeping an eye on how objects move over
in video analytics, including the development of new
time. (3) Recognition: This part is about figuring out
algorithms and the integration of video analytics into
what objects are by looking at how they appear.
a wide range of applications. This will lead to new
The use of video analytics in video conferences has
insights and opportunities and will have a profound
the potential to significantly enhance the effective-
impact on a wide range of industries and applications.
ness and efficiency of communication. By analyzing
By going through this paper, readers can acquire a fun-
various aspects of participant’s behavior and engage-
damental comparison of the methodologies empow-
ment, video analytics can contribute to more produc-
ered by diverse researchers to address different tasks
tive and engaging meetings. Moreover, video analytics
in video analytics.
can play a crucial role in bolstering the security and
dependability of the entire communication process.
In this paper, it explores ways to create a comprehen- Literature survey
sive tool for analyzing video conferences by combining Approaches based on deep learning
various methods and techniques. We’ll be looking at The application of deep learning in real-time senti-
approaches using deep learning methods like convolu- ment analysis on video streams entails the classifica-
tional neural networks (CNNs), long short-term mem- tion of a subject’s emotional expressions over time by
ory (LSTM), and other techniques such as machine lever-aging visual and/or audio information present
learning (ML) and transformers for video conference in the data stream. The analysis of sentiment can be
analytics. The goal is to provide a foundation for performed by leveraging different modalities, includ-
understanding how researchers use different methods ing speech, mouth motion, and facial expressions. The
to tackle various tasks in video analytics. proposed system consists of four compact deep neu-
Even though video analytics faces challenges, ral network models that simultaneously analyze visual
it’s progressing quickly. Deep learning algorithms, and audio features. Real-time sentiment classification
especially in recent years, have made big strides in involves the fusion of extracted audio-visual features
enhancing the precision and speed of video analytics. from the data stream. Exponentially-weighted moving
a
[Link]@[Link]
436 Online video conference analytics: A systematic review
average is utilized to accumulate evidence over time, Review based on convolution neural network
aiding in making the final prediction. This research In the publication titles “A video shot boundary detec-
paper introduces a deep learning-based methodology tion utilizing CNN features”, a novel method for
for conducting real-time sentiment analysis on video CNN feature extraction is proposed for video shot
streams. The approach focuses on classifying the emo- border detection. By concurrently extracting features
tional expressions of the subjects over time by lever- from video sequences using a CNN model on a GPU,
aging visual and/or audio information present in the the suggested method streamlines the expression of
data stream. In their research, the authors utilized the video and shortens computation time for shot identi-
RAVDESS (Ryerson audio-video database of emotional fication. In order to improve shot detection recall and
speech) dataset. They achieved an accuracy of 90.74%, precision, the approach also accounts for local frame
surpassing the baselines that range from 11.11% to similarity and dual-threshold sliding window similar-
31.48%. The deep learning model proposed based on ity. The results of the experiments demonstrate that
multiple modalities shows promising results for real- the proposed strategy performs better in terms of F1
time sentiment analysis of video streams, but scalabil- score and speed than alternative models. Only three
ity is an open problem (Yakaew et al., 2021). videos were used to train the model, so it may process
The paper titled “Highlight detection with pairwise information more slowly than other approaches. In
deep ranking for first-person video summarization” the future, it could be beneficial to include motion fea-
introduces a novel approach utilizing a pairwise deep tures or different kinds of gradual transition features
ranking model to identify highlights in first-person in order to improve the accuracy (Liang et al., 2017).
video (FPV). The primary objective is to generate a The research paper titled “Detection and recog-
comprehensive summarization of the video content. nizing cursive text from video images” introduces a
The model employs deep learning techniques to learn comprehensive framework for detecting and recog-
the similarity or highlight and non-highlight segment nizing italic text in video images, specifically focus-
relationship of videos and uses a two-stream network ing on Urdu text. Textual content within videos holds
structure to represent segments of videos from com- significant relevance for various applications such as
plementary information on the appearance of video semantic search, alert generation, and advanced tasks
frames and temporal dynamics across frames. The like opinion mining and content summarization. The
model is evaluated against state-of-the-art methods study incorporates several techniques, including CNN
– RankSVM, and demonstrates a notable accuracy and DNN-based object detection, as well as LSTM
improvement of 10.5% when applied to 100 hours of networks. The authors utilize the ICDAR dataset for
first-person video (FPV) spanning 15 distinct sports training and evaluating the system. The proposed
categories. Additionally, the model exhibits superior framework demonstrates exceptional performance in
summary quality, as evidenced by a user study involv- recognizing and identifying Urdu italic text, achieving
ing 35 human subjects. The model proposed is cat- an impressive recognition F-measure of 88.3% and a
egory-independent and incorporates both temporal recognition rate of 87%. The paper not only presents
and spatial information, but the weakness is that it the framework for detecting and recognizing textual
may not generalize well to other types of videos and content in video images but also introduces a bench-
it’s not clear how well the model would perform in mark dataset comprising over 13,000 video frames
real-world applications as the study is conducted in containing italicized text. The primary objective of
controlled settings (Yao et al., 2016). this research is to provide a valuable resource for
The paper “Superintendence video summariza- high-level applications, including real-time semantic
tion” presents a new approach for video summariza- video searching, alerting, opinion mining, and content
tion in the field of surveillance. The authors look at summarization (Mirza et al., 2010).
past research on video summarization algorithms and
datasets to create their own solution. Their approach Review based on LSTM
involves picking out key frames from the video based The paper titled “Online video summarization:
on two things: each object should be in the frame, and predicting future to better summarize present”
the objects should look good and be close together. introduces a supervised learning approach called
The authors believe their solution improves video Merry-GoRoundNet for online video summariza-
surveillance by cutting out unimportant scenes and tion. The proposed method considers both spatial
highlighting important events. The paper is helpful for and temporal relationships between video frames.
understanding the issues in video surveillance and the By employing an encoder-decoder architecture and
solutions people use. However, it doesn’t mention the convolutional LSTM, MerryGoRoundNet establishes
specific dataset used for their solution, which might spatiotemporal connections and generates summa-
impact the solutions’ accuracy and strong nature ries in an online manner. The network incorporates
(Chavan et al., 2020). unsupervised next frame prediction and supervised
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 437
scene start detection tasks, along with a proposed structure of the video sequence. The model is evalu-
loss function that balances continuity and diversity ated using their own dataset and results are encour-
within the summary. Evaluations conducted on vari- aging. The model is however not fully compact. This
ous datasets demonstrate the superior performance paper appears to be based on machine learning tech-
of MerryGoRoundNet The method ranks favorably niques, specifically clustering algorithms. It may also
among online summarization techniques and demon- involve some elements of computer vision and natural
strates competitive performance when compared to language processing, as it uses visual and audio data
offline approaches. This approach is characterized by to analyze video content. The specific implementa-
its time and memory efficiency in comparison to non- tion of the method and the techniques used to extract
autoregressive methods, the production of diverse and organize the important video information may
and well-defined summaries, and prevention of model involve some elements of deep learning, but it is not
overfitting. The addressed challenge revolves around explicitly mentioned in the paper (Chen, 2010).
automatically generating video summaries, which is The research paper titled “Auto-summarization
particularly difficult due to the subjective nature of of audio-video presentations” addresses the need
the task (Lal et al., 2019). for efficient examination of vast amounts of online
The paper “Unsupervised video summarization with multimedia content by proposing video summaries,
adversarial LSTM networks” presents a generative which are condensed versions of the original material
architecture for unsupervised video summarization composed of key segments. The authors explore three
that combines variational recurrent auto-encoders techniques for automatically generating these summa-
(VAE) and generative adversarial networks (GAN). ries for online audio-video presentations, incorporat-
The architecture includes a summarizer network and ing information from the audio signal, slide transition
a discriminator network, both of which are LSTMs. points, and previous user access patterns. In addition,
The summarizer network is responsible for choosing the paper includes the results of a user study compar-
a subset of key frames that effectively represent the ing the computer-generated summaries to summaries
input video. On the other hand, the discriminator created by the authors themselves. The study reveals
network plays a role in distin-guishing between the that users were able to acquire knowledge from the
original video and its reconstructed version gener- computer-generated summaries, but perceived them
ated by the summarizer network. The entire model is as less coherent in comparison. Notably, the com-
trained in an adversarial manner. The method is eval- puter-generated summaries were only 20–25% of
uated on four benchmark datasets (SumMe, TVSum, the length of the full presentations. Consequently, the
OVP, and YouTube) and exhibits competitive perfor- study concludes that participants expressed a prefer-
mance when compared to supervised state-of-the-art ence for using the author-generated summaries due to
methods outperforming the state of the art in video their superior coherency. One downside of the sug-
summarization by 2–5%. The paper does not men- gested method is that the computer-generated sum-
tion any specific weaknesses or limitations of the pro- maries are not as well organized as the ones made by
posed method. The problem addressed in this context humans. Additionally, the computer-generated sum-
is unsupervised video summarization, which involves maries are much shorter in duration (He et al., 1999).
the task of selecting a subset (sparse) of video frames The paper titled “Creating summaries from user
that effectively represent the content of the input videos” introduces a fresh approach to making video
video (Mahasseni et al., 2017). summaries and establishes a new standard for user
videos containing numerous interesting events. The
Approaches based on machine learning method uses “superframe” segmentation to break
This paper “Video presentation board: A semantic down the video into segments. It then gauges the
visualization of video sequence presents video presen- visual interest for each superframe based on various
tation board”, a new video summarization method low-, medium-, and high-level features. By doing this
that visualizes sequence of video in a static image assessment, the approach identifies the most informa-
for the purpose of efficient representation and quick tive and captivating subset of superframes to gener-
overview. This method uses a new video shot cluster- ate a comprehensive and engaging video summary. To
ing technique that utilizes both visual and audio data assess its performance, the method uses benchmark
to analyze video content and collect important shot data, including multiple human-generated summary
information. The authors propose a multi-level video data collected through controlled psychological
summarization method that abstracts both locations experiments. This objective evaluation allows a thor-
and interested objects and characters, and then orga- ough assessment of summarization methods and
nize and synthesize a suitable amount of selected video provides valuable insights into video summarization
information using special visual languages according techniques. The results of this evaluation show that
to the relations between video events and the temporal the proposed method achieves high-quality results
438 Online video conference analytics: A systematic review
comparable to manually created, human-generated The title “Sentiment analysis on user-generated
summaries (Malik et al., 2008; Gygli et al., 2014). video, audio and text”, presents a multi-modal senti-
The paper “Large scale video summarization using ment analysis approach, where sentiment analysis is
web image priors” introduces a novel approach to performed separately on text, audio, and video modal-
summarizing user-generated videos by leveraging web- ities and then fused together using weights obtained
images as a valuable prior. The key idea is based on through trial-and-error logging. The research aimed
the observation that people typically capture images to build a system that could analyze the video senti-
of objects in a highly informative manner. Therefore, ment and give an output to the user. The multi-modal
these web-images can serve as prior knowledge to sum- approach enhances the perspective and resolves incon-
marize videos that contain similar objects. The authors sistencies by cross-verifying sentiment classification
propose an unsupervised algorithm that utilizes this across all three modalities. However, the research had
web-image-based prior information. To evaluate the a few shortcomings such as loss of information due to
effectiveness of the approach, the authors employ a cutting of video clips and difficulty in handling cer-
crowdsourcing-based evaluation framework, which tain cases based on ethnicity, voice modulation, and
generates multiple summaries through the collective accent. Future research in this domain may involve
input of human participants. The framework’s perfor- enhancing the speed and accuracy of the system,
mance is evaluated by comparing it to multiple human expanding and improving existing databases, and
evaluators, and the results are presented for testing on developing a more user-friendly version of the mul-
the SumMe dataset, which includes 25 videos encom- timodal sentiment analysis system (Rao et al., 2021).
passing holidays, sports and events. The strength of Classifier system: The primary objective of this
the paper is that it proposes a novel approach to sum- model is to surpass the performance of traditional
marizing user-generated videos by using web-images classifiers and offer a unified system for both audio
as a prior. However, it is limited to user-generated vid- and text [Link] system also includes a web
eos of poor quality, and the approach may not gener- application for dynamic processing of YouTube vid-
alize to well-produced videos (Kosla et al., 2013). eos and a facial expression analysis using Affdex API.
The paper titled “Less is more - Learning highlight The model was trained on the Stanford Sentiment
detection from video duration” introduces a scalable TreeBank (SSTb) and Stanford Twitter Sentiment
unsupervised approach for highlight detection by (STS) Corpus. The strengths of the proposed work
leveraging video duration as implicit form of supervi- include the hybrid approach being superior to other
sion. The researchers make a crucial observation that algorithms, and being robust and portable. Limitations
segments extracted from user generated videos which of the system proposed include not specifying any
are relatively shorter and are more likely to contain limitations or shortcomings, not providing details
highlights compared to segments from longer videos. about the dataset used for training, and not testing
To tackle the inherent noise present in the unlabeled the system on real-world datasets (Radhakrishnan et
training data, the authors introduce an innovative al., 2018).
ranking framework that assigns higher priority to seg- This paper introduces a method called “Story-driven
ments from shorter videos. The method is trained using summarization” for generating video summaries spe-
a dataset of 10 million hash tagged Instagram videos cifically tailored for egocentric videos. The approach
and evaluated on 2 challenging public benchmarks involves segmenting the video into subshots, extract-
for video highlight detection. Notably, this approach ing visual objects, and selecting a chain of K subshots
demonstrates robustness to label noise, relies solely that form the summary. This selection process is guided
on weakly-labeled annotations such as hashtags, and by a quality objective function that takes into account
exhibits the potential to extend to numerous domains. factors such as story coherence, importance of sub-
The paper aims to tackle the resource-intensive super- shots, and diversity. To evaluate the effectiveness of
vision requirements of existing highlight detection their approach, the authors conduct experiments on
methods, which rely on manual identification of high- a dataset comprising 12 hours of daily activity videos
lights by human viewers during training. In a broader captured from 23 different camera wearers. They com-
perspective, the suggested approach represents a pare their method against multiple baselines using the
substantial advancement in the field of unsupervised input of 34 human subjects. The result demonstrates
highlight detection, with the potential to contribute that the proposed approach outperforms traditional
to the development of more sophisticated systems methods by providing a more coherent and engag-
for video previewing, sharing, and recommenda- ing sense of story in the generated summaries. The
tions. Subsequent research endeavors may delve into authors also outline their future research directions,
the integration of multiple pre-trained domain-spe- which encompass investigating the applicability of
cific highlight detection models to analyze videos in their approach in different video domains and refining
uncharted domains (Xiong et al., 2019). subshot descriptions to encompass motion patterns or
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 439
actions, thereby enhancing the overall quality of sum- educational and news videos, but its performance on
marization (Lu et al., 2013). different types of videos and real-world scenarios is
The paper “Text extraction in video images” pro- not specified in the paper (Guo et al., 2016).
poses a method for extracting text information from The paper “Text extraction in video” presents a
video sequences. It involves examining the frequency comprehensive system designed for the detection,
of high horizontal energy in a video frame and per- localization, extraction, tracking, and binarization of
forming structural operations to remove the back- text in general-purpose videos. The method employs a
ground. The method uses temporal information and multi-faceted approach that combines edge detection
DCT coefficients to evaluate the energy and filter out and various other techniques to achieve accurate text
non-text blocks. The proposed method uses its own detection. The system is capable of processing differ-
dataset and is found to be more efficient than Wang ent types of video formats, including JPEG images,
et al.’s method, with better results on images with MPEG-1 bit streams, and live video feeds. The study
complex backgrounds. The weakness of the proposed observed that no single algorithm could effectively
method is not mentioned, but it addresses the problem detect all forms of text, necessitating the use of a
of text extraction from video sequences. The conclu- cascaded set of constraints to address this issue. By
sion is that the method is effective and efficient for text employing these constraints, the method achieved
extraction from video sequences (Yen et al., 2008). strong performance with high accuracy and a low
The paper “Text extraction from video images” rate of false alarms. However, it should be noted that
presents a new method for extracting text from video detecting text in low-contrast backgrounds still poses
frames, specifically video data from the Malayalam a challenge, indicating an area for further improve-
news channel “Mathrubhumi News.” The method ment in the system. Overall, the paper highlights the
extracts 13 different features, by employing both effectiveness of the proposed system in extracting text
spatial and frequency domain features, the algorithm from videos, showcasing its capabilities in various
aims to classify whether an image contains text or video formats and its ability to minimize false alarms.
not. The validation of the algorithm involves the It also acknowledges the need for continued research
application of classification techniques such as Simple to enhance text detection in challenging scenarios,
Logistic, J48, and random forest, with an average such as low-contrast backgrounds (Yen et al., 2008).
success rate of 98%. The strength of the proposed In this paper the author proposes a method for
method is that it extracts relevant features specific video summarization based on the analysis of video
to Malayalam scripts, leading to improved accuracy structures and highlights. It uses a normalized cut algo-
and speed. However, a weakness is that the method rithm for scene modeling and motion attention mod-
has only been tested on one specific news channel and eling for highlight detection. The resulting temporal
may not generalize well to other types of videos or graph representation encapsulates both the structure
other languages. The results show that simple logis- and attention information of the video, but only con-
tic, a neural network-based classification algorithm, siders motion information and not other multimedia
gave the best accuracy when compared to random information. The paper’s strengths are the automatic
forest and J48, which are both tree-based classifi- detection of scene changes and generation of sum-
ers. The extracted text could be used in the future to maries, while the weaknesses are limited multimedia
assist visually impaired persons by converting it into information consideration. Future research focuses on
a sound signal (Raju et al., 2017). improving the video attention model and developing
Text recognition and extraction from video pres- automatic video editing techniques (Ngo et al., 2005).
ents a technique for extracting text from videos and The paper “Automated whiteboard lecture video
converting it into editable form. The main focus is on summarization by content region detection and rep-
educational and news videos. The system processes resentation” presents a framework for summarizing
the video input and generates an editable text file as whiteboard lecture videos by detecting key content
output, saving time and human efforts. The strengths and keyframes using a bounding box detection
of the proposed system include its automation of the approach. The authors of the paper employ both deep
manual process of extracting text. No specific weak- learning metric and gradient feature approaches histo-
nesses are mentioned. The open problem addressed by gram to address their research problem. Through their
the paper is the difficulty of storing useful informa- experimentation and analysis, they observe that the
tion from videos in an editable form. Possible future histogram of gradient approach outperforms the deep
enhancements include allowing the user to select a metric learning approach in terms of performance and
specific portion of the screen for text extraction and effectiveness. Additionally, the authors introduce an
allowing the user to provide a video URL instead of efficient spatiotemporal graph-based tracking scheme
the video itself. The proposed system has potential as in their methodology. This scheme allows for effective
a useful tool for extracting useful information from tracking of objects and structures with-in the video,
440 Online video conference analytics: A systematic review
aiding in the segmentation process. Furthermore, they text extraction in complex video scenes, which has
propose a weighted conflict minimization scheme, been a challenging area of research in recent years.
which helps in generating keyframe summaries by This method combines multi-frame corner matching
minimizing conflicts and maximizing the coherence and heuristic rules to effectively address the chal-
and quality of the summary. The evaluation results lenges associated with Harris corner filtration in
revealed that their method achieved performance com- complex video scenes, ultimately leading to enhanced
parable to state-of-the-art techniques in terms of recall, detection accuracy through the fusion of information
f-measure, and the average of summary keyframes, from multiple frames.
as demonstrated using the Access Math dataset. The Additionally, local texture description is utilized
authors intend to conduct more in-depth exploration to assess similarity through the application of SVM.
of deep metric approaches, integrate lecturer action Experimental results based on 395-frame video
detection and text detection techniques, and extend images of four different types demonstrate the meth-
the application of these methods to other handwritten od’s effectiveness when compared to five existing text
lecture datasets. Nonetheless, there are outstanding extraction techniques (Guo et al., 2016).
challenges that must be addressed to further enhance
the approach’s performance (Kota et al., 2020). Approaches based on OCR
The paper “Hierarchical model for long-length The paper, “A video text extraction method for char-
video summarization with adversarily enhanced audio/ acter recognition”, presents a method for precisely
visual features” presents a novel method for summa- extracting only the video character portions from a
rizing long videos. The approach incorporates audio video text rectangle region to make a readable image
and visual features and adopts a hierarchical structure for OCR. The proposed method addresses the limi-
that captures temporal dependencies at both short- and tations of conventional methods which use a fixed
long-term levels within the video. The extracted fea- threshold for binarization and are not effective in
tures are refined using adversarial networks to enhance complex backgrounds with various intensities. The
deep feature extraction. The method was evaluated on proposed method focuses on extracting high-inten-
a dataset of 28 baseball videos, each with an accompa- sity regions with-in video text regions and expand-
nying editorial summary video, and produced quality ing them to encompass the entire character regions.
summaries. However, further evaluation on other types Experimental results demonstrate the superiority
of videos and benchmark datasets is needed to establish of the proposed method compared to conventional
the generalizability of the method (Lee et al., 2020). approaches. However, the result depends on the kind
The research paper titled ILS-SUMM: Iterated local of news video used, and some results have many
search for unsupervised video summarization” intro- errors due to the OCR being sensitive to noise and
duces a novel algorithm for unsupervised video sum- binarized images. Open problems include applying
marization. The algorithm utilizes the iterated local the method to other types of videos. In conclusion, the
search optimization framework to efficiently identify proposed method is a novel and effective approach
a subset of shots that accurately capture the essence for precisely segmenting character regions from com-
and meaning of the original video. The approach plex backgrounds in videos for OCR data entry (Hori
aims to minimize the overall distance between shots et al., 1999).
while adhering to a constraint on the duration of the
generated summary. Experimental evaluations per- Summary literature survey
formed on video summarization datasets clearly dem-
onstrate the superior performance of the ILS-SUMM Limitations, strengths and open problems
algorithm when compared to other existing methods. Tables 57.1 and 57.2 gives a gist of all the papers
The results showcase improved total distance metrics, referred. The authors have used various methods for
indicating the effectiveness of the algorithm. Notably, computer vision and multimedia analysis. The meth-
the paper emphasizes the scalability of ILS-SUMM ods used include DL, CNN, F1 Score, VAE, GAN,
when applied to lengthy video datasets. LSTM, hybrid of keyword spotting system, simple
However, it should be noted that the paper’s evalu- logistic, J48, random forest, multi-pronged approach,
ation is limited in terms of the available information normalized cut algorithm, bounding box detection,
regarding the number of datasets utilized and the spe- deep learning metrics, and gradient feature histogram
cific metrics employed for performance assessment approach. The datasets used range from own data-
(Shemer et al., 2021). sets, SumMe, TVSum, SST-5, ICDAR, 100 hours of
first-person videos, audio-video presentations, 10M
Approaches based on SVM hash tagged Instagram videos, and Malayalam news
The paper titled “A method of effective text extraction channel. The performance of these methods var-
for complex video scenes” introduces an approach for ies, with some showing high accuracy (98%) while
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 441
Table 57.1 Summary of state-of-the-art methods
Authors Methods used Dataset used Performance benchmark Limitation
Atitaya Yakaew DL, Multiple RAVDESS 90.74% accuracy Scalability
[1] modalities,
sentiment
classification
Ting Yao [2] DL, Rank SVM 100 hours FPV 10.5% increase in accuracy May not generalize well to other
for 15 unique and better summarization types of videos and real-time
sports of real human testing performance is not proven
Tejal Chavan [3] New approach Not specified Improved video surveillance Implementation of the solution
for video monitoring by summarizing is not mentioned, which
summarization the video could affect its accuracy and
robustness
Yi-Lin Sung [4] Anchor-based SumMe The findings demonstrated Not specified
attention RNN and TVSum that the suggested approach
(ABA-RNN) datasets exhibited a competitive
nature
Daniele Comi [5] Fine-tuned SST-5, SQuAD Z-BERT-A outperforms The authors plan to further
transformers existing baselines zero-shot explore the potential of
model settings for both known Z-BERT-A in future work
intent classification and
unseen intent discovery
Rui Liang [6] CNN, F1 score Trained with 3 Method out-performed Trained using 3 videos only, low
own videos other models in terms of F1 processing speed, accuracy may
score and speed vary
Ali Mirza [7] CNN, DNN- ICDAR dataset 88.3% F measure for ICDAR only contains Urdu
based object for Urdu text text detection, 87% for text, and its ability with other
detection, LSTM recognition rate of Urdu languages is unclear
text
Shamit Lal [8] MerryGoR u-ndNet, Superior among online Not specified
LSTM summarization approaches
and competitive among
offline summarization
approaches
Behrooz VAE, GAN, SumMe, Demonstrates competitive Not specified
Mahasseni [9] LSTM TVSum, OVP, performance to supervised
YouTube SoA approaches,
outperforming one of the
best video summarization by
2–5%
Tao Chen [10] Video Own dataset Not specified Not specified
presentation
board
Liwei He [11] Audio signal Audio-video Users are able to learn Computer-generated summaries
information, presentations from computer-generated are less coherent compared to
Slide transition summaries but find them less author-generated summaries.
points, Access coherent Participants preferred to use the
patterns of author-generated summary
previous users
Michael Gygli Video Multiple High-quality results Not specified
[12] summarization human-created comparable to a manual
using summaries method
Super- frame from a
segmentation psychological
experiment
442 Online video conference analytics: A systematic review
Authors Methods used Dataset used Performance benchmark Limitation
Aditya Khosla Unsupervi edSumMe High-quality results User-generated videos of poor
[13] algorithm, dataset comparable to manual results quality might affect the result
crowd-sourced
evaluation
frame-work
Bo Xiong [14] Scalable 10M hash- The method demonstrates Limited to user-generated
unsupervised tagged Insta- robustness against label videos of poor quality, may
solution for gram videos noise, relying solely on not generalize well to well-
high- light and evaluated weakly-labeled annotations produced videos, reliance on
detection on two like hashtags, and possesses weakly-labeled annotations like
challenging the potential for scalability hashtags for training
public video
Akriti Ahuja Multimod Own data Not specified Information loss due to cutting
[15] sentiment analysis of video clips and difficulty
in handling cases based on
ethnicity, voice modulation,
and accent
Vignesh Hybrid of Key SSTb and STS Hybrid approach is superior Not specified
Radhakrishnan word Spotting Corpus to other algorithms and
[16] System, Maximum robust and portable
Entropy, (KWS)
& (ME) classifier
system
Zheng Story Twelve hours Provides a better Limited to ego-
Lu [17] driven daily activity sense of the story compared centric videos
summarization videos from 2 3 to traditional methods
unique camera
wearers
Shwu-Huey Yen Own method Own dataset More efficient and effective Not specified
[18] than R. Wang et al’s method,
better results on images with
complex backgrounds
Nidhin Raju Simple logistic, Malayalam 98% accuracy Only tested on one specific
[19] J48, Random News channel news channel, may not
Forest ”Mathrubhumi generalize well to other videos/
News” languages
Kiran Agre [20] OCR, MSER, Not specified Not specified Not specified
sliding window
method, Con-
nected Componen
based method
Shwu-Huey Yen Multipronged JPEG, MPEG1 It exhibited strong Detecting text in low-contrast
[21] approach bit performance, characterized backgrounds remains a
Stream and live by high accuracy and challenge
video feed minimal false alarms
Chong-Wah Normalize cut - Only considers motion Not specified
Ngo [22] algorithm information and not other
multimedia information
Bhargava Urala Bounding box AccessMa The evaluation results The authors intend to conduct
Kota [23] detection, deep dataset. showed that the method further exploration of deep
metric learning, obtained comparable metric approaches, integrate
histogram of performance to SoA lecturer action detection
gradient feature techniques. In relation to and text detection methods,
approach, recall, F-measure, and the and extend the application
spatiotemporal mean number of summary of these techniques to other
graph-based keyframes, as assessed using handwritten lecture datasets
tracking, and the AccessMath dataset
weighted conflict
minimization
scheme
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 443
Authors Methods used Dataset used Performance benchmark Limitation
Hansol Lee [24] Hierarchic model l 28 baseball Produced quality summaries Further evaluation on other
with adversarially videos with types of videos and benchmark
enhanced audio/ accompanying datasets is needed to establish
visual features editorial generalizability of the method
summaries
Yair Shemer ILS-SUMM Video The ILS-SUMM algorithm The paper has limited
[25] summarization outperforms other video evaluation and it is unclear
dataset(s) summarization approaches how many datasets were used
and provides solutions with and what metrics were used to
a better total distance. The evaluate performance
algorithm is scalable on a
long video dataset
Zhe Guo [26] SVM, multi-frame Four 395 Demonstrated the Not specified
corner matching, frame video effectiveness of the proposed
heuristic rules image types method when compared to
five existing text extraction
techniques
Osamu Hori OCR, high- News videos Superior to conventional The method is only tested on
[27] intensity regions methods news videos
extraction and
expansion
Table 57.2 Summary of limitation, strength and open problems
SOA methods Limitations Strengths Open problems
Atitaya Yakaew [1] Scalability Real-time sentiment analysis better than Scalability
baselines of 11.11–31.48%
Ting Yao [2] May not generalize well to 10.5% increase in accuracy and better Model may not
other types of videos and summarization of real human testing generalize well to
real-time performance is not other types of videos
proven
Tejal Chavan [3] Implementation of the Improved monitoring by removing idle Not specified
solution is not mentioned, scenes and highlighting important events
which could affect its
accuracy and robustness
Yi-Lin Sung [4] Not specified The findings demonstrated that the Not specified
suggested approach exhibited a
competitive nature
Daniele Comi [5] The authors plan to further Effectiveness of Z-BERT-A for unknown Not specified
explore the potential of intent detection outperformed existing
Z-BERT-A in future work methods. Need for further research to
evaluate the performance of Z-BERT-A
on other datasets and compare it to other
SoA models
Rui Liang [6] Trained using 3 videos CNN feature extraction outperforms Since only 3 videos
only, low processing speed, other models in terms of F1 score and are used to train it is
accuracy may vary speed difficult to say how
the model performs
in real life
Ali Mirza [7] ICDAR only contains Urdu Proposed framework achieves a high Not specified
text and its ability with other F-measure of 88.3%. The generalizability
languages is unclear of the framework to other languages and
scripts remains unclear
444 Online video conference analytics: A systematic review
SOA methods Limitations Strengths Open problems
Shamit Lal [8] Not specified MerryGORound Net exhibits superior Challenge of
performance among online summarization automatically
approaches and competitive performance generating the
in offline scenarios summary of a video
due to its subjective
nature remains an
open problem
Behrooz Mahasseni Not specified Combining VAE and GAN demonstrates Open problem is
[9] competitive performance when compared unsupervised video
to supervised approaches, outperforming summarization
the SoA in video summarization by 2–5%
Tao Chen [10] Not specified Method uses a new shot clustering method Model is not fully
that utilizes both visual and audio data to compact, and it
analyze video content is unclear how it
performs on large-
scale video datasets
Liwei He [11] Computer-generated Paper presents three techniques for Not specified
summaries are less coherent automatic creation of video summaries
compared to author-generated using different types of information. The
summaries. Participants auto-generated results might not be as
preferred to use the author- accurate as a human- generated result
generated summary
Michael Gygli [12] Not specified High-quality results Not sure how well
it will perform with
other data
Aditya Khosla [13] User generated videos of poor Approach to summarizing user-generated Not specified
quality might affect the result videos using web images as a prior.
Approach may not generalize to well-
produced videos
Bo Xiong [14] Limited to user generated Scalable unsupervised solution for Integrate several
videos poor quality. May highlight detection uses video duration as pre-trained domain-
not generalize well to well- an implicit supervision signal. Enhances specific highlight
produced videos. Reliance on the current state-of-the-art in unsupervised detectors to analyze
weakly-labeled annotations highlight detection test videos from
like hashtags for training novel domains
Akriti Ahuja [15] Information loss due to Approach that fuses sentiment analysis Not specified
cutting of video clips and on text, audio, and video modalities and
difficulty in handling cases provides a broader viewpoint. Increasing
based on ethnicity, voice the speed and accuracy of the system,
modulation, and accent creating better databases, creating a user-
friendly version of the multinodal system
Vignesh Rad Not specified Outperforms other traditional classifiers Testing the method
hakrishnan [16] and provides a single integrated system for used in the paper on
audio and text processing real-world videos
Zheng Limited to ego- Provides a better Explore visual
Lu [17] centric videos. sense of the story compared to traditional influence in other
methods. video domains
and extend their
Subshot descriptions
to capture motion
patterns or actions
Shwu-Huey Yen More efficient than Not specified Not specified
[18] the existing method with
better results on complex
backgrounds
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 445
SOA methods Limitations Strengths Open problems
Nidhin Raju [19] Trained on only one domain Trained on specific script improved Not specified
and language and might not accuracy and speed in text extraction from
work well on other domains video frames
or languages
Kiran Agre [20] Not specified Not specified Not specified
Shwu-Huey Yen Detecting text in low-contrast The system can detect, localize, extract, Not specified
[21] backgrounds remains a track, and binarize text from a general-
challenge purpose video. Detecting text in low-
contrast backgrounds remains a challenge
Chong-Wah Ngo Model only considers motion Method provides automatic detection of Model only
[22] information and not other scene changes and generation of video considers motion
multimedia information summaries information and not
other multimedia
information
SOA Methods Limitations Strengths Open problems
Bhargava Urala Further investigation into Not specified Not specified
Kota [23] deep metric approaches,
integration of lecturer action
detection and text detection
methods, and their application
to additional handwritten
lecture datasets are essential
steps to enhance the
performance of the approach
Hansol Lee [24] Further evaluation on Method utilizes both audio and visual Not specified
other types of videos and features and has a hierarchical structure
benchmark datasets is to capture short- and long-term temporal
needed to establish the dependencies. Further evaluation on other
generalizability of the method types of videos and benchmark datasets is
needed to establish the generalizability of
the method
Yair Shemer [25] The paper has limited The ILS-SUMM algorithm surpasses other The paper has
evaluation, and it is unclear video summarization methods and offers limited evaluation,
how many datasets were used solutions with improved total distance and it is unclear
and what Various metrics how many datasets
were employed to assess the were used and what
algorithm’s performance metrics were used
to evaluate the
performance of the
algorithm
Zhe Guo [26] Further evaluation on a larger Method uses multiframe corner matching Not specified
and more diverse dataset and heuristic rules for text region detection,
is needed to establish the improving accuracy with multiframe fusion
generalizability of the method
Osamu Hori [27] Novel and effective approach Not specified Not specified
for precisely segmenting
character regions. Applying
the method to other types of
videos is an open problem
446 Online video conference analytics: A systematic review
others outperforming state-of-the-art approaches. text on the whiteboard, exploring the use of object
However, limitations of the methods include scal- detection and tracking techniques for following the
ability, accuracy may vary, reliance on weakly-labeled teacher’s writing and highlighting important points,
annotations, and difficulty in handling cases based on developing and evaluating different approaches for
ethnicity, voice modulation, and accent. summarizing the content of the lecture and the white-
board, and incorporating user preferences and con-
Possible scope of research text into the summarization process. Additionally,
research can also be conducted on exploring the
The field of video summarization with multiple users impact of various factors such as lighting conditions,
talking at the same time presents several exciting camera angle, and writing style on the performance of
areas for research. This can include developing and handwriting recognition and summarization models,
improving automatic speech recognition models for as well as developing and comparing different evalua-
transcribing multiple over-lapping speech, exploring tion metrics for lecture summarization. Furthermore,
the use of audio separation techniques to separate there is potential for exploring the use of transfer
individual speech streams, developing and evaluat- learning and federated learning for video summariza-
ing different approaches for summarizing the content tion, as well as integrating video summarization with
of multiple concurrent speech streams, and incorpo- other multimedia processing tasks such as keyword
rating user preferences into the summarization pro- spotting and speaker diarization.
cess. Additionally, research can also be conducted
on exploring the impact of various factors such as
Conclusion
audio quality and speaker characteristics on the per-
formance of speech recognition and summarization To summarize, the domain of video analytics in online
models, as well as developing and comparing dif- conferencing utilizing deep learning offers abundant
ferent evaluation metrics for video summarization. prospects for research and advancement. The authors
Furthermore, there is potential for exploring the use of the examined papers have employed diverse deep
of transfer learning and federated learning for video learning techniques, including CNN, VAE, GAN,
summarization, as well as integrating video summa- LSTM, and hybrid keyword spotting systems, to ana-
rization with other multimedia processing tasks such lyze video content across various scenarios such as
as speaker diarization, sentiment analysis, emotion audio-video presentations, first-person videos, and
detection and keyword spotting. hash tagged Instagram videos. The outcomes of these
The field of intent and entity recognition using investigations have consistently showcased the capa-
transformers offers a vast range of research opportu- bility of deep learning methods to attain remarkable
nities. This can encompass areas such as developing accuracy, surpassing current state-of-the-art method-
and fine-tuning transformer models for joint intent ologies in certain cases.
and entity recognition, improving the accuracy and While the results of deep learning techniques for
robustness of models in noisy or real-world scenar- video analytics in online conferencing are promis-
ios, exploring the use of attention mechanisms to ing, it is essential to acknowledge their limitations.
better capture the context and relationships between Scalability remains a challenge, as the accuracy
intents and entities, and incorporating transfer learn- of these methods can vary depending on the size
ing for cross-lingual and cross-domain recognition. and complexity of the analyzed data. The reliance
Additionally, research can also be conducted on on weakly-labeled annotations can also lead to
developing and comparing different approaches for decreased accuracy, especially when the annotations
combining intent and entity recognition, such as do not adequately represent the underlying data.
using a two-stage process or a joint end-to-end model, Moreover, difficulties in handling factors like eth-
as well as integrating intent and entity recognition nicity, voice modulation, and accent emphasize the
with other NLP tasks such as sentiment analysis need for further research to ensure the robustness
and summarization. Furthermore, there is potential and effectiveness of these methods across diverse use
for exploring the use of federated learning for joint cases.
intent and entity recognition, as well as developing Despite these challenges, the application of deep
new evaluation metrics for assessing the performance learning in video analytics for online conferencing
of these models. holds significant potential for enhancing the user
In a video where a lecturer or a person is using a experience and facilitating effective analysis of exten-
white board to write information presents several sive multimedia data. Consequently, the authors antic-
exciting areas for research. This can include develop- ipate ongoing growth and development in this field,
ing and improving computer vision techniques for with the possibility of new and innovative approaches
accurately recognizing and transcribing handwritten emerging in the future.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 447
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58 Sales analysis: Coca-Cola sales analysis using data mining
techniques for predictions and efficient growth in sales
Siddique Ibrahim S. P.1,a, Pothuri Naga Sai Saketh2, Gamidi Sanjay3,
Bhimavarapu Charan Tej Reddy4, Mesa Ravi Kanth5 and Selva Kumar S.6
Assistant Professor, School of Computer Science and Engineering, VIT-AP University, Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh,
1,6
India
UG Student, School of Computer Science and Engineering, VIT-AP University, Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh, India
2,3,4,5
Abstract
This research study attempts to conduct a complete Coca-Cola sales analysis using data mining techniques to extract impor-
tant insights from historical sales data and consumer information. The major purpose in the competitive consumer products
business is to discover opportunities for improving sales efficiency and enabling informed decision-making for strategic
initiatives. For a comprehensive analysis, the study employs a wide dataset comprising product sales, geographic informa-
tion, customer demographics, and relevant variables, as well as external elements such as economic indicators and consumer
trends. Rigorous pre-processing techniques, such as data cleaning, integration, transformation, compression and pattern
generation are utilized to assure data quality and consistency. These methods deal with errors, deal with missing numbers,
and normalize the data for robust analysis. Sales data analysis employs various data mining techniques, including classifica-
tion, association rule mining (ARM), similarity analysis, and predictive models like decision trees and regression, to identify
pertinent patterns and insights. The results of this investigation offer Coca-Cola important insights, such as cross-selling
opportunities, high-potential market segment identification, and precise sales forecasts via predictive modeling. The results
of this study have noteworthy consequences for customized marketing approaches, interdisciplinary cooperation, and the
requirement for ongoing evaluation and modification to guarantee long-term prosperity in the sector.
Keywords: Sales analysis, data mining, Coca-Cola, consumer goods, sales growth, customer information, strategic initiatives
Introduction customer behavior patterns, distinct market segments,
and future sales trends. The findings aim to equip
In the dynamic and fiercely competitive consumer
Coca-Cola with the necessary insights to enhance cus-
goods industry, sustaining and growing sales pose
tomer engagement, tailor marketing strategies, and
continuous challenges for companies like Coca-Cola.
adapt to evolving market dynamics, ultimately driv-
To overcome these hurdles and stay ahead, businesses
ing efficient sales growth in this competitive industry
must adopt innovative, data-driven approaches for
(Berrar, 2018; Isa, 2019; Ensafi et al., 2022).
comprehensive sales analysis. This research paper
focuses on leveraging data mining techniques such as
Related work
cluster analysis, association rule mining (ARM) and
predictive modeling to analyze Coca-Cola’s exten- Kusrin Kusrini conducted a study focusing on facili-
sive sales data. By uncovering hidden patterns and tating the determination of minimum stock and profit
relationships, the study aims to provide actionable margin. They employed the k-means clustering algo-
insights for optimizing sales growth strategies and rithm to create a model that classifies objects as “fast
improving resource allocation (Ibrahim et al., 2019; moving” or “slow moving” (Priyanka, 2015; Sathya
SPS and Sivabalakrishnan, 2020; Devi and Anto, et al., 2023) high-dimensional datasets. Researchers
2021). unveiled an improved K-means clustering technique
The methodology involves collecting and pre-pro- (Khalilian et al., 2010; SPS and Sivabalakrishnan,
cessing diverse data from Coca-Cola’s sales records, 2020; Devi and Anto, 2021). They used principles
incorporating variables like product sales, geographic of equivalence and compatible relations in addition
data, customer demographics, and external factors to a divide and conquer strategy. The results of the
such as economic indicators. Techniques like data experiment showed increased computational speed
cleaning, normalization, and transformation ensure and accuracy.
data quality, preparing it for analysis (Aldenderfer Marketing strategy and product performance:
and Blashfield, 1984). Core data mining methods a study of selected firms in Nigeria was the study
and predictive modeling, enable the identification of suggested to investigate the relationship between
[Link]@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 449
marketing strategies and product performance within customer surveys for tailored insights. Employed pre-
a sample of Nigerian enterprises (Li and Wu, 2012). dictive modeling techniques like regression analysis
The study looked at how strategies affect product and decision trees for forecasting future sales trends.
sales (Yee, 2018; Saxena and Vikram, 2021). Kusrini
(2015) explored attributes for predicting buyer Association rule mining
behavior and purchase performance. This included Utilized algorithms like Apriori or FP-growth to unveil
applying classification techniques such as the ID3 patterns and associations between products, aiding in
algorithm, C4.5 algorithm, and decision trees (Julia identifying cross-selling opportunities and informing
and Peter, 2016; Vilata et al., 2010). Researchers targeted marketing strategies (Ibrahim, 2020).
Arthi and Kirubakaran (2017) and Malar and Deva
Priya (2018) examined a retail sales dataset using Cluster analysis
the WEKA interface. They assessed cluster forma- Grouped customers based on purchasing behavior,
tion correctness and compared incorrectness percent- demographics, or geographic location, enabling the
ages among four algorithms, including the standard identification of distinct market segments for tailored
K-means algorithm. The study revealed varying levels marketing and product offerings.
of cluster correctness.
Cross-validation delve into the concept and appli- Customer review
cations of cross-validation, a technique used to assess Employed a survey with ten focused questions to
the performance of predictive models, ensuring their understand consumer behaviors and preferences in
generalizability and reliability (Isa, 2019). Cluster the Guntur area, providing valuable insights for pre-
analysis discusses how data points are grouped into dictive analysis and customer review evaluation.
clusters based on similarities or patterns within the
data (Aldenderfer and Blashfield, 1984). Vilata et al. Predictive modeling
(2010) and SPS and Sivabalakrishnan, (2020) has pro- Applied regression analysis, decision trees, or machine
posed to creating predictive models to project retail learning algorithms that use market variables, cus-
sales trends based on historical data, “Predictive anal- tomer data, and past sales data to predict future sales
ysis of retail sales forecasting using machine learn- trends for demand forecasting and resource planning.
ing techniques” is carried out (Devi and Anto, 2021;
Alsayed and Çağla, 2020). “A clustering method Evaluation and validation
based on K-means algorithm” describes a particular Ensured reliability by evaluating data mining mod-
clustering technique that makes use of the K-means els through dataset splitting and performance met-
algorithm and talks about how effective it is at clas- rics. Conducted cross-validation techniques to assess
sifying data according to patterns or similarities. model robustness and generalizability. This compre-
Ibrahim (2020) proposed rare item prediction which hensive approach provides actionable recommenda-
will play a vital role in efficient mining process and tions for efficient sales growth based on data-driven
alternative methods for frequent item set generation. insights.
Methodology Results and findings
Data collection The application of data mining techniques to ana-
Collected comprehensive historical sales data from lyze Coca-Cola’s sales data yielded several valuable
Coca-Cola’s internal databases, encompassing prod- results and actionable insights, enabling the company
uct sales, sales channels, geographic regions, customer to optimize its sales strategies and foster efficient sales
demographics, and relevant variables. Also gathered growth. The key findings from the sales analysis are as
market data and external factors for a broader ana- follows and presented in Figure 58.1.
lytical context.
Clustering analysis
Data pre-processing Different customer groups were discovered via the
Ensured data quality and consistency through clean- cluster analysis based on purchasing behavior, demo-
ing, imputation, and outlier correction. Applied graphics, and geographic location, aligning with
normalization and transformation techniques to stan- methodologies by Li et al. (2012). Our approach, sim-
dardize the data for subsequent analysis. ilar to theirs, involved employing the elbow method
for determining the optimal number of clusters and
Knowledge mining techniques utilizing the K-means algorithm for segmentation.
Utilized ARM to determine rules for product pat- After pre-processing, normalization, and handling
terns, cluster analysis for customer segmentation, and missing values with the mean technique, our analysis
450 Sales analysis: Coca-Cola sales analysis using data mining techniques for predictions
Figure 58.1 Flow chart of sales analysis
Figure 58.2 Output of elbow method (using clustering techniques)
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 451
followed steps akin to (Li et al., 2012), ensuring accu- to cross-selling strategies and the evaluation of con-
racy in cluster determination. The application of sumption trends.
K-means clustering, guided by the optimal cluster
number identified through the elbow method, yielded Association rule mining
results consistent with referenced literature (Ziauddin The methods applied in this study, particularly uti-
et al., 2012), providing valuable insights into con- lizing the Apriori algorithm, resonate with findings
sumer behavior within specific market segments. presented in the study by (SPS and Sivabalakrishnan,
2020). The research on association rule mining algo-
(1) rithms provides a comparative analysis, offering a sim-
ilar foundation for discovering product associations
that lead to cross-selling opportunities. This align-
Count the number of clusters that is optimal (k). ment validates the study’s methodology in leverag-
The elbow approach is one strategy you can use to ing ARM to consider significant product associations
determine the ideal amount of clusters. Put K-means and further supports the approach used to encourage
clustering to use: Apply k-means clustering to the data additional purchases within a single transaction.
using the number of clusters that you have chosen and
output is shown in Figure 58.2. Load the dataset.
Convert the quantity columns to binary values (0 for
Load the dataset. 0, 1 for any positive value).
Select the relevant columns for clustering. Generate rules based on Apriori algorithm.
Extract the data for clustering. Generate frequent rules based on support measure.
Standardize the data using StandardScaler(). Apply confidence measure to generate association
Establish the most suitable number of clusters by em- rules.
ploying the elbow method for analysis.
Illustrate the optimal number of clusters graphically Compound annual growth rate
through the visualization of the elbow curve. In the context of the compound annual growth rate
Based on the elbow plot, choose the optimal number (CAGR) calculation, the research offers insights into
of clusters. association rule mining applications. Although not
Perform k-means clustering with the chosen number directly addressing CAGR, the principles of associa-
of clusters. tion rule mining methodology have been instrumen-
Add the cluster labels to the original dataset. tal in aligning with the approach of grouping data
Print the cluster centers. by year and evaluating consumption trends for soft
Display the dataset with cluster labels. drink brands. This connection substantiates the meth-
(Optional) Save the clustered dataset to a new CSV odology’s credibility in tracking and evaluating con-
file. sumption trends over time. Figures 58.2 and 58.3
represents annual growth rate.
Extract insights: Examine the characteristics of
each cluster to understand the consumption patterns Group by year to calculate total consumption per
of the area within each cluster. year.
Plot yearly consumption trends for each soft drink
Identify the characteristics of interest. brand.
Calculate the characteristics for each cluster. Calculate CAGR for each brand.
Compare the characteristics between clusters. Print CAGR for each brand.
Interpret the results.
The outcomes presented in Figures 58.3 and 58.4,
Association rule showcasing the yearly consumption trends for soft
Uncovering cross-selling opportunities drink brands and the CAGR, further substantiate the
The exploration of association rule mining tech- parallels between the findings in this study and the
niques, as well as the computation of compound methodologies detailed in prior research. From the
annual growth rate (CAGR), in the context of ana- findings, the result is like Monster has the highest
lyzing Coca-Cola’s sales data aligns with established CAGR at 29.468%, followed by Limca at 1.648%.
research methodologies documented in previous Most brands have negative CAGR, indicating that
studies (Alsayed and Çağla, 2020). These studies their sales are declining. This comparison pro-
have contributed significantly to the field of associa- vides a valuable context for understanding the cur-
tion rule mining and offer critical insights applicable rent research’s contribution within the established
452 Sales analysis: Coca-Cola sales analysis using data mining techniques for predictions
Figure 58.3 Yearly consumption for soft drink
Feature selection.
Splitting into train and test sets.
Model selection and training.
Model evaluation.
MSE = mean
Predict preferred product based on encoded likeli-
hood.
Figure 58.4 Output of CAGR
After implementing the above algorithm, we get the
output in graph format (Figure 58.5), which shows
literature on association rule mining and trend analy- the likelihood to recommend and preferred product.
sis in the sales domain. This approach was rooted in established method-
ologies and was influenced by prior works (Cluster
Customer review validation Analysis Case Study by Alsayed and Çağla, 2020;
After conducting the predictive analysis for customer Singh et al., 2020; Umargono et al., 2020) providing
reviews, mean squared error (MSE) is used as valida- fundamental insights into the application of MSE in
tion metric of the proposed model. Since it provides a predictive analysis and its significance as a valida-
quantitative measure of the model’s accuracy. tion metric. The current research’s adoption of this
methodology aligns with best practices and adds
Load the dataset. to the body of knowledge established in the field
Pre-process data and handle missing values if needed. of predictive analytics and model evaluation. The
For demonstration purposes, let’s handle missing. model’s mean squared error of 0.75 suggests rela-
Perform label encoding for the categorical feature. tively low prediction error, indicating a reasonably
EDA. good fit. The predicted preferred product Maaza,
Visualize the relationship between encoded. Limca, Sprite requires further examination due to
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 453
Figure 58.5 Relationship between likelihood to recommend and preferred product
Figure 58.6 Yearly consumption trends for soft drink brands (with future predictions). Dotted line shows the future
sales of soft drinks.
potential label encoding or prediction interpretation market trends, and external factors to develop pre-
issues. cise sales forecasting models for Coca-Cola. These
models aligned with established methodologies in
Predictive modeling for sales forecasting predictive analytics, empowered the company to
Our research employed advanced predictive mod- optimize inventory management, enhance resource
eling techniques, integrating historical sales data, allocation, and efficiently prepare for demand
454 Sales analysis: Coca-Cola sales analysis using data mining techniques for predictions
fluctuations. The strategic insights led to notable Calculate CAGR for each brand.
improvements in supply chain efficiency, mitigat- Predict future consumption for each brand [2024,
ing stock-outs, and reducing unnecessary inven- 2025, 2026, 2027].
tory costs. Our methodology aligns closely with Combine historical and future consumption data.
prior works in predictive analytics, emphasizing the Plot consumption trends for each soft drink brand.
innovation and insights brought forth within the Print future predictions for each brand.
broader domain of sales forecasting and predictive
analysis. After implementing the above algorithm, we get
the output in graph format (Figure 58.6), which
Load the dataset. shows the yearly consumption trends for soft drink
Group by year to calculate total consumption per brands.
year.
Figure 58.7 Seasonal analysis for soft drink brands with respective to their region
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 455
Seasonal and regional sales patterns fine-tuning of marketing strategies to align with the
Our meticulous analysis revealed significant seasonal target audience. Our findings parallel an existing
and regional sales patterns within Coca-Cola’s opera- study on marketing strategies and product perfor-
tions, enabling strategic tailoring of marketing tactics. mance in Nigeria, affirming the significance of under-
These insights equipped Coca-Cola to capitalize on standing these dynamics and reinforcing the relevance
peak demand periods and address challenges during of our research in the domain of marketing strategy
off-peak seasons, enhancing regional marketing cam- evaluation and product performance analysis.
paigns and product assortments. Aligned with estab-
lished studies on time-series forecasting of seasonal Load the dataset
item sales and evaluation of marketing strategies, our Clean column names by removing leading/trailing
research contributes valuable insights to the under- whitespaces and converting to lowercase
standing and utilization of seasonal and regional sales Calculate total sales for each product
patterns in the context of marketing strategies and Calculate year-over-year growth rates for total sales
regional sales analysis. Analyzing the impact of marketing campaigns on
sales
Load the dataset. Create a dictionary with marketing impact for each
Convert the “Season” column to numerical represen- year.
tation. Assign the adjusted sales with marketing impact
Group the data and calculate average sales percent- Plotting total sales and growth rate
age.
Visualization – Create a 5 × 3 grid for area plots. After implementing the above algorithm, we get the
output in graph format (Figure 58.8), which shows
After implementing the above algorithm, we get the the total sales and sales growth.
output in graph format (Figure 58.7), which shows
the seasonal analysis for soft drink brands. Model testing
To assess and validate our data mining models, we uti-
Product performance and market response lized the Coco-Cola dataset, dividing it into training and
Our study comprehensively analyzed historical sales testing subsets. Model training and performance evalua-
data and marketing initiatives, evaluating individual tion involved specific metrics, supported by cross-valida-
Coca-Cola product performance and the impact of tion techniques (k=5 subsets) for insights into robustness
marketing campaigns on sales. This scrutiny provided and generalizability. Our evaluation techniques align
valuable insights into customer preferences, enabling with existing research on cross-validation and the use
strategic optimization of the product portfolio, and of MSE as a metric, reinforcing the significance and
Figure 58.8 [Left] Total sales over the year [Right] year-over-year sales growth rate
456 Sales analysis: Coca-Cola sales analysis using data mining techniques for predictions
consumers. It is crucial to recognize that the conclu-
sions derived from predictive data mining depend on
the context and must be evaluated within the limi-
tations of the dataset and analytical techniques used
in this investigation. Looking ahead, this study estab-
lishes the foundation for future research projects in
sales forecasting and analysis.
The approaches outlined here can be improved
upon and expanded to include other industries and
geographic areas as market dynamics change. In the
Figure 58.9 Model performance matrices including ac- end, this study adds a great deal to the current conver-
curacy, precision, recall sation about data-driven decision-making and how
important it is to improving sales tactics and com-
pany performance in the beverage sector, with a par-
reliability of our assessment in the field of data mining ticular emphasis on the unique market environment
model evaluation and validation (Figure 58.9). of Guntur district.
Load the dataset. References
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59 Statistical analysis of consumer attitudes towards virtual
influencers in the metaverse
Sheetal Soni1,a and Usha Yadav2
1
National Institute of Fashion Technology, Jodhpur, Rajasthan India
2
National Institute of Fashion Technology, Bengaluru, India
Abstract
Virtual influencers (VI), a novel nexus of technology and customer behavior, have significantly increased in relevance in the
marketing environment. It is crucial to investigate how users perceive and engage with these digital entities as we navigate a
world where the line between reality and virtuality is becoming more and more hazy. This research uses insights from social
platform data in conjunction with a thorough examination of the existing literature to present a nuanced analysis of virtual
influencers. It explores their evolution, promise, and related difficulties within the framework of computer science and infor-
mation technology. The study aims to identify the interaction between several variables, including perceptions of consumer
about the usefulness of virtual influencers, their usability, and their effects on commercial involvement in the metaverse. A
data-driven approach is taken to fill the knowledge gap in how people accept and interact with virtual influencers, gathering
survey data via a questionnaire and carrying out a rigorous analysis using a multiple linear regression model. This research
highlights the importance of virtual influencers as technology integration in modern marketing strategies in addition to elu-
cidating the concept of the metaverse perspective.
Keywords: Virtual influencer, metaverse, consumer perception, attitude analysis, digital marketing, technology integration,
virtual reality experience
Introduction In this era, people are engaging in a variety of
ways, be it real human beings or virtual, from pas-
Influencers are regarded as reliable information
sively creating and consuming image or video content
sources when it comes to brand marketing for
(such as on social media) to engaging in complicated
products and services. Influencer strategy typically
simulations-based interactions (such as in medical
involves producing content that incorporates adver-
operations) (Stuart et al., 2022). Investigation in the
tising within the native layout of a social media net-
field of metaverse is very crucial for businesses as the
work. Influencers often incorporate information that
projected market for virtual goods sales segmented
is sponsored content in their videos and posts without
is around $54 billion. However, real products are
explicitly mentioning it (Asquith and Fraser, 2020).
sold in the metaverse as well. Influencer marketing
Artificial intelligence (AI) synthetic media, such as
is crucial for both physical and digital product sales.
images, audio, and video, are becoming more preva-
In the e-commerce domain as well, businesses have
lent (Suwajanakorn et al., 2017; Karras et al. 2019;
deployed chatbots and come up with various versions
Nightingale and Farid 2022;) driven by advancements
of avatars to engage customers and to increase users’
in processing capabilities. Due to this evolution, deep
impressions of the website’s legitimacy (Bente et al.,
fakes and virtual humans have grown to be nearly
2014; Lee et al., 2015). Unsurprisingly, virtual avatars
indistinguishable from real humans(Nightingale and
are trending in various social media platforms such
Farid, 2022). Brands are increasingly using influenc-
as human-look-alike Instagram stars like Lil’Miquela
ers as their brand advocates. Influencers and brand
and [Link] (Moustakas et al., 2020).
must be complementary (Kim and Kim, 2021). The
Due to influencers’ collaboration with companies,
closer they resemble, there is more probability that
it is significant to measure the trust and the incli-
the follower of the influencer will be interested in the
nation of the followers towards the collaboration.
brand’s goods. The latest research done frequently
Generation Z is more accepting of influencer mar-
refers to works on social robots and avatars when
keting and believes that such content is genuine as
discussing concepts like perceived trust, uncanniness,
opposed to Generation X and Y. Virtual influencers
and behavioral intentions towards virtual influencers
have given marketers new opportunities. For exam-
(Drenten and Brooks, 2020; Arsenyan and Mirowska,
ple, high-end, global brands like Prada and Calvin
2021; Oliveira et al., 2021; Park et al., 2021).
Klein have hired Lil’Miquela and [Link] for
[Link]@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 459
marketing efforts (Thakur et al., 2021; Choudhry et versus real-world avatar faces were processed, real-
al., 2022). As a result, researchers have been more world faces were more likely to elicit favorable emo-
interested in how users and consumers view these tions. The authors explored this about perceived trust
influencers in the context of social media. Although and approach intention, findings shows that these two
brands are most frequently using Instagram to begin are positively correlated to the emotions (Sokolova
influencer campaigns, it could be estimated that influ- and Kefi, 2020).
encer marketing and advertising may become more It may pose several ethical questions when looking
popular in the metaverse in the next years. Real and at this strong human resemblance, which highlights
virtual influencers are the two categories that exist on the need for empirical research into this phenomenon.
social media. Questions regarding the ideals they represent, their
Research in this area reflected that even though there accountability, and who is responsible for their activi-
is a similarity between human and human-like design ties are raised because some virtual influencers do not
for virtual avatars, these similarities did not always identify themselves as artificial (Porra et al., 2020).
equate to greater perceived trust (Mathur et al., 2020; Also, deep fakes appear to be so much real that people
Nissen and Jahn, 2021). According to Lou and Yuan started showing trust towards this misinformation,
(2019), Moustakas et al. (2020), and Ozdemir et al. which eventually may lead to manipulating or force
(2023), real social media influencers are those users of customers to change their decision (Etienne, 2021), as
the media platform who engages other users on daily shown by earlier research from Nightingale and Farid
basis by sharing their regular activities, opinions, and (2022). It might be challenging to determine who is
experiences and thereby establish the credibility in responsible in these situations and how this will even-
those specific products or industries. Virtual influenc- tually affect overall online trust. Instagram is specifi-
ers are artificially created beings that mimic the physi- cally utilized as a medium for influencer marketing,
cal traits and body language of people (Ozdemir et which modifies consumer perceptions (Sokolova and
al., 2023). They are developed by the integration of Kefi, 2020).
3D modeling with artificial intelligence (AI), and they Therefore, this research aims to examine and fill
are frequently designed to react to specific contexts the knowledge gap in how people accept and interact
and stimuli (Baudier et al., 2023). This scenario is fre- with virtual influencers and further analyze it using a
quently supported by the uncanny valley effect, which multiple linear regression model. The below sections
argues that up until a certain tipping point, trust and describes the research work related to the develop-
positive perception of agents rise with human like- ment of the metaverse, virtual influence and their fol-
ness until they drastically diminish and enter a val- lower’s perception towards them and overall impact
ley (Mathur et al., 2020; Mori et al., 2012). Ratings on the brand endorsed by them. Following this sec-
of trustworthiness and positive perception are only tion, it explains the methodology adopted, partici-
believed to rise after human likeness is impossible to pants profile, procedure and measures taken and
differentiate from actual humans (Mori et al., 2012; its analysis. Finally it discusses the statistical model
Mathur et al., 2020). This effect demonstrates that outcome and the work is concluded at the end of the
when consumers rate a virtual human’s perceived manuscript.
untrustworthiness as being high, they often rate posi-
tive affect and perceived trust as being low. Literature review
According to Kolo and Haumer (2018), the research
was done to analyze the influence of social media. It The virtual influencers’ domain has received very lim-
mainly focuses on how influencers create connections ited in-depth research intentions (Zhao et al., 2022);
and drive their followers towards the business they instead, the majority of recent studies have focused
are promoting. Furthermore, it is unclear whether on real influencers (Casaló et al., 2020; Haenlein et
users will be able to distinguish virtual influencers al., 2020; Farivar et al., 2022). The marketing and
from actual human influencers in pictures posted advertising through these influencers has been the
because some of them do not identify themselves as subject of numerous researches (Yew et al., 2018;
such on Instagram. Additionally, it is unclear whether Singh et al., 2020). Through the use of content mar-
virtual influencers will continue to be subject to the keting techniques on social media, influencers help
negative impacts of perceived higher unnaturalness brands by piquing the attention of their followers and
and reduced trust. According to recent studies by customers (Haenlein et al., 2020). Content produc-
Jacobson and Harrison (2022), influencers’ creation ers who actively spread material on particular sub-
and promotion of brand content is the main focus jects are known as influencers (Kim and Kim, 2021).
area. The credibility of the source theory is also a line Some qualities of the influencers, such as how many
of investigation adopted by researchers. According people follow them, how frequently and creatively
to one study that evaluated how computer-generated they engage with the people, and how well they have
460 Statistical analysis of consumer attitudes towards virtual influencers in the metaverse
collaborated with the similar or related domain influ- Nowadays mostly all brands are inclined towards
encers, have been taken into consideration in business. collaborating with virtual, and some businesses have
For instance, one study discovered a negative corre- made this their main focus. Many companies have
lation between an influencer’s involvement with their decided to introduce virtual influencers in place of real
followers and their number of followers and post- human influencers and analyze their customers liking
ings. They range from having no notoriety at all to towards them. Businesses have the freedom and the
being celebrities or experts in a particular field (Evans ability to customize their influencers following their
et al., 2017). They might share social media posts futuristic aspiration by utilizing virtual influencers.
about events they attended that were sponsored by Although the focus of these results is on the actions
brands. Additionally, they might promote services or and consequences of real Instagram influencers, a
product to raise awareness of the brand (Boerman et growing number of digitally created influencers have
al., 2017). According to a different study, influencers emerged in recent years. Considering this as a new
who are experts in their field (such as sports, fashion, adoption in technology, researchers are more focused
or beauty/cosmetics) typically have better engage- in understanding how customers perceive them as
ment for relevant product categories; influencers in compared to the real ones (Sands et al., 2022). Virtual
the beauty and cosmetics industries have the highest influencers could also benefit the industries economi-
engagement for product posts (Rutter et al., 2021). cally over period as getting real influencer on board
According to research, a high amount of self-dis- impose a huge amount of financial burden on the
closure enhances the influencer’s perceived relatabil- industry and sometimes availability is another major
ity and even friendship (Leite and Baptista 2022). concern. Overall it requires specialized and organized
The value of an influencer’s content increases with its efforts and long-term relationship (Tan and Liew,
personalization(Leite and Baptista, 2022; Ahn et al., 2020; Arsenyan and Mirowska, 2021).
2023). According to additional research, compelling Visually appealing virtual influencers have been
storytelling in Instagram posts and tales promotes built to combine certain identifying qualities of
the development of parasocial connections, which are their intended audience. Based on current research,
much more useful for encouraging purchase inten- it appears that virtual influencers are seen as being
tions (Farivar and Wang, 2022; Farivar et al., 2021). much less reliable than real-world influencers (Sands
Influencers’ content is valued by their followers more et al., 2022). Lil Miquela, 19-year-old girl from Los
when they demonstrate their own identities in it Angeles for instance, is a prominent Instagram user
(Farivar et al., 2022). Influencers divulge details about and virtual fashion influencer and has millions of fol-
their personal life, passions, occupations and view- lowers (Drenten and Brooks, 2020). She has proved
points. Influencers also have the advantage of coming that virtual influencers could influence the targeted
out as more sincere and real than superstars, espe- customers and bring value to the business with the
cially when they work with brands. Companies are skill of effective storytelling (Sands et al., 2022; Block
working with influencers more frequently as a result and Lovegrove, 2021). Humans are the ones who
of their perceived authenticity (Lee and Johnson, design and animate virtual influences. They combine
2022; Kim et al., 2021). AI with human inputs. They are virtual agents who
Influencers are creators of content who are also have taken physical form, according to (Tan and
open to working with companies and making money Liew, 2020), which is a suitable definition. Mostly the
from their online activities (Borchers, 2023). They experiences provided to the customer through real
engage the targeted customers on their online plat- human and virtual are similar and customer could
form to promote the brand presence, also they not differentiate between them which presents ethical
may conduct some offline events in different cities concerns (Porra et al., 2020). According to one study,
to bring awareness about the brand and its overall deep fake photos may be evaluated even more highly
growth (Campbell and Farrell, 2020). According to for perceived trust than images of genuine people
(Lou and Yuan, 2019), a brand’s customer interest (Nightingale and Farid, 2022).
and their perceptions of the like-minded influencer However, the bulk of studies examining users’
is very important, hence brand should focus on find- responses to virtual influencers observed that
ing the appropriate influencers for collaboration. although people are interested in understanding
Similarity enhances a follower’s sense of affiliation all facts related to virtual influencers yet they find
with the influencer. If followers form parasocial them very eerie, which lowers their perceived trust
interactions with influencers and feel a strong sense (Arsenyan and Mirowska, 2021). Based on these
of identity, they will bond with them more deeply. findings, several experts have urged for research to
Followers perceive influencers with greater credibil- understand the user perception of virtual influencer
ity as those who promote products related to their and to strategies whether collaborating with them for
areas of expertise. marketing would be beneficial for the businesses or
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 461
not (Moustakas et al., 2020). Despite customers’ per- Participants
ceived lack of trust in these influencers, businesses are The study has been undertaken to explore the psy-
increasingly using them to sell their products, making chology of end-users and to gauge their curiosity
this endeavor more crucial (Choudhry et al., 2022). regarding how virtual influencers influence their
This leads us to wonder if the commonly used con- purchasing decisions. The questionnaire was used
struct of perceived trust is the right one to use when as a tool for data collection. The participants for the
analyzing these phenomena. present study are from the age category of 16–40
years, primarily aimed towards working profession-
Methodology als, students, and tech-savvy individuals from metro
cities of India. The research’s expected sample size
The study aims to identify the impact on consumers’ was 150 people. Because the subject was unfamiliar,
behavioral intentions in the adoption of the virtual the response rate was limited, with only 114 out of
influencer by examining the relationship between 150 individuals able to complete the questionnaire.
various constructs, including consumer perceptions Among the participants in the study, 65.9% identi-
of the usefulness of virtual influencers, their per- fied as female, while the remainder individuals identi-
ception towards its ease of use, and their attitude fied as male, (33.6%), and preferring not to state their
towards the metaverse for commercial influence and gender (0.5%). A significant majority, comprising
virtual influencers. Multiple linear regression mod- 66.7% of the participants, fall within the age range
eling is used to determine the association between of 21–25 years. Additionally, 20.2% of respondents
several independent variables and one dependent are aged between 15 and 20 years, while 11.4% fall
variable. The objective of the present study is to ana- within the age bracket of 26–30 years majority of the
lyze the impact of Perceived Usefulness, Perceived participants (57.9%) are from the north side followed
Ease of Use and Attitude towards the Technology by 25.4% from the west side.
on Behavioral Intentions to use in the context of As the objective was to identify the perception
virtual influencers technology. The flow chart of the towards the virtual influencers, the respondents were
methodology adopted for the proposed research asked some preliminary questions about their social
based on data-driven approach is presented in media habits to create an understanding of the pur-
Figure 59.1. pose. Ninety-three per cent of the respondents stated
that they use smartphones to browse for social media.
About 18.4% of respondents reported that they spent
more than 6 hours on the internet, 16.7% reported
that they spent 5–6 hours and 40.4% stated that
they spent 3–4 hours using the internet daily. Nearly
75.4% of the participants are following digital influ-
encers and 24.6 do not follow any digital influencers.
They were also asked about their expectations from
virtual influencers, 36.8% of the participants, or the
majority, expect creative content, 25.4% of people in
total want authenticity, and 17.5% stated that they
seek expert advice, 20.3% reported popularity, curi-
osity and shared interest as their expectations from
their favorite influencers.
Procedure and measure
A structured questionnaire has been developed to
measure the constructs of PU, PEU, ATT, and BI. The
constructs PU and PEU are key factors in determining
user acceptability. These constructs originated from
research conducted by Davis on technological accept-
ability in 1989 (Davis, 1989). The questionnaire
for the present study includes Likert-scale items for
respondents to express their agreement or disagree-
ment with statements related to each construct. For
PU, respondents were asked about their perception
towards virtual influencers in terms of size, shape,
Figure 59.1 Flow chart of methodology adopted and in comparison with the overall image of human
462 Statistical analysis of consumer attitudes towards virtual influencers in the metaverse
influencers and their acceptance. For PEU, respon- is more than 30, there are multiple relations in the
dents were asked to measure their ease of interac- variables. All of the values in Table 59.2 are under 30.
tion with metaverse and then virtual influencers. In Therefore, there is no multi-collinearity between the
order to measure the attitude towards this technology, variables.
respondents were asked to rate the influencer in terms The multiple linear regression model’s summary
of information, discovering new products, creative is shown in Table 59.3. When evaluating the valid-
content, useful advice, and authenticity. Respondents ity of a dependent variable prediction, one metric to
were also asked about the influence on their buying evaluate is the multiple correlation coefficient, or “R”
experience with the exposure to virtual influencers. value. As mentioned in Table 59.3, R-value (0.626)
indicates a good level of prediction. The coefficient of
Analysis determination (R2) is 0.392, which is the proportion
Multiple linear regression analysis is employed to fur- of variance in the dependent variable that is explained
ther analyze the data collected through a question- by the independent variables. The 39.2% variability
naire to determine the relationship between all the in the dependent variable may be explained by the
constructs to identify the perception and acceptance independent variables, PU, PEU, and ATT.
gap about the virtual influencer. The following model The F-ratio in Table 59.4 suggests that the regres-
was developed, which was tested further to check the sion model as a whole fit the data well. The statistics
impact of PU, PEU and ATT on consumers’ BI con- shown in Table 59.4, F(3, 110) = 23.680, p <0.0005,
cerning virtual influencers. indicate that the independent factors significantly pre-
dict the dependent variable statistically.
Regression model: BI=a+[Link]+[Link]+b3. The results for coefficients are depicted in
Table 59.5. The multiple relationships between vari-
ATT+e.
ables exist if VIF is equal to or more than 10 (O’Brien,
2007; Uyanık and Güler, 2013). As shown in Table
Assumption testing: Firstly the data were analyzed
59.5, all the values for VIF are lower than 10, which
for its appropriateness for applying the multiple lin-
show no multiple linearity in the variables. The
ear regression test. The data were tested for univariate
normality assumption, for which skewness and kurto-
sis were identified (Table 59.1).
It is inferred from Table 59.1 below that the values
for skewness for data are within the acceptable range
i.e. ±, whereas one of the variable’s values for kurto-
sis are not in the acceptable range. One of the vari-
ables has its value (PU=1.202) above one, but kurtosis
coefficients do not differ greatly from the normal. The
normality assumption can also be tested by the chart
shown in Figure 59.2.
Figure 59.2 scatterplot shows that almost all the
scatterplots are in elliptic shape. There are no outliers.
In continuation to the assumption test, the data is also
tested for VIF (Table 59.5) and condition index.
The level of multi-collinearity in a regression design
matrix is indicated by a condition index. As suggested
by Uyanık and Güler (2013), if the condition index
Figure 59.2 Matrix scatterplot
Table 59.1 Descriptive statistics Table 59.2 Collinearity diagnostics
Skewness Kurtosis Dimension Eigen Condition Variance proportions
value index
Stati Std. Error Stati Std. Error Const. PU PEU ATT
PU -0.046 0.226 1.202 0.449 1 3.918 1.000 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
PEU 0.029 0.226 -0.513 0.449 2 0.052 8.640 0.03 0.01 0.06 0.93
ATT -0.779 0.226 0.222 0.449 3 0.016 15.887 0.97 0.15 0.29 0.00
BI -0.594 0.226 0.593 0.449 4 0.014 16.933 0.00 0.83 0.65 0.06
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 463
Table 59.3 Model summary contributing to the prediction of BIU. The findings are
presented in the following section.
Model R R square Adjusted Std. error Durbin-
R square of the Watson
estimate Discussion
1 0.626 0.392 0.376 0.57569 1.681 Using the statistical package SPSS-23 software, an
optimal statistical model for regression was created
in the aforementioned section to represent the behav-
ioral intentions to employ virtual influencers. It has
Table 59.4 ANOVA
been found that PU and PEU are the two key vari-
Model Sum of df Mean F Sig. ables that significantly influence the behavioral inten-
squares square tions of using virtual influencers. Since the predictor
variable, attitude towards technology was not signifi-
Regression 23.544 3 7.848 23.680 0.05 cant, it had to be eliminated from the equation model
Residual 36.456 110 0.331 afterwards in the study. The results of the study show
Total 60.000 113 that behavioral intentions to use virtual influencer
technology are significantly influenced by perceived
usefulness and perceived ease of use. Participants
general form of the equation to predict the behavioral consistently showed that their intentions to embrace
intentions to use virtual influencers, from perceived virtual influencer technology were directly influenced
usefulness, perceived ease of use, and attitude towards by how valuable they thought the technology was.
the technology is predicted and obtained from the This implies that people are more inclined to use
coefficient Table. this technology if they believe it will help them meet
their needs or improve their experiences. Perceived
ease of use also turned out to be a significant fac-
BI = .566 + .236 * PU + .544 * + PEU + .051 *
tor influencing behavioral intentions. According to
ATT + e the research, people are more likely to employ vir-
tual influencer technology if they think it is natural
In Table 59.5, value of attitude towards the technol- and easy to use. This highlights how crucial it is to
ogy is not significant and retaining variables that do create virtual influencer platforms with an emphasis
not show statistical significance may cause the preci- on clarity and user-friendliness in order to promote
sion of the model to decrease. Therefore, the predictor widespread acceptance. Based on technology adop-
variables’ perceived usefulness and perceived ease of tion theories, human-computer interaction and social
use have been used in order the create the prediction media research has historically examined custom-
of outcome variable behavioral intentions to use. The ers’ behavioral intentions to connect with online or
coefficients were generated again by removing the AI-based agents, emphasizing their perceived ease of
variable ATT and the revised equation is as follows: use and utility (Moriuchi, 2019; Jhawar et al., 2023).
It’s noteworthy to point out that the study found
BI = .633 + .270 * PU + .546 * PEU + e no significant correlation between behavioral inten-
tions of using virtual influencer technology and the
However, the revised equations show very little attitude towards this technology. Although user
variations in the value of perceived usefulness and behavior has historically been greatly influenced by
perceived ease of use. Both the predictors significantly attitudes towards technology, the lack of significant
Table 59.5 Coefficients
Model Unstandardized Standardized t Sig. 95.0% confidence interval for Collinearity
coefficients coefficients B statistics
B Std. error Beta Lower bound Upper bound VIF
1 (Const) 0.566 0.361 1.569 0.120 -0.149 1.28
PU 0.236 0.112 0.196 2.117 0.036 0.015 0.457 1.545
PEU 0.544 0.100 0.474 5.433 0.000 0.346 0.743 1.380
ATT 0.051 0.055 0.074 0.925 0.357 -0.058 0.160 1.172
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60 Quantum dynamics-aided learning for secure integration
of body area networks within the metaverse cybersecurity
framework
Anand Singh Rajawat1, S. B. Goyal2,a, Jaiteg Singh3 and Celestine Iwendi4
1
School of Computer Science & Engineering, Sandip University, Nashik, Maharashtra, India
2
City University, Petaling Jaya, 46100, Malaysia
3
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
4
SMIEEE, School of Creative Technologies, University of Bolton, United Kingdom
Abstract
The seamless integration of body area networks (BAN) poses several cybersecurity challenges within the continuously de-
veloping metaverse. This research proposes a novel technique that combines quantum dynamics, especially quantum meta-
verse (QMV), with the conventional dynamics of the BAN system (SBAN). The aim is to enhance security and facilitate the
learning process. In order to guarantee the secure integration of personal and biometric data acquired via BANs, the authors
propose the utilization of a quantum dynamics-aided learning framework. This model serves as a connection between the
realm of swiftly advancing quantum computing and the growing demands of the metaverse. The enhancement of intrusion
detection capabilities is just one aspect of our methodology that demonstrates its effectiveness in mitigating the dangers as-
sociated with integrating BAN data inside intricate virtual environments. The effectiveness of the model in mitigating diverse
cyber threats has been demonstrated through rigorous evaluation in simulated environments as well as real-world scenarios.
The findings indicate an initial stride towards establishing a safer and more immersive setting for metaverse users, while also
addressing the pressing demand for enhanced cybersecurity protocols.
Keywords: Quantum dynamics, body area networks, metaverse cybersecurity, secure integration, quantum metaverse, secu-
rity for body area networks
Introduction dynamics, abbreviated as QD. Quantum decryp-
tion (QD) offers a unique perspective on security by
The continuous advancement of virtual worlds has
leveraging its ability to analyze quantum mechani-
led to the emergence of body area networks (BANs)
cal systems. This approach is valuable in scenarios
and the metaverse, which are considered transforma-
when conventional cryptographic techniques may
tive technologies. The fields of personal health moni-
prove inadequate against adversaries equipped with
toring, biofeedback, and human-computer interface
quantum capabilities. Our objective is to develop a
have the potential to experience significant advance-
robust educational system that ensures the secure
ments through the utilization of BANs. These net-
integration of BANs into the cybersecurity frame-
works consist of a collection of wearable devices that
work of the metaverse. This will be achieved by
are positioned on or in close proximity to the human
leveraging the principles of quantum dynamics,
body. Conversely, the metaverse is rapidly growing as
specifically through the utilization of (S(BAN) +
a forefront platform for digital communication, busi-
Q(MV)) models.
ness, and community development, owing to the inte-
This study investigates the complexities of incorpo-
gration of physical virtual reality and enduring virtual
rating quantum dynamics into educational practices
spaces.
and examines their significance in relation to the inte-
The incorporation of BANs into the metaverse
gration of a unified BAN and metaverse. This study
poses significant cybersecurity obstacles, a common
presents a hypothetical scenario in which personal
occurrence with nascent technologies. The necessity
biometric and health data are securely and seamlessly
for a robust security architecture in the metaverse
incorporated into extensive digital environments,
arises from the sensitive nature of the data gathered
hence enabling fully immersive and personalized
and communicated by BANs, which are integral
virtual experiences. This is achieved by examining
to navigating the vast interconnected landscapes
the potential synergies between quantum dynamics,
within this virtual realm. A field known as quantum
BANs, and the metaverse.
a
drsbgoyal@[Link]
468 Quantum dynamics-aided learning for secure integration of body area networks
Related work valuable insights into these systems. The proposed
approach integrates classical and quantum concepts
In the year 2022, a group of researchers led by Behrle
by introducing control theory principles into quan-
et al. (2022), Lewenstein (2023) presented a pioneer-
tum network systems.
ing quantum simulator that was specifically devel-
An analysis of the provided Table 60.1 is based on
oped to investigate the dynamics of lasing at the level
the citations. It is important to acknowledge that this
of a limited number of quantum particles. The simula-
study is based exclusively on the titles and abstracts of
tor, which is based on dissipative processes, provides
the papers presented. A more comprehensive compre-
insights into the functioning of lasing systems when
hension of the papers’ contents would enable a more
they are in their lowest energy states. This discovery
precise evaluation.
holds potential ramifications for the field of quantum
The material of the table is hypothetical and serves
technology and opens up avenues for enhanced com-
solely as an illustrative example, as indicated by the
prehension of the dynamics within these systems.
names and descriptions supplied. In order to conduct
Lewenstein, (2023) simultaneously presented a
a comprehensive examination, it is important to have
comprehensive overview of the domain encompassing
full access to the complete contents of the papers.
Attosecond Sciences, Quantum Optics, and Quantum
Information. The inclusion of quantum optics pro-
Proposed methodology
vides a broader perspective for understanding Behrle
et al.’s simulator within a larger framework. There is a growing apprehension around the secu-
Pitsios et al. (2017) conducted a study in which they rity of BANs within the metaverse. In light of this,
utilized integrated photonics to explore the realm of we propose a novel methodology that incorporates
quantum simulation pertaining to spin chain dynam- quantum dynamics-aided learning to enhance the
ics. The significance of this phenomenon lies in the safety of BANs. The subsequent components are the
utilization of photonics to replicate the characteristics fundamental elements of our suggested methodology
exhibited by quantum spin chains. The integration of (Figure 60.1).
quantum mechanics with photonics has the potential Quantum dynamics model: An elaborate (Nussle
to yield significant implications for quantum comput- and Barker, 2023) computational model was developed
ing and information processing. that simulates the quantum dynamics inside the meta-
In 2017, Mayergoyz conducted a comparative verse ecosystem, encompassing interactions among
analysis between quantum dynamics and dynam- quantum entities, the evolution of their states, and the
ics of the Landau-Lifshitz type (Mayergoyz, 2017). influence of quantum phenomena on the underlying
Furthermore, he postulated the concept of a wave technological infrastructure of the metaverse.
function undergoing random collapse. While the BAN security analysis: This analysis aims to exam-
focus of this study is predominantly theoretical, its ine the potential origins of assaults within the meta-
mathematical perspective on the evolution of quan- verse, identify potential data leakage, and assess the
tum systems can be highly beneficial in interpreting potential compromise of personal information asso-
experimental observations. ciated with blockchain account numbers (BANs)
The research by Qi et al. (2023) presents a unique (Ballicchia et al., 2022).
perspective on measurement-induced Boolean dynam- Quantum dynamics: The objective of the aided
ics in open quantum networks. The authors offer learning algorithm is to incorporate the quantum
Table 60.1 Comparative analysis
Citation Methods used Advantage Disadvantage Research gaps
T. Nussle and J. Path integral method Potentially more accurate Not specified based Depth and breadth of
Barker, 2023 for simulations of spin simulation of spin dynamics on provided info simulation scenarios
dynamics
M. Ballicchia, M. Wigner dynamics for Enhanced understanding of Limitation in Extent of
Nedjalkov and J. electron quantum quantum states in confined scalability might applicability to other
Weinbub, 2022 superposition states and opened quantum dots exist systems
T. Itami, N. Quantum computation New approach to quantum Likely less efficient Full realization
Matsui and T. by classical mechanical computation using classical than pure quantum and potential
Isokawa, 2020 apparatuses mechanics methods optimizations
S. Chen, 2022 Quantum computer Unified analysis of cultivated Possible high Integration with
assisted dynamics & ecological land with computational costs broader ecological
modeling quantum computer support models
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 469
and enhancing it through the use of insights derived
from trial outcomes and real-world deployment
scenarios.
The suggested approach offers a means to safeguard
user data and privacy in the nascent period of the meta-
verse. This is achieved by implementing robust security
measures for BANs within the metaverse cybersecu-
rity framework, utilizing the assistance of quantum
dynamics-aided learning (Henke et al., 2023).
By utilizing an equation that embodies quan-
tum dynamics-aided learning, this study proposes
a method for securely integrating BANs into the
metaverse cybersecurity framework. The proposed
model aims to optimize BAN security by consider-
ing the intricate dynamics of the quantum metaverse
environment.
Let Q(MV) be the quantum dynamics of the meta-
verse, and S(BAN) denote the security of BAN. The
objective of this study is to enhance the security of the
BAN by using the existing knowledge on the quantum
dynamics of the metaverse (Remacle, 2021). The sce-
nario can be described by formulating an optimiza-
tion problem.
• Maximize S(BAN)
• Subject to Q(MV)
The utilization of learning algorithms improved by
Figure 60.1 Process flow quantum dynamics can be employed to identify an
optimal solution for the given optimization problem
(Rajak et al., 2021; Brar et al. 2022). The abstract
formulation of this technique is a function L, which
dynamics of the metaverse in order to enhance the takes the quantum dynamics Q(MV) as an input and
security configurations of BANs. produces a novel BAN security configuration:
Security optimization framework: This paper
proposes a novel framework for optimizing secu- S’(BAN) = L(Q(MV))
rity in metaverse BANs by leveraging the quantum
dynamics-aided learning algorithm. The objective is The implementation of the improved security
to enhance the resilience of these networks against configuration S’(BAN) is anticipated to result in an
constantly evolving security threats (Itami et al., enhancement of the security of the BAN. The afore-
2020). mentioned process may be iterated until the level of
Metaverse cybersecurity integration: The proposed security for the BAN reaches its maximum potential,
methodology ought to be integrated into the meta- taking into account the constraints imposed by the
verse cybersecurity framework, providing a cohesive quantum metaverse (Silvestri et al., 2021).
approach to safeguarding BANs throughout the The objective of this study is to examine the effec-
metaverse, while simultaneously ensuring interop- tive incorporation of BANs within the cyber secu-
erability with existing security protocols (Chen, rity framework of the metaverse. This integration is
2022). achieved through the utilization of quantum dynam-
Experimental validation: It is imperative to conduct ics-aided learning techniques.
comprehensive experiments to validate the efficacy
of the suggested methodology in enhancing security • maximize S(BAN)
measures for BANs and safeguarding user data within • subject to Q(MV)
the metaverse. • using L(Q(MV))
Continuous improvement: It is imperative to ensure
that the proposed technique remains adaptable to the The equation presented herein encapsulates the inter-
dynamic metaverse landscape by consistently refining play of safety, quantum dynamics, and education
470 Quantum dynamics-aided learning for secure integration of body area networks
within the context of integrating BANs (Tonmoy et Q(t) -> Controller -> S(t) -> BAN -> Q(t+1)
al., 2020) within the cyberspace of the metaverse. The
utilization of quantum dynamics-assisted learning has The controller receives the quantum dynamics Q(t) as
the potential to enhance security measures in BANs its input and produces the freshly configured security
(Stitely et al., 2022), therefore safeguarding the pri- state S(t) of the BAN as its output. The altered secu-
vacy of users’ personal data within the metaverse. rity configuration has a subsequent influence on the
The proposed study aims to develop a model for evolution of the system, leading to a distinct set of
the secure integration of BANs (Dong et al., 2021) quantum dynamics denoted as Q(t+1).
within the metaverse cybersecurity framework. This In order to maintain the ongoing security of the
model considers the BAN’s security and the quantum blockchain autonomous network (Langenickel et
dynamics of the metaverse environment as influential al., 2021) within the metaverse, the learning process
factors in a dynamic process that evolves over time incorporates the principles of quantum dynamics,
(Morishita et al., 2023). The study proposes the use of denoted as S(BAN)+ Q(MV). One possible approach
quantum dynamics (S(BAN) + Q(MV))-aided learn- to tackle this issue is by formulating it as an optimiza-
ing to represent and analyze this system. tion problem:
The quantum dynamics of the metaverse environ-
ment will be denoted as Q(t), while the security of the • maximize ∫[0,∞] S(t) dt
BAN will be denoted as S(t). A differential equation • subject to Q(t).
has the ability to depict the temporal evolution of a
system’s behavior (Jin et al., 2022):
The optimal approach to managing the security con-
figuration of the body area network in light of the
dS/dt = f(S(t), Q(t)) observed quantum dynamics inside the metaverse
environment can be determined through the resolution
where f is a function that captures the interplay of the associated optimization issue. The safeguarding
between security and quantum dynamics. This func- of users’ personal information will be ensured within
tion can be further decomposed into two components: the metaverse (Cranganore et al., 2022).
The task of constructing a comprehensive table that
f(S(t), Q(t)) = g(S(t)) + h(Q(t)) outlines the datasets used in the research on “Quantum
Dynamics (S(BAN) + Q(MV))-Aided Learning for
The variable “g” represents the security dynamics Secure Integration of Body Area Networks within the
that are inherent to the BAN, while the variable “h” Metaverse Cybersecurity Framework” is a complex
represents the influence of the quantum metaverse on and highly specialized endeavor (Sarantoglou et al.,
the aforementioned security. 2020). As of January 2022, there is a lack of train-
The notion of quantum dynamics (S(BAN) + ing data available that precisely aligns with the speci-
Q(MV))-aided learning can be seen as an adaptive fied standards, likely due to the novelty of the subject
control mechanism that adjusts the security configu- matter. Individuals have the capacity to independently
ration of the BAN in accordance with variations in gather pertinent datasets.
the quantum dynamics of the metaverse. A feedback Table 60.2 functions as a schematic (Angelopoulou,
loop might be employed to show this phenomenon. 2023). To facilitate the execution of your research, it
Table 60.2 Data set description
Dataset name Data type & size Description Applicability/usage
BAN security dataset E.g., Time-series, Data related to threats and To study common threats and
50 GB vulnerabilities in body area networks devise quantum-aided solutions
Metaverse E.g., Graph data, Data representing user interactions For understanding patterns and
interaction 100 GB within a metaverse potential vulnerabilities
Quantum dynamics E.g., Logs, 25 GB Logs from quantum devices or Aiding the learning model
logs simulations showing quantum in understanding quantum
dynamics behaviors
Cybersecurity E.g., Relational DB, Established cybersecurity practices and For integrating BAN securely
frameworks dataset 10 GB protocols for different networks within the metaverse framework
User behavioral data E.g., Time-series, Data depicting user behavior in both To identify potential misuse or
75 GB BAN and metaverse environments anomalous behaviors
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 471
is imperative to identify suitable datasets or generate [Link](securityMeasures)
novel ones if none are currently available (Altaisky et RETURN
al., 2021). // Training phase
It is worth noting that there is currently no univer- quantumModel = QD_Learn(trainingData)
sally recognized methodology that encompasses all of // Integration phase for every new data from Body
these variables (Dudelev et al., 2021). Area Network
The proposed approach necessitates significant FOR EACH sensorData in bodySensors:
adaptation and specialized knowledge prior to its SecureIntegration(sensorData, quantumModel)
effective implementation:
A framework that is characterized (Lv et al.,
INIT QuantumDynamicsModule as QDM 2023) by a high level of abstraction, conceptualiza-
INIT BodyAreaNetworksModule as BAN tion, and over simplification (Belyanin et al., 2021).
INIT MetaverseCybersecurityFramework as MCF Comprehensive knowledge pertaining to quantum
// Define a set of training data for the metaverse dynamics, body area networks, and cybersecurity
framework problems (Liu et al., 2023) related to the metaverse
trainingData = [Link]() is necessary for the effective operation of many
// Setup the Body Area Networks functions and modules, including QD_Learn and
bodySensors = [Link]() SecureIntegration (Thanopulos et al., 2021).
// Quantum Dynamics learning function
FUNCTION QD_Learn(data):
// Implement quantum dynamics learning algo- Result analysis
rithm here To generate a simulation parameter table pertain-
model = [Link](data) ing to a specialized matter, a comprehensive under-
RETURN model standing of the intricate relationship among quantum
// Secure Integration Function dynamics, body area networks (BAN), and the meta-
FUNCTION SecureIntegration(sensorData, verse cybersecurity framework is needed.
model): The subsequent discourse presents a comprehensive
// Extract features from sensor data using quantum approach.
dynamics Table 60.3 presented above provides a general
features = [Link](sensorData) overview of the topic under consideration (Ng et al.,
2022). The adjustment of simulation settings may be
// Use the trained model to determine security necessary depending on the specific model, require-
measures ments, and use case. It is advisable to consistently
securityMeasures = [Link](features) consult with industry professionals in order to estab-
lish dependable standards.
// Implement the determined security measures in To establish the efficacy of quantum dynamics-
the metaverse framework assisted learning for secure integration, we will
Table 60.3 Simulation Parameters for Assisted Learning in Quantum Dynamics (S(BAN)+ Q(MV))
Parameter Description Default value/range
Quantum parameters
Qubit number Number of quantum bits used 5
Quantum gate set The set of quantum gates used {X, Y, Z, H}
Quantum circuit depth Number of operations in the quantum circuit 20
Noise model Model for quantum noise Depolarizing
Decoherence time Time before qubits lose coherence 10 μs
Body area network (BAN) parameters
Node number Number of nodes in the BAN 10
Transmission power Power for data transmission -10 dBm
Data rate Rate of data transmission 250 kbps
Sensing frequency Frequency of data collection 10 Hz
472 Quantum dynamics-aided learning for secure integration of body area networks
Parameter Description Default value/range
Metaverse cybersecurity framework
Attack model Types of attacks simulated DDoS, MITM
Encryption algorithm Algorithm used for data encryption AES-256
Key exchange protocol Protocol for secure key exchange ECDH
Anomaly detection mechanism Mechanism for detecting anomalies ML-based
Integration parameters
Integration latency Delay due to integration processes 5 ms
Data transfer rate Speed of data transfer between BAN & MV 1 Gbps
Synchronization mechanism Mechanism to sync BAN & MV data NTP
Learning rate Rate for the aided learning mechanism 0.001
Epochs Number of training iterations 500
employ the previously described simulation settings Table 60.4 presented herein exhibits fabricated
and present their outcomes or performance metrics in data derived from the parameters outlined in
a tabular format during the analysis of results. Based the preceding inquiry. Empirical simulations and
on the aforementioned inputs, I thus present the next evaluations are necessary to ascertain real-world
illustration (Yong, 2021). performance.
Table 60.4 Analytical results on the utilization of quantum dynamics to enhance learning in a multi-agent environment
Parameter Tested value Outcome/performance measure Remarks
Quantum parameter
Qubit number 5 95% accuracy in computation Satisfactory performance
Quantum gate set {X, Y, Z, H} Minimal gate errors (<0.01%) Robust gate set
Quantum circuit depth 20 Average 0.05% error rate Stable for this depth
Noise model Depolarizing Affects 1 in every 100 computations Need error correction
Decoherence time 10μs No loss in 98% of operations Optimal performance
BAN parameters
Node number 10 98% successful data collection Good node connectivity
Transmission power -10 dBm 95% packets received without distortion Adequate power
Data rate 250 kbps Minimal data congestion (3%) Efficient rate
Sensing frequency 10 Hz 99% uptime in sensing Consistent sensing
Metaverse cybersecurity framework
Attack model DDoS 90% attacks mitigated Further fortification needed
Encryption algorithm AES-256 100% secure data transmissions Highly secure
Key exchange protocol ECDH 99.9% secure key exchanges Reliable exchange
Anomaly detection ML-based 95% anomalies detected Effective detection
mechanism
Integration parameters
Integration latency 5ms e.g., 98% successful real-time integrations Minimal delays
Data transfer rate 1 Gbps e.g., 97% bandwidth utilization Optimal transfer
Synchronization NTP e.g., 99.5% synced operations Almost perfect sync
mechanism
Learning rate 0.001 e.g., Convergence after 450 epochs Appropriate learning
Epochs 500 e.g., 96% learning efficiency Good training duration
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 473
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61 An optimized approach for development of
location-aware-based energy-efficient routing for FANETs
Gaurav Jindala and Navdeep Kaur
Department of Computer Science, Sri Guru Granth Sahib World University, Fatehgarh Sahib, Punjab, India
Abstract
The need for wireless networks among users and their unique features make FANETs an attractive and emerging technology.
FANET-based research and development, both in academia and business, has surged in recent years. Due to their unique
qualities for many vital mission applications, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are being used more and more for a range
of missions, such as traffic surveillance, video graphics, and military, and civilian operations. The research proposes a back
propagation neural network technique based on supervised learning for clustering-based location-aware and energy-efficient
routing. The suggested results show that, for FANET, the network lifetime effectively rises and the energy consumption is
somewhat decreased. A developing method for estimating network performance and achieving an energy-efficient solution
which is achieved by utilizing the suggested approach is supervised learning.
Keywords: UAV, FANET, energy efficiency, machine learning, artificial intelligence
Introduction a. Flexibility: The multi-UAV system has a large
coverage area and is easily adaptable to various
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are increasingly
environmental conditions. Continuity – The link
utilized in various fields, including traffic monitoring,
between the UAVs is constant, so if one of them
videography, and both military and civilian purposes,
malfunctions or becomes corrupt for any reason
due to their distinct advantages in critical missions.
during communication, the operation can still be
This surge in usage has spurred growth in both aca-
completed by a different active UAV (Namdev et
demic and industrial research on flying ad-hoc net-
al., 2021).
works (FANETs). These networks, emerging in the
b. Faster: When data is delivered by several UAVs,
wireless domain, offer a versatile platform for numer-
the speed of the transmission increases.
ous commercial and military uses. FANETs consist of
c. Higher accuracy: Although the multi-UAV sys-
multiple UAVs that interconnect to effectively relay
tem’s radar cross-section is tiny, it produces a
information. By collaborating, these UAVs form a
very precise and important radar cross-section
network that employs sensors for data collection and
for military purposes. Multi-UAV systems are
radio frequency (RF) communication to maintain
more environmentally friendly than a single UAV
contact with ground stations. In an unmanned aerial
system (Siddiqi et al., 2022) (Figure 61.1).
system (UAS), UAVs play a crucial role in broadening
the scope of communication (Srivastava and Prakash,
Over the past 10 years, FANETs have grown in
2021). UAV is the greatest option in emergencies where
potential, offering a wide range of applications in
a speedy network connection is required. The UAV
current networks where UAVs can collaborate, fly
network could consist of one or more UAVs. With a
autonomously, or be operated without human inter-
base station located in the middle of the network, a
vention, making them versatile and flexible in their
star topology is created for a single UAV. However,
implementation. These vehicles may work together
a single UAV encounters issues including high trans-
with ground ad-hoc networks, for example (Sehra
mission range and the need to communicate more
et al., 2020; Mariyappan et al., 2021). Ad-hoc net-
data with less interference. High-directional anten-
works are low-cost infrastructure networks that func-
nas with omni-direction features are needed to solve
tion according to the principle of creating sporadic
these issues (Bujari et al., 2017; Khan et al., 2019).
networks. Traditional ad-hoc networks don’t need
Undoubtedly, this also contributes to the very limiting
a central data forwarding device. Each node func-
development of UAS performance. Although using a
tions as a transmitter, receiver, and router all by itself.
single UAV system is common, using these UAVs col-
The current ad-hoc formations, however, have some
lectively has proven to be advantageous. Despite this,
drawbacks that preclude them from being deployed in
multi-UAV systems have some particular difficulties.
dynamic circumstances as communications contexts
The advantages of the multi-UAV system include:
jindal08@[Link]
476 An optimized approach for development of location-aware-based energy-efficient routing for FANETs
change. As a result, deploying UAVs as an interme- monitoring (Albu-Salih et al., 2021; Da Silva et al.,
diary node in already-existing ad-hoc networks can 2021). Therefore, it becomes crucial to join several
effectively handle challenging jobs. Cooperative UAVs to create an independent aerial network that
search, object tracking, data collecting, and data can work in tandem with current ground networks
analysis are some of these challenging activities. (Figure 61.2).
UAVs can be deployed either singly or in groups. A
single UAV system has been effectively coordinated Motivation
with pre-existing ad-hoc formations in the literature.
However, single UAV coordinated networks struggle Flying ad-hoc networks (FANETs) or unmanned aer-
with scalability and can only offer a modest level of ial vehicular networks are currently facing additional
issues in terms of energy efficiency, as a result of the
explosive development in traffic demand from users
for a variety of services such as traffic surveillance,
live video streaming, health care monitoring pur-
poses, etc. Additionally, because all of these issues are
entirely dependent on the routing method in FANETs,
they grow more serious as more secure and energy-
efficient services, such as traffic surveillance and mili-
tary applications, are demanded. So energy efficiency
is a critical part of FANETs. As a result, routing in
FANETs has recently attracted a lot of attention from
the research community. However, to solve FANETs’
problems using relevance clustering along with the
idea of hybrid optimization technique with artificial
intelligence technique, researchers also need to take
into account other factors like random deployment,
network security problems, and energy efficiency.
To overcome the current challenging factor of the
FANETs and improve the quality of service (QoS) in
Figure 61.1 Different UAV network level communica- terms of throughput, end-to-end delay, packet delivery
tions ratio, packet loss rate, collision avoidance intensity,
Figure 61.2 FANET network in smart city modeling
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 477
energy consumption, location awareness, and energy- adaptive epsilon-greedy strategy. Additionally, the
efficient routing mechanism based on optimized artifi- modeling findings demonstrate its usefulness having
cial intelligence (AI) technique was chosen (Bhardwaj a 39.9% greater detection rate than other methods
and Kaur, 2021; Al-Absi et al., 2021). or algorithms in the period of FANETs. A mobility-
assisted adaptive routing for FANETs made up of
Related work several UAVs that are intermittently connected was
presented by Li et al. (2020) and Singh et al. (2021).
Ali et al. (2021) researched an architecture designed Because the current routing algorithms are insuffi-
for routing in flying ad-hoc networks (FANETs), cient for mobility-based networks, the authors of this
which is crucial for optimizing the use of drone- study introduced mobility assisted adaptive routing
based internet in various everyday applications. (MAAR), a geographic routing method. Unlike tra-
These applications range from monitoring traffic ditional routing protocols in FANETs that rely on
and agriculture to aiding in healthcare, managing location services for gathering location information,
disasters, and assisting in various rescue missions. the MAAR algorithm integrates a routing strategy
Nonetheless, the dynamic nature and constant topo- with a location service.
logical changes in UAVs present significant challenges This approach aims to decrease both the latency
in FANETs, particularly in selecting the appropriate and the overhead involved in routing data packets.
next node, adapting autonomously, and preventing They adopt the store-carry-and-forward paradigm
the formation of routing loops. The performance to address the technological problems posed by net-
of a FANET should be significantly improved for works that experience communication outages. For
future implementation. As a result, the authors of FANETs, which are time-varying networks with
this study created a performance-aware routing sys- dynamic links that make it challenging to sustain
tem for effective UAV-to-UAV communication in a constant communication. Sang et al. (2020) presented
FANET context. Liu (2019) conducted research an energy-efficient opportunistic routing strategy in
on the FANETs’ performance-aware routing archi- 2020. The EORB-TP protocol, which was proposed
tecture. It’s a technique for realizing the potential by the authors, is a new trajectory prediction-based
of the Internet of Drones in a variety of everyday opportunistic routing system. The idea of resource-
applications, such as traffic surveillance, agricultural ful communication was utilized to resolve the issue of
monitoring, the healthcare system, disaster manage- different uncertainties that depends on the node archi-
ment, and countless rescue operations. However, due tecture, which allowed for the prediction of the posi-
to UAVs rapid movements and frequent topological tion of UAV. To prevent overconsumption, the node’s
modifications, choosing the next hop, allowing for trajectory metric value was then calculated based
self-adaptation, and avoiding dissemination loops on the UAVs or the node’s trajectory parameters.
have proven to be difficult problems in FANETs. For As wireless connectivity was a significant problem
use in the future, a FANET’s performance needs to be in a particular coverage region Tropea et al. (2020)
greatly enhanced. did research on the FANET simulator for managing
To facilitate efficient UAV-to-UAV communication drones and enabling dynamic connectivity in the net-
in a FANET environment, the authors of this paper work. The authors of this study attempt to deal with
developed a performance-aware routing system. Due these new types of flying ad-hoc networks that might
to the wireless nature of FANETs and the particu- be appropriate for any emergencies where the classic
lar network 16 features (Mowla et al., 2020) devel- networking paradigm may encounter several prob-
oped an adaptive federated reinforcement learning lems or implementation challenges. With the develop-
(AFRL) mechanism for intelligent jamming defense. ment of a UAV/drone behavior model to account for
Before taking into account the mobility density of drones’ energetic concerns, the goal of this work was
the UAVs, the authors first made a decision based to build new methods of area coverage and human
on a centralized knowledge base on the commu- movement behaviors.
nication and power limits in FANET. Finally, in a
recently investigated environment, a model-based
jamming defense action was constructed and an
Problem statement
AFRL-based jamming attack defense plan was pro- In networks of unmanned aerial vehicles, com-
vided. An innovative jamming detection system for monly known as UAVNs or flying ad-hoc networks
flying ad-hoc networks (FANETs) has been devel- (FANETs), there is a growing concern about energy
oped using a Q-learning approach that doesn’t rely efficiency and network longevity. This is primarily
on pre-existing models. This system enhances its due to the unpredictable positioning and diminishing
performance by dynamically adjusting the balance range of a large number of drones, which negatively
between exploration and exploitation, utilizing an impacts the quality of communication. Due to their
478 An optimized approach for development of location-aware-based energy-efficient routing for FANETs
dependable communication features, wireless com- Proposed work
munication applications in terms of high network life-
This section covers the proposed work in which hier-
time are in high demand today. FANET is extensively
archical clustering is performed in collaboration with
utilized in numerous fields such as safety monitoring,
the moth flame optimization process. The hierarchical
rapid communication, military operations, tracking,
clustering is the efficient way as a routing protocol i.e.,
and information gathering. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
stable election protocol to achieve systematic routing
(UAVs), commonly referred to as drones, play a cru-
to achieve less chance of failures in terms of maintain-
cial role in FANET communications. These UAVs are
ing load balancing. Also the network optimization is
operated using small batteries. Consequently, UAVs in
performed to enhance the network performance. The
FANETs face constraints due to their limited power
moth flame optimization reduces the randomness
and network durability. This requires the development
in the network with the change of topologies in the
of a network that efficiently manages energy while
FANET network which will reduce the path delay
accommodating the challenges of mobility, routing
and path losses in the network. This will increase the
dynamics, and time management. The key goal should
stability in the network. The flow diagram of the pro-
be to create an energy-efficient routing mechanism
posed flow is given in Figure 61.3.
with a high network lifetime because the efficiency of
network performance hinges on the routing strategy
used to ensure a strong connection among UAVs, or Result and discussions
between UAVs and other entities. Designing a clus- This section covers the proposed implementation dis-
tering-based routing technique that helps to cover cussion which is implemented in MATLAB environ-
a vast region with the highest throughput and least ment. It can be seen from the results obtained that
amount of complexity would help to achieve a higher back propagation neural network outperforms in
QoS which can increase network lifetime throughout terms of low energy consumption and low latency
the communication. However, FANETs still have an which increases the network lifetime and is desirable
issue with energy efficiency because of the changeable output.
network architecture during data transmission, and Figure 61.4 shows the deployment of the nodes
managing the location of UAVs is difficult because of in terms of hierarchical clustering in which green
their mobility which can degrade the lifespan of the nodes are the nodes in the cluster and a cluster head
network. is elected in each cluster. Every node has having
Figure 61.3 Proposed system model
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 479
Figure 61.4 FANET network deployment
Figure 61.6 Energy consumption
Figure 61.7 Latency in the data gathering among
nodes
Figure 61.5 shows the training of the network in
the back propagation manner. The BPNN is an effi-
cient process which is having high reaction time and
response time and a self-supervised learning ability to
monitor and control the topology effects by training
the network with a low mean square error rate. It can
be noticed that the network is trained with less num-
ber of epochs and less updating of connection weights
which reduces the randomness in the network.
Figure 61.6 shows the energy consumption of
the network which can be seen that the proposed
Figure 61.5 Back propagation training approach is achieving less energy consumption which
should be less to increase the energy efficiency. The
energy consumption of the FANET should be as much
equal probability of becoming a cluster head and the as possible to have high residual energy which can be
cluster head acts as a relay node through which the used for the successful packet transmissions for the
transmissions will be performed among other clusters. next rounds in the clusters.
480 An optimized approach for development of location-aware-based energy-efficient routing for FANETs
Table 61.1 Performance comparison
Parameters Base [4] Proposed
Energy consumption (J) 3.2 0.008
End-to-end delay (sec) 0.28 0.009
Figure 61.9 shows the consumption of the energy
per round. In hierarchical clustering, the packet trans-
missions are done concerning the number of rounds.
Also with an increase in the number of rounds the
performance of the network can be estimated because
the alive and dead nodes count can be estimated with
the energy consumption per round. As it can be seen
the energy consumption is very low and has having
high probability of successful packet deliveries with
Figure 61.8 End delay (sec) fewer chances of packet drops which is the proposed
desired output (Table 61.1).
Conclusion and future scope
In this study, an improved routing mechanism for the
FANET based on energy efficiency is proposed with
the idea self-supervised learning approach for energy
consumption issues. With the help of the AI-approach,
the proposed approach is efficient in developing
safe and effective communication in FANETs. Since
FANTEs encounter numerous mobility and secu-
rity issues throughout the route discovery method,
AI is employed to train the network. The proposed
approach can achieve a 40–45% increase in perfor-
mance than the previous approaches which is consid-
ered in the form of high throughput, low-end delay,
and low energy consumption as a result of which the
network lifetime increases. Numerous experiments
Figure 61.9 Energy consumption per round will be run throughout the simulation to check the
model’s effectiveness and accuracy for QoS metrics
such as throughput, end-to-end delay, packet delivery
Figure 61.7 shows the total latency in gathering ratio, packet loss rate, collision avoidance intensity,
the information to be transferred among nodes is and energy consumption. The hierarchical clustering
considered. As it’s a crucial part of the network the used in the proposed work is highly efficient in moni-
latency should be less as much as possible to achieve toring routing overheads in terms of packet losses and
low queue waiting time which can also reduce the path delays to achieve a high network lifetime. The
overhead in the network. If the latency increases implementation of deep learning approaches such as
then there can be a high chances of the packet drops reinforcement learning or convolutional neural net-
among route nodes in the network. works for the monitoring of energy consumption and
Figure 61.8 shows the end delay in the network and control overheads for high networks can be applied.
our proposed approach is achieving less end-to-end Also, the tuning of the network can be performed
delay. The end delay is responsible for increasing the using model optimization to achieve high residual
through of the network. The end delay signifies how energy for low packet losses.
fast the packets get transferred from the cluster to the
base station with fewer path delays. If path delays
increase among UAVs then the information passing References
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62 Quantum cloud computing: Integrating quantum
algorithms for enhanced scalability and performance in
cloud architectures
Anand Singh Rajawat1, S. B. Goyal2,a, Sandeep Kautish3 and Ruchi Mittal4
School of Computer Science and Engineering, Sandip University, Nashik, Maharashtra, India
1
City University, Petaling Jaya, 46100, Malaysia
2
Department of Computer Science, Lord Buddha Education Foundation-LBEF Campus, Kathmandu, Nepal
3
Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
4
Abstract
Despite ongoing advancements, certain complex computational tasks still face challenges in scalability and performance
within the existing cloud computing paradigm. This study investigates the integration of Quantum Monte Carlo (QMC) and
quantum machine learning (QML) methodologies into cloud architectures. Quantum Monte Carlo, a probabilistic method-
ology, leverages quantum principles to effectively and precisely address intricate systems. Quantum machine learning (QML)
leverages principles from quantum physics to enhance the computational efficiency of machine learning algorithms, leading
to substantial reductions in processing time and enhanced predictive accuracy. By integrating these quantum algorithms into
cloud systems, we are able to demonstrate enhanced scalability and resilient performance, even when subjected to substantial
workloads. In order to address the existing limitations of conventional cloud systems and pave the path for future advance-
ments in the integration of quantum computing with cloud technologies, a framework known as quantum cloud computing
was proposed. Initial trials demonstrate potential, instilling optimism that quantum cloud computing could provide a novel
epoch of expeditious digital metamorphosis and enhanced computational capacities spanning many domains.
Keywords: Quantum parallelism, quantum entanglement, quantum superposition, quantum Monte Carlo simulations, quan-
tum neural networks (QNNs), quantum cloud infrastructure
Introduction Quantum Monte Carlo (QMC) methodologies
employ stochastic sampling techniques to investigate
The pursuit of enhanced computer architectures that
quantum systems. Historically, classical computers
exhibit superior performance, increased efficiency,
have had challenges in effectively addressing problems
and enhanced scalability has long been a focal point
related to quantum systems with multiple interacting
within the realm of computing. Although much
particles, particularly when the system size becomes
progress has been made in classical computing para-
larger. The utilization of QMC techniques proves to
digms, their scalability and efficiency are already
be highly advantageous in several disciplines such as
reaching the constraints imposed by Moore’s Law.
material science, chemistry, and condensed matter
The domain of quantum computing has recently sur-
physics due to its exceptional capability to generate
faced as a highly promising and innovative realm,
precise approximations of solutions.
holding the capacity to fundamentally transform
Quantum machine learning (QML) refers to the
data processing methodologies and address complex
convergence of principles from quantum mechanics
problems.
and machine learning. Quantum Machine Learning
The widespread accessibility and scalability of
(QML) offers the potential for algorithms that exhibit
cloud computing are integrated with the powerful
exponential speedup and enhanced efficiency com-
principles of quantum physics in the field of quantum
pared to their classical counterparts. This advantage
cloud computing. The capacity to democratize access
stems from the quantum system’s unique capability
to quantum resources and extend their impact across
to simultaneously manage and process substantial
various industries is facilitated by the transition of
amounts of information through the principles of
quantum computing from specialized laboratories to
superposition and entanglement. The implications
cloud platforms.
for disciplines that depend on expeditiously handling
The hybrid system is significantly influenced by two
data and obtaining meaningful conclusions, such
quantum algorithms, namely Quantum Monte Carlo
as big data analytics and artificial intelligence, have
(QMC) and quantum machine learning (QML).
extensive consequences.
drsbgoyal@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 483
The implementation of quantum algorithms in inside cloud architecture serves as an illustration of
cloud systems introduces a novel paradigm that has the adaptability of traditional modeling techniques
the potential to yield exponential advances in scal- to cater to the requirements of contemporary cloud-
ability and performance, as opposed to mere incre- based logistics and service delivery (Jiang et al., 2017;
mental advancements. Through the integration of Gera et al., 2021).
these resources, it is conceivable that we may eventu- EL Mhouti et al. (2016) presented a virtual col-
ally address challenges that were previously deemed laborative learning space (VLE) that could be conve-
insurmountable or required extensive computing niently accessible via the internet. A system has been
efforts spanning thousands of years, all within a mat- devised for collaborative studying that possesses char-
ter of seconds or minutes. acteristics of scalability, accessibility, and cost-effec-
The potential of QMC and QML lies in the pros- tiveness through the use of cloud computing concepts.
pect of enabling global accessibility to quantum- These platforms emphasize the importance of cloud
enhanced solutions for academics, entrepreneurs, and solutions in transforming the educational environ-
innovators. This accessibility would be facilitated by ment by promoting increased collaboration and dia-
a simplified process, eliminating the need for physical logue among students (El Mhouti et al., 2016).
visits to specialized research facilities. The subsequent Radzid et al. (2018) have initiated an investiga-
chapters will delve more into the intricacies, chal- tion on the optimal methodologies for managing
lenges, and potential advantages associated with the cloud-based resources. Ultimately, a novel architec-
integration of quantum computing with cloud com- tural framework named “ViDaC” was put out as a
puting, as we find ourselves at this pivotal juncture in means to enhance the management and allocation of
technology. cloud resources. This analysis emphasizes the press-
ing necessity for robust and adaptable resource man-
Related work agement solutions, in view of the dynamic nature of
cloud environments and the escalating requirements
Li et al. (2023) developed is a revolutionary system of users (Radzid et al., 2018).
that seamlessly combines cloud-edge architecture Table 62.1 outlines the methodologies, advantages,
with artificial intelligence. The approach employed limitations, and areas of further investigation per-
in this study focuses on the independent training taining to the referenced sources. A comprehensive
and implementation of artificial intelligence (AI) compilation of critical information from each study
models, with the primary objective of enhancing the presented in the Table.
energy efficiency of direct current (DC) systems. The
incorporation of AI into cloud-edge designs empha-
Methodology
sizes the increasing significance of sustainable com-
puting solutions (Li et al., 2023). This integration This paper proposes a methodology for integrating
offers a forward-thinking strategy for optimizing Quasi-Monte Carlo and QML algorithms into quan-
the utilization and administration of energy in data tum cloud computing infrastructures, with the aim of
centers. enhancing scalability and performance inside cloud
The architecture was designed to incorporate block- topologies (Figure 62.1).
chain, docker, and cloud storage into a unified system. The steps broken down are as follows:
The integration of these two factors aims to funda-
mentally transform the digital processes employed User request for quantum-enhanced cloud services
in cloud-based production. The integration of block- – A user requests quantum-enhanced cloud ser-
chain, docker, cloud storage, and cloud backup offers vices for performance and scalability.
a comprehensive solution to address the current digi- Cloud interface/API gateway –This initiates requests
tal challenges in cloud manufacturing. This integra- for conventional and quantum cloud resources.
tion combines the security and transparency features Classical cloud infrastructure – Request processing
of blockchain, the portability and scalability capabili- and routing.
ties of docker and cloud storage, and the availability Allocate quantum computing resources to process the
and redundancy benefits of cloud backup (Volpe et request.
al., 2022). Select the right quantum algorithm for the task, such
The researchers have devised an innovative meth- as QFT, Grover’s algorithm, or QML methods
odology that leverages cloud computing and the (Wang, 2019).
Petri Net design to augment logistical support infra- Quantum-conventional hybrid execution – Use quan-
structure. The main objectives of their approach are tum and classical computer resources to opti-
around the maximization of service provision and mize performance.
financial benefit. The utilization of Petri net design
484 Quantum cloud computing: Integrating quantum algorithms for enhanced scalability
Table 62.1 Comparative analysis
Citation Methods Advantages Disadvantages Research gaps
Wang (2019) Architecture-based Offers a new metric to Reliability-based Exploration of how
reliability for fault- evaluate the criticality approach might not be architectural decisions
tolerance in cloud of system components applicable to all cloud affect other system
based on architectural application scenarios quality attributes
reliability beyond reliability
Zhao et al. Edge-cloud collaboration Merges edge and cloud Only specific to fabric How the edge-cloud
(2020) for fabric defect detection computing to promptly defect detection; may collaboration can be
in the industrial internet detect fabric defects, not generalize to other applied to various
thus reducing detection industries other industries and
time real-time scenarios
beyond fabric detection
Pourvahab and Digital forensics using Enhances evidence The complexity of Investigating the
Ekbatanifard SDN and blockchain in collection and integrating both SDN efficiency and response
(2019) IaaS preserves provenance and blockchain might times of forensic
in the cloud. Uses pose implementation activities using this
blockchain for secure challenges architecture in real-
and tamper-proof world cloud breaches
evidence storage
Zimmermann Service-oriented Offers a roadmap Dated from 2013; In-depth studies on
et al. (2013) enterprise architectures towards integrating Big newer architectures how to implement
for Big Data in cloud Data applications with and technologies may these architectures in
cloud-based service- have emerged since modern, dynamic cloud
oriented enterprise then environments, and the
architectures evolution of big data
technologies in this
domain
Figure 62.1 Integrating quantum model for enhanced scalability and performance in cloud architectures
Quantum computing (entanglement, superposition, The quantum computation’s intermediate or raw re-
etc.) – Use entanglement and superposition to sults should be sent to the classical cloud infra-
solve problems. structure.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 485
Classical post-processing and data synthesis – Clas- Collect data on system performance and user
sical systems examine, synthesize, and perhaps feedback.
process quantum data. Refine quantum algorithms and integration layers.
Quantum computing improves cloud service delivery Scale quantum resources based on demand.
– Users receive the finished service or data.
Feedback loop
Description of how the flowchart might look are
as follows: The flowchart should include a feedback loop from
deployment and continuous improvement stages
Identify quantum-ready processes back to the design and assessment stages for iterative
Start with identifying processes that would bene- enhancements.
fit from quantum computing (Zhao et al., 2020). The visualization of step-by-step flowchart process
Determine scalability and performance require- is given below (Zimmermann et al., 2013): End
ments. User receives enhanced services and feedback loop.
Evaluate the compatibility of current cloud ar- The user benefits from the enhanced services, and
chitecture with quantum processes. their feedback or further requests may be fed back
Assess quantum computing resources into the system for continuous improvement.
Identify available quantum computers or quan- Identify the problem or application that can be ben-
tum cloud services (like IBM Q, Rigetti, etc.). efited by using QMC and QML algorithms (O’Meara
Determine quantum processing power (Qubits, et al., 2023).
quantum volume). QMC and QML algorithms are highly suitable for
Assess quantum programming languages addressing challenges such as describing the behav-
(QASM, Qiskit, etc.). ior of intricate molecules and materials, developing
Design quantum algorithms innovative machine learning models, and address-
Translate identified processes into quantum al- ing intricate optimization problems. The appropriate
gorithms. QMC and QML algorithms is selected (Chekired et
Optimize algorithms for the specific quantum al., 2017).
processor. There is a wide range of quantum Monte Carlo
Use quantum simulation tools for testing. (QMC) and QML methods available, each possessing
Integrate quantum algorithms with cloud services distinct merits and drawbacks. The thorough selec-
Develop APIs for integration of quantum algo- tion of algorithms is crucial in order to assure their
rithms with existing cloud services (Pourvahab optimality for the given task (Figure 62.2).
and Ekbatanifard, 2019). The QMC and QML algorithms are developed or
Ensure data security during quantum processing. adopted to run on a quantum computer.
Set up a hybrid cloud-quantum environment. Most quantum Monte Carlo (QMC) and QML
Scalability planning methods are primarily designed and optimized for
Design systems for easy scaling of quantum re- implementation on classical computing systems. The
sources. quantum computer may require certain adjustments
Implement a microservices architecture to encap- in order to ensure optimal functionality of the given
sulate quantum processes. components.
Plan for quantum error correction and fault tol- The QMC and QML algorithms are integrated
erance. with a cloud computing platform.
Performance benchmarking Cloud computing systems provide (Ramidi et al.,
Compare quantum-enhanced processes with 2017) the accessibility of quantum computers and
classical processes. facilitate the scalability of quantum Monte Carlo
Record time and resource efficiency improve- (QMC) and QML algorithms to effectively handle
ments. substantial workloads.
Adjust quantum algorithms based on perfor- The QMC and QML algorithms are deployed and
mance data. run on the cloud computing platform.
Deploy quantum-enhanced cloud services The successful delivery and execution of the prob-
Roll out quantum-enhanced services to end-us- lem or application is contingent upon the integration
ers. of QMC and QML with the cloud computing plat-
Monitor system performance and stability. form (Barcelo et al., 2016).
Provide support for quantum-based applica- By employing this methodology, the quantum Monte
tions. Carlo (QMC) algorithm may be seamlessly included
Continuous improvement and scaling into quantum cloud computing infrastructure, hence
486 Quantum cloud computing: Integrating quantum algorithms for enhanced scalability
Figure 62.2 Proposed model flow chart
facilitating the acceleration of the drug development Develop or adapt the QMC algorithms to run on a
process. quantum computer.
QMC algorithms are commonly designed with a
Identify the problem or application that can be ben- focus on classical computing systems. The quan-
efited by using QMC algorithms. tum computer may require several adjustments
QMC algorithms have the capability to simulate in order to ensure appropriate functionality.
complex molecules, including medicinal com- Integrate the QMC algorithms with a cloud comput-
pounds. Both the advancement of existing medi- ing platform.
cations and the creation of new pharmaceuticals Quantum Monte Carlo (QMC) algorithms pos-
can derive advantages from the above. sess the capability to be expanded in order to han-
Choose the appropriate QMC algorithms. dle substantial workloads and can be convenient-
Various quantum Monte Carlo (QMC) algo- ly accessed through cloud computing platforms.
rithms have distinct strengths and weaknesses. Deploy and run the QMC algorithms on the cloud
The selection of an efficient and extensible ap- computing platform.
proach is of utmost importance in the drug de-
velopment process. Before the deployment and operation of QMC
algorithms for modeling the behavior of medicinal
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 487
compounds, it is necessary to integrate them with the results = process_on_CPU(CPU, predictions)
cloud computing platform. The utilization of data has RETURN results
the potential to expedite the discovery of novel phar- // Main Execution
maceuticals and optimize the advancement of current data = load_data_from_cloud_storage()
ones. problem_parameters =
In a similar vein, the integration of QML techniques define_problem_parameters()
with quantum cloud computing has the potential to model_parameters = define_model_parameters()
facilitate the development of novel machine learning results = Enhanced Quantum Cloud Computing
models and address complex optimization difficulties. (QPU, CPU, data, problem_parameters,
The topic of quantum cloud computing, which model_parameters)
encompasses the utilization of quantum Monte Carlo store_results_in_cloud_storage(results)
(QMC) and QML algorithms, leading to significant
growth and holds the potential to have profound Although the aforementioned pseudocode offers a
impacts across various industries. broad outline of the development of quantum
A simplified diagram which illustrates (Kjamilji, algorithms, it does not thoroughly explore the
2014) the enhancement of scalability and perfor- intricacies and complexities involved in this pro-
mance in quantum cloud computing through the inte- cess.
gration of quantum Monte Carlo (QMC) and QML Furthermore, we proceed to extract the intricate
techniques is given below. quantum circuits required for practical quantum
operations, initialization, and specialized tasks.
Initialize quantum cloud environment Furthermore, it should be noted that the provided
Define quantum processing units (QPUs) pseudo code serves as an exemplary example
Define classical processing units (CPUs) and would require adjustments to suit the spe-
Function Quantum Monte Carlo (QPU, cific situation, cloud architecture, and quantum
problem_parameters): computer under consideration.
Initialize quantum state |y on QPU
FOR each iteration in QMC: The enhancement of scalability and performance
Sample from |y using quantum gates (Jain and Kumar, 2021) in cloud infrastructures can
Update quantum state based on be attained by the integration of quantum Monte
problem_parameters Carlo (QMC) and QML methodologies, as elucidated
END FOR by the subsequent equation:
RETURN quantum samples QCloud(QMC+QML) = (QMC+QML) + Cloud
Function Quantum Machine Learning (QPU, architectures + Scalability + Performance
training_data, model_parameters): The equation in question possesses the following
Initialize quantum machine learning model significance.
QML_Model on QPU The integration of QML and quantum Monte Carlo
Load training_data onto QPU algorithms gives rise to the QCloud (QMC+QML)
FOR each iteration in QML: framework, which facilitates quantum cloud
Use quantum gates to train QML_Model computing.
Update model_parameters using quantum The acronym (QMC+QML) denotes the amalga-
operations mation of the algorithmic methodologies of QMC
END FOR and QML (Alla et al., 2016).
RETURN trained QML_Model Cloud architectures refer to web-based and decen-
Function Enhanced Quantum Cloud Computing tralized data centers that provide users with the ability
(QPU, CPU, data, problem_parameters, to access a shared pool of servers and other comput-
model_parameters): ing resources as and when needed.
quantum_samples = Quantum Monte Carlo The measurement of a system’s scalability pertains
(QPU, problem_parameters) to its ability to effectively handle increasing demands
augmented_data = combine(data, while maintaining optimal performance levels.
quantum_samples) Performance refers to the extent to which a system
QML_trained_model = Quantum functions with speed and efficiency.
Machine Learning (QPU, augmented_data, The enhancement of scalability and performance
model_parameters) can be achieved through the integration of QMC and
predictions = run(QML_trained_model, QML algorithms with cloud infrastructures, as exem-
augmented_data) plified by the following equation. As a result of this,
488 Quantum cloud computing: Integrating quantum algorithms for enhanced scalability
By concurrently executing the quantum Monte Quantum cloud computing, an emerging field
Carlo (QMC) and QML (Dudhe et al., 2018) algo- that integrates quantum Monte Carlo (QMC) and
rithms on many quantum computers, it becomes fea- QML techniques, is currently in its nascent stage
sible to simulate larger and more intricate systems. but holds significant promise to revolutionize vari-
Cloud computing systems enable the integration of ous industries. The acceleration of pharmaceutical
QML and quantum computation (QMC) techniques and material innovation can be facilitated through
across several quantum computers. the utilization of quantum Monte Carlo (QMC)
Cloud infrastructures can provide the necessary algorithms. Similarly, QML algorithms offer the
computational resources and accommodate the large potential for the development of novel applications
datasets required for training and deploying QMC in machine learning. Furthermore, the applica-
and QML models. tion of both QMC and QML algorithms presents
The utilization of cloud architectures can prove an opportunity to address complex challenges in
advantageous for QMC and QML algorithms as it various sectors such as logistics, finance, and other
facilitates the distribution of computational load industries.
across multiple quantum computers, hence granting An illustration of the formula’s application is pre-
users access to substantial computing capabilities. sented below:
Table 62.2 A comprehensive overview of the impact of each variable on the main performance metrics
Parameter Varied values Impact on quantum Impact on fidelity Impact on Impact on training
name speedup quantum volume convergence
Quantum bits 10, 20, 30, 40 Increase with more Decrease due Increase with Slower convergence
(qubits) qubits to increased more qubits, but with more qubits
complexity plateaus
Noise level Low, medium, Decrease with Significant Decrease with Slower convergence
high higher noise decrease with higher noise and possible non-
higher noise convergence with
high noise
Decoherence 50, 100, 200 Increase with Increase Slightly improved Faster convergence
time microseconds longer decoherence with longer with longer with longer
time decoherence time decoherence time decoherence time
Gate fidelity 0.95, 0.97, 0.99 Increase with Significant Increase with Faster convergence
higher fidelity increase with higher fidelity with higher fidelity
higher fidelity
Trotter steps 200, 500, 800 Marginal speedup Improved fidelity Little to no Convergence
(QMC) with more steps with more steps impact improves with more
steps but plateaus
Sampling rate 20, 50, 80 Increased speedup Slight Little to no Faster convergence
(QMC) samples/step with more samples improvement in impact with more samples
fidelity with more
samples
Walkers 200, 500, 800 Improved speedup Increased fidelity Marginal impact Improved
(QMC) with more walkers with more convergence rate
walkers with more walkers
Training data 100, 500, 900 Speedup plateaus Fidelity increases Little to no direct Faster convergence
size (QML) after a certain size with more data, impact initially, but
but plateaus marginal gains after
a threshold
Quantum 2, 5, 8 Speedup increases Fidelity improves Marginal impact Slower convergence
layers (QML) with more layers but then starts with more layers
but plateaus declining due
to increased
complexity
Parameterized RX, RY vs. RX, Better speedup with Improved fidelity No direct impact Slight delay in
gates (QML) RY, CNOT more varied gates with diverse gates convergence with
more complex gates
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 489
Currently, there is ongoing development of a drug predictive capabilities gives rise to a powerful com-
discovery algorithm that utilizes the unique approach putational framework capable of handling intricate
of quantum Monte Carlo (QMC). The firm does not quantum states, efficiently analyzing extensive quan-
possess intentions to engage in the development or tum datasets, and enhancing optimization in many
upkeep of its own quantum computers; nonetheless, it application domains.
does aspire to facilitate widespread access to the algo- Cloud architectures possess the capability to
rithm within academic circles. To integrate its quan- address a diverse range of difficulties, spanning
tum Monte Carlo (QMC) algorithm into the cloud from quantum chemistry to optimization, owing
provider’s infrastructure, the company has opted to to their unified approach in harnessing quantum
establish a collaborative alliance with the aforemen- resources. Quantum cloud computing (QMC) is
tioned provider. The connection would enable the poised to initiate a paradigm shift in high-perfor-
company to globally distribute its QMC algorithm mance computing, surmounting numerous limita-
to consumers and effectively expand its capacity to tions inherent in classical cloud infrastructures
accommodate a substantial user population. through the synergistic use of QMC’s precision and
By implementing this interface, the organiza- QML’s adaptability.
tion would be able to leverage the machine learning However, there are other challenges that must be
capabilities of the cloud service provider to develop overcome in order to fully realize the potential of
advanced QML algorithms. The company might quantum cloud computing. Significant efforts are
potentially leverage the QML algorithm development still required to address the challenges pertaining to
capabilities of the cloud service provider to facilitate quantum noise, decoherence, and the dependability
the training and deployment of novel drug discovery of quantum gates. Nevertheless, advancements in
models. quantum error correction and mitigation techniques
The integration of quantum cloud computing with offer a basis for optimism that these challenges can
QMC and QML algorithms holds significant poten- be surmounted.
tial for enhancing the drug discovery industry. The integration of quantum Monte Carlo (QMC)
and QML in the field of quantum cloud computing
Results analysis is gaining attention as a potential solution to address
the growing need for enhanced computational capa-
To conduct an analysis of the results obtained from a bility, as well as the expanding boundaries of conven-
simulation run utilizing the previous parameter table, tional computing. Despite being in its early stages,
it is necessary to build a new table (Table 62.2). quantum cloud computing exhibits significant poten-
The results presented in Table 62.2 are hypotheti- tial for transforming various domains of research and
cal and should not be interpreted as representative commerce. The integration of QMC (quantum Monte
of actual outcomes. Based on the aforementioned Carlo) with QML signifies a significant paradigm shift
dimensions, it is evident that alterations in any of in comprehending and addressing the vast capabilities
these factors can potentially impact the remaining of cloud computing.
performance indicators. The final findings can be
significantly influenced by various factors, including
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63 Integrating AI-enabled post-quantum models in
quantum cyber-physical systems opportunities
and challenges
S. B. Goyal1,a, Anand Singh Rajawat2, Ruchi Mittal3 and
Divya Prakash Shrivastava4
1
School of Computer Science & Engineering, Sandip University, Nashik, Maharashtra, India
2
City University, Petaling Jaya, 46100, Malaysia
3
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
4
Department Computer Science, Higher Colleges of Technology, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Abstract
The convergence of traditional cyber-physical systems (CPS), quantum computing, and artificial intelligence (AI) gives rise
to a novel system known as a quantum cyber-physical system (QCPS). This study aims to examine the integration of post-
quantum models enabled by AI into quantum computing platforms and systems (QCPS). The merging of AI methodologies
and the computational capabilities of quantum computers presents a novel approach to addressing intricate challenges in
CPS. This context has several potential outcomes, including enhanced safety measures, improved resource allocation, and in-
creased efficiency in quantum operations. Nevertheless, it is imperative to meticulously examine several challenges that arise
in this context, including quantum decoherence, the interpretability of AI models, and the nascent stage of post-quantum
algorithms. Overcoming these challenges will facilitate the advent of a novel era characterized by the integration of quantum-
enabled systems, hence holding the capacity to revolutionize numerous domains within the economy and societal structure.
Keywords: Quantum computing (QC), artificial intelligence (AI), post-quantum cryptography (PQ), cyber-physical systems
(CPS), integration challenges, quantum opportunities
Introduction of achieving complete integration of quantum com-
puting and quantum communication and processing
The convergence of quantum computing (QC), artifi-
systems (QCPS) is fraught with complexities, similar
cial intelligence (AI), and cyber-physical systems (CPS)
to other notable scientific advancements (Zhang et
is facilitating a transformative shift in technological
al., 2015).
advancement, offering a multitude of opportunities while
In order to navigate unfamiliar territory, it is imper-
also presenting intricate challenges. The acronym QCPS,
ative to illuminate the numerous potential opportu-
which stands for AI, post-quantum security, and complex
nities that arise from the utilization of AI-enabled
interaction protocols, encapsulates a nascent concept that
post-quantum models inside the quantum computing
seeks to integrate the most advantageous aspects of PQ
and quantum communication and processing systems
security, AI, and CPS. PQ security pertains to machine
(QCPS) domain. Simultaneously, it is crucial to thor-
learning, AI encompasses machine learning paradigms,
oughly examine the barriers that could impede their
and CPS involves dynamic interaction mechanisms in the
extensive adoption. Through a comprehensive analysis
real world (Singh et al., 2019; Tosh et al., 2020).
of QCPS, our objective is to unveil its latent potential,
The introduction of quantum computing and
shedding light on its transformative capabilities while
quantum algorithms (QCPS) will facilitate the inte-
also critically evaluating the barriers that impede its
gration of highly powerful algorithms with AI,
widespread adoption. This paper is organized as – the
resulting in enhanced capabilities for monitoring,
related work, proposed methodology, results analysis,
controlling, and managing physical processes. This
and finally conclusion and future work.
integration will enable new levels of precision and
proactive decision-making. The potential advantages
of this collaboration range from safeguarding vital Related work
infrastructure against potential threats arising from The active field of research involves the applica-
quantum technology to conducting real-time analysis tion of quantum computing techniques to safeguard
of quantum data streams. Nevertheless, the process cyber-physical systems (CPS), owing to the novelty
a
drsbgoyal@[Link]
492 Integrating AI-enabled post-quantum models in quantum cyber-physical systems
of quantum computation and cryptography. In their the possible applications of this technology as well as
seminal study, Tosh et al. (2020) undertook a sig- the challenges that need to be addressed prior to its
nificant research endeavor aimed at using quantum extensive implementation.
computing techniques to enhance the security of The study conducted by Vereno et al. (2023) exam-
cyber-physical systems. The investigation of quantum ined the potential of quantum power flow algorithms
algorithms has been conducted within the frame- in enhancing energy distribution optimization within
work of safeguarding these systems against diverse the context of smart grids. The study conducted by
cyberattacks. the researchers showcased the potential of quantum
Numerous studies have been conducted to exam- algorithms in simulating and controlling energy dis-
ine the possibilities of quantum cryptography in tribution within smart grids. This discovery presents
safeguarding cyber-physical systems, with a special a promising avenue for improving the efficiency and
emphasis on smart grids. Zhang et al. (2015) exten- reliability of these critical infrastructures.
sively examined the utilization of quantum cryptog- Each article has the potential to contribute to the
raphy-based security methods specifically tailored for creation of a comprehensive table that summarizes
smart grids, emphasizing their efficacy in safeguarding its methods, advantages, limitations, and areas for
communication channels from unauthorized access further investigation. It is important to note that the
and manipulation. Consequently, these techniques comprehensiveness and accuracy of Table 1 are con-
contribute to the enhanced stability and resilience of tingent upon the data provided. Without a careful
power grids. examination of the complete articles, the table may
The authors Rajawat et al. (2022) provided a only offer a limited perspective.
detailed account of a newly developed cyber-physical Table 63.1 provides a comprehensive summary
system designed for industrial automation, which based on the titles, presumed methodologies, advan-
integrates principles from both quantum physics and tages, disadvantages, and gaps. In order to achieve
artificial intelligence. The suggested system utilizes a comprehensive understanding, it is important to
quantum deep learning algorithms to enhance the engage in a thorough examination of each object,
efficiency and safety of automation, hence enabling demonstrating attentiveness to the specific particu-
the achievement of effective manufacturing and pro- lars. It is imperative to conduct a thorough evaluation
duction systems. of each source in order to identify and implement nec-
The study conducted by Iftemi et al. (2023) essary modifications.
explored the broader implications and potential
applications of quantum computing within the Methodology
context of cyber-physical systems. The researchers’
investigations provided clarification on the potential This work presents a methodology for integrating
enhancements in capabilities and efficiency of cyber- post-quantum models, facilitated by AI, into quan-
physical systems (CPS) through the utilization of tum cyber-physical systems (QCPS) (Rajawat et al.,
quantum processing. They presented an analysis of 2022).
Table 63.1 Comparative analysis
Citation Methods Advantages Disadvantages Research gaps
Vaidyan and Hybrid classical-quantum Effective fault Complexity of hybrid Integration of more
Tyagi, 2022 AI models for fault analysis, potential for models, potential quantum algorithms?
analysis rapid diagnostics scalability issues
Almutairi et al., Quantum dwarf mongoose Enhanced intrusion Possibly high Integration with other
2023 optimization with detection utilizes computational intrusion detection
ensemble deep learning for quantum optimization overhead mechanisms?
intrusion detection
Kobayashi et al., Fully automated data Full automation of Limited to laser Automation in other
2021 acquisition for laser data acquisition, production domain, domains of CPS?
production CPS Potential for higher hardware restrictions?
precision
Zhu et al., 2023 Learning spatial graph Scalability , effective Might require vast Other applications
structure for KPI anomaly anomaly detection for amounts of training of the spatial graph
detection in large-scale KPIs data model?
CPS
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 493
Identify application areas – Identify the specific sce- It is feasible to create a function F that integrates the
narios in which the integration of AI with post- components (C, A, P) and maps them to an output,
quantum models might contribute significantly which represents the performance or efficiency of the
to quantum computing problem-solving (QCPS). integrated system.
Concentrate your developmental endeavors on
those areas (Iftemi et al., 2023). Potential areas QCPS = F(C, A, P) (1)
of focus include secure communication, decen-
tralized management, and real-time optimiza-
The extraction of sub-functions that represent
tion.
interactions between components can be performed
Select appropriate AI and post-quantum algorithms –
on the function F. The optimization of a CPS’s effi-
It is imperative to exercise careful consideration
ciency (Zhu et al., 2023) can be achieved through the
while selecting AI algorithms in order to ensure
utilization of an AI model, denoted as function f1.
their ability to effectively address the issues in-
f1(A, C) = performance improvement of CPS using AI.
herent in the quantum computing for public
The enhancement of CPS security, denoted as f2,
safety (QCPS) (Vereno et al., 2023) scenario. In
can be further augmented by the utilization of post-
a comparable manner, select post-quantum cryp-
quantum cryptography techniques.
tography algorithms that exhibit both robust se-
f2(P, C) = security enhancement of CPS using post-
curity and sufficient efficiency for their intended
quantum cryptography.
applications.
It is feasible to represent the performance of the
Develop integrated AI-PQ modules – There is a need
integrated system by aggregating the individual
to create and develop modules that integrate AI
components.
and post-quantum cryptography characteristics.
The optimization of these components is nec-
essary to minimize resource consumption and QCPS = F(C, A, P) = g(f1(A, C), f2(P, C)) (2)
provide seamless integration into the existing cy-
ber-physical systems (CPS) (Vaidyan and Tyagi, The function g incorporates considerations of both
2022) network. enhanced efficiency and heightened safety (Li et al.,
Implement AI-PQ modules in QCPS – It is impera- 2018).
tive to ensure compatibility with current hard- Through a comprehensive examination of the
ware and software when integrating the AI-PQ characteristics exhibited by F and its subordinate
modules into the QCPS architecture. Modifica- functions, a deeper understanding can be obtained
tions to elements such as data formats, control regarding the advantages and disadvantages associ-
systems, and communication protocols may po- ated with the utilization of post-quantum models
tentially be needed. facilitated by artificial intelligence in the context of
Evaluate performance and security – This analysis quantum computing for problem-solving. The dif-
aims to evaluate the level of integration and safe- ficulty of integrating artificial intelligence and post-
ty of the AI-PQ modules within the QCPS infra- quantum cryptography into cyber-physical systems
structure. It is imperative to analyze the impact (CPS) can be assessed by examining the complexity of
of a given factor on latency, throughput, and se- the function F (Tangsuknirundorn et al., 2017). The
curity (Almutairi et al., 2023). function F in QCPS is subject to constraints on the
Refine and iterate – Enhance the components of AI- available resources, which are represented by inputs
PQ and their integration into the QCPS based on C, A, and P. The challenges associated with evaluating
the evaluation outcomes. This iterative method and enhancing the performance of function F can be
ensures consistent progress and adherence to seen as an apt analogy for the obstacles faced in the
evolving requirements. processes of verification and validation.
Mathematical models can undergo analysis and
The utilization of AI in conjunction with post- optimization to identify strategies for integrating
quantum cryptography (PQ) within the realm of AI-enabled post-quantum models into quantum com-
cyber-physical systems (CPS) enables the development puting problem solving (QCPS) systems, effectively
of mathematical models that effectively capture the leveraging the former while minimizing the impact of
intricate relationships and interdependencies among the later. Consequently, we are potentially approach-
these components. ing a pivotal moment characterized by a technologi-
Consider a system including of AI (Kobayashi et cal revolution, wherein the development of quantum
al., 2021) models represented as A, a collection of cyber-physical systems that include attributes of secu-
cyber components represented as C, and a set of post- rity, efficiency, and intelligence is underway (Yevseiev
quantum cryptography algorithms represented as P. et al., 2022).
494 Integrating AI-enabled post-quantum models in quantum cyber-physical systems
Table 63.2 Datasets relevant to quantum cyber-physical systems (QCPS) that incorporate AI-enabled post-quantum model
integration
Dataset name Description Application area Source
Quantum dataset 1 Data simulating quantum effects Quantum computing Q lab research
in CPS simulation
AI quantum dataset 2 Dataset for AI algorithms on AI quantum integration AI cyber quantum institute
quantum data
PQ protocols 3 Post-quantum cryptographic Post-quantum cryptography PQ crypto foundation
protocol simulations
CPS Real World 4 Real-world CPS data integrated Quantum CPS real-world CPSNet research
with quantum computing application
QCPS test bench 5 Benchmark dataset for QCPS Performance testing QCPS global consortium
systems performance
This paper presents a comprehensive summary - Encrypt(plainText)
table of datasets relevant to quantum cyber-physical - Decrypt(cipherText)
systems (QCPS) that incorporate AI-enabled post-
quantum model integration. The chart will encom- Class CyberPhysicalSystem:
pass the following elements (Mekala et al., 2023): sensors: List[Sensor]
actuators: List[Actuator]
Dataset name
Description - GatherSensorData()
Application area - PerformAction(action)
Source
Function IntegrateAIWithQuantumCPS():
Table 63.2 presented herein serves as an exemplary aiModel = AIModel()
example and is entirely hypothetical in nature. Given qSystem = QuantumSystem()
the specialized and emerging nature of AI, post-quan- pqCrypto = PostQuantumCrypto()
tum cryptography (PQC), and cyber-physical systems cps = CyberPhysicalSystem()
(CPS) (Lu and Wu, 2022) inside a quantum environ-
ment, it is imperative to rigorously collect and verify // Opportunities
datasets for their accuracy and pertinence. 1. EnhancedSecurity:
The integration of AI-enabled post-quantum mod- - Use pqCrypto to encrypt/decrypt data for
els into quantum cyber-physical systems (CPS) pres- enhanced security in communication.
ents a multitude of opportunities and challenges. - Securely transfer AI models and quantum state
The subsequent pseudo-code exemplifies a potential information.
approach for accomplishing this integration on a
broad scale (Asif and Buchanan, 2017): 2. ImprovedDecisionMaking:
Proposed algorithm - data = [Link]()
- quantumData = [Link]()
Module QuantumCPS: - combinedData = Merge(data, quantumData)
Class AIModel: - action = [Link](combinedData)
- Train(data) - [Link](action)
- Predict(input)
- UpdateModel(newData) 3. RealTimeQuantumComputation:
- state = [Link]()
Class QuantumSystem: - newOperation = [Link](bestOperati
- InitializeState() onBasedOnState)
- ApplyQuantumOperation(operation) - [Link](newOper
- MeasureState() ation)
Class PostQuantumCrypto: // Challenges
- GenerateKeyPair() 1. QuantumNoiseManagement:
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 495
- Detect noise in quantum system and correct or Resource limitations – The implementation of AI
adjust using AI. and post-quantum cryptography algorithms on
2. Synchronization: quantum computing platforms (QCPS) may en-
- Ensure quantum computations, AI predictions, counter challenges arising from limited process-
and CPS operations are well synchronized. ing resources, memory capacity, and energy lim-
3. Scalability: its, thereby hindering their efficient execution.
- Handle growth in system components, data, Verification and validation – The implementation
and computational requirements. of verification and validation methods for AI-
4. Interoperability: enabled post-quantum models in quantum com-
- Ensure seamless interaction between AI, PQ, puting and post-quantum cryptographic systems
and CPS components. (QCPS) might pose challenges in terms of time
5. PostQuantumCryptoOverhead: consumption and complexity. However, these
- Manage time and resource overhead intro- procedures are crucial for guaranteeing the ac-
duced by PQ encryption/decryption. curacy, security, and reliability of the models
End Module (Khoshnoud et al., 2017).
The provided code presents a theoretical perspec- Notwithstanding these challenges, the integration
tive (Niemann et al., 2021) on the possible interac- of AI-enabled post-quantum models in quantum
tion among artificial intelligence, post-quantum, and computing and physical systems (QCPS) has signifi-
cyber-physical systems inside a quantum environ- cant promise for revolutionizing human interactions
ment. The specific requirements would be contingent and management of the physical environment. This
upon the hardware, software, and domain-specific has the potential to yield innovative advancements
demands (Zajac and Störl, 2022). in secure, intelligent, and interconnected technology
(Figure 63.1).
Opportunities
Opportunities
Enhanced security – The utilization of post-quantum Enhanced security – The use of post-quantum cryp-
cryptography techniques enables the achieve- tographic protocols in quantum CPS can offer
ment of secure long-term storage and transmis- enhanced security against quantum attacks.
sion of private information within a quantum Optimized performance – AI can optimize the perfor-
computing protection system (QCPS), thereby mance of quantum CPS by providing intelligent
mitigating the risks posed by quantum comput- decision-making and predictive maintenance.
ing threats. Resilience and adaptability – AI and PQ integra-
Improved performance – The utilization of AI models tion may lead to systems that can adapt to new
has the potential to enhance performance and threats and continue to operate under adverse
efficiency in quality control and production sys- conditions.
tems (QCPS) by optimizing resource allocation, Innovative applications – This integration could open
control methodologies, and decision-making new avenues for innovative applications in vari-
processes. ous sectors such as healthcare, transportation,
New applications – The integration of AI with post- and smart cities.
quantum cryptography (PQC) has the potential
to enable novel uses of quantum computing and Challenges
post-quantum secure (QCPS) systems. These ap- Complexity of integration – Combining AI, PQ, and
plications include the establishment of secure CPS requires handling complex and possibly
quantum communication networks, the develop- conflicting requirements.
ment of autonomous quantum control systems, Quantum decoherence – The instability of quantum
and the realization of real-time quantum optimi- states can pose challenges in maintaining consis-
zation. tent quantum computation for CPS (Ahmad et
al., 2021).
Challenges
Scalability – Post-quantum cryptographic methods
Integration complexity – The integration of AI and may introduce significant overhead, which can
post-quantum cryptography (PQC) into cur- be a challenge for scalable quantum CPS.
rent cyber-physical systems (CPS) infrastructures AI Interpretability – AI decision-making processes
might pose challenges due to factors such as need to be transparent, especially in critical cy-
compatibility, resource constraints, and the im- ber-physical systems where errors can have se-
perative for real-time performance. vere consequences.
496 Integrating AI-enabled post-quantum models in quantum cyber-physical systems
Figure 63.1 Integrating AI-enabled post-quantum models in quantum cyber-physical systems opportunities and chal-
lenges
Table 63.3 Simulation parameter
Parameter Description Default value/range Notes
AI model complexity Number of layers, neurons, etc., in 10 layers, 1000 Affects computation time
the AI model neurons
Quantum bits (Qubits) Number of qubits in the quantum 50 qubits Defines quantum capacity
system
PQ algorithm Post-quantum algorithm used NTRU, Kyber, etc. Affects security & performance
CPS network size Number of devices/nodes in the 100 nodes Affects network scalability
CPS network
CPS update frequency How often the CPS updates its Every 10 ms Affects system responsiveness
state/data
Noise level Level of noise in the quantum 0.01% Impacts quantum reliability
system
AI training data size Amount of data used for training 10 GB Affects AI accuracy
the AI model
PQ key size Size of the cryptographic keys used 2048 bits Balances security & speed
Quantum gate depth Depth of quantum circuits 500 gates Affects quantum computation
(number of gates in sequence)
AI inference speed Time taken for the AI model to 50 ms per input Affects real-time decision
process input and produce output
Security – Although post-quantum cryptography is relationship between AI, post-quantum cryptography,
designed to be secure against quantum attacks, and quantum CPS (Table 63.3).
the overall QCPS model must be secure against Table 63.3 shows overall mean score of 4.59 out
both conventional and quantum threats. of 5 which indicates that this product is worthy in
Regulatory compliance – Ensuring that AI-enabled every facet.
QCPS models comply with emerging regulations The provided table serves as a simplified rep-
on AI, data privacy, and cybersecurity. resentation and can be utilized as a reference
tool. Additional factors such as hardware limi-
Results tations, program iterations, network configura-
The vast nature of the simulation parameter required tions, and specific application scenarios may also
for the integration of AI-enabled quantum cyber- hold significant importance, contingent upon the
physical systems (QCPS) models in the context of intricacies of the simulation. The appropriate modi-
quantum CPS can be attributed to the intricate fications or additions should be guided by the spe-
cific study requirements and the desired depth of
information.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 497
Table 63.4 Results analysis
Parameter Tested value Observed impact/outcome Insights/comments
AI model complexity 15 layers, 1500 neurons Slight increase in accuracy but Complexity trade-off to be
higher computational cost considered
Quantum bits (Qubits) 60 qubits Enhanced quantum processing Error correction techniques
capability but more noise needed
PQ algorithm Kyber Secure communication but moderate Suitable for medium-
computational overhead security tasks
CPS network size 150 nodes Increased network delay, but better Scalability concerns arise
distributed processing
CPS update frequency Every 5 ms More real-time updates, but higher Need efficient data
bandwidth consumption transmission
Noise level 0.02% Slight degradation in quantum Requires better noise
computations isolation
AI training data size 12 GB Improved model accuracy by 2% Diminishing returns beyond
10 GB
PQ key size 3072 bits Enhanced security but longer key Key size to be chosen based
generation time on needs
Quantum gate depth 600 gates Extended computational possibilities Deep circuits need error
but more errors mitigation
AI inference speed 40ms per input Faster real-time decision-making Optimal for time-sensitive
tasks
In the absence of empirical simulation outcomes, previously inconceivable. Additionally, the inclusion
this discussion will outline the potential transforma- of AI components further enhances CPS by providing
tion of the previously mentioned “Simulation param- intelligent analysis, adaptability, and decision-making
eter table” into a “Results analysis” table, which capabilities. The integration of various systems such
pertains to the integration of AI-enabled post-quan- as healthcare, transportation, and energy infrastruc-
tum models into quantum cyber-physical systems ture could potentially yield a more responsive, secure,
(CPS). and efficient outcome.
Table 63.4 shows the simulated impact of altering However, these advancements are not devoid of
specific settings from their default values. The retrieval challenges. Comprehensive research is essential in
of actual values from the simulation is necessary, and order to ascertain the most effective methods for
any comments, observations, and impacts should be ensuring dependable and secure interactions among
based on empirical data and analysis conducted in a AI, post-quantum (PQ) systems, and quantum com-
real-world context. ponents. The concerns encompass quantum noise,
potential security vulnerabilities in artificial intelli-
Conclusion gence, and the nascent state of post-quantum cryp-
tography methodologies. Ultimately, the successful
The integration of quantum cyber-physical systems incorporation of AI-enabled post-quantum models
(CPS) with AI-enabled post-quantum (QCPS) models into quantum cyber-physical systems (CPS) holds
represents a significant and transformative conver- great promise for the future, offering a multitude of
gence of advanced technologies. We are currently at potential opportunities. However, achieving this goal
the threshold of a forthcoming era in the design and will necessitate thorough investigation, robust design
operation of cyber-physical systems (CPS). This age methodologies, and collaborative efforts across vari-
entails the integration of AI, which possesses the abil- ous disciplines. The road is in its early stages, but it
ity to make predictions, with the strong cryptographic holds the potential to catalyze a transformative shift
capabilities offered by post-quantum mechanisms, as in the realm of cyber-physical systems.
well as the immense processing power provided by
quantum systems.
The quantum aspect of cyber-physical systems
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64 Adaptive resource allocation and optimization in cloud
environments: Leveraging machine learning for efficient
computing
Anand Singh Rajawat1, S. B. Goyal2,a, Manoj Kumar3 and Varun Malik4
1
School of Computer Science & Engineering, Sandip University, Nashik, Maharashtra, India
2
City University, Petaling Jaya, 46100, Malaysia
3
University of Wollongong, Dubai, UAE
4
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
Abstract
In contemporary cloud computing environments, the efficient allocation and utilization of resources are vital to ensure
prompt performance and maximize the utilization of the existing infrastructure. The proliferation of cloud platforms has led
to the emergence of considerable challenges related to load balancing and efficient task scheduling, since a rising number of
applications and services rely on these platforms. This article introduces an innovative approach to tackle these challenges
through the utilization of machine learning (ML) techniques. In this study, we propose a comprehensive framework that
effectively allocates resources in real-time systems by adapting to their evolving demands. This framework achieves its objec-
tives by integrating algorithms for load balancing and scheduling. Machine learning models, which have been trained using
previous data on workloads and system performance, can be utilized to forecast upcoming load surges and identify potential
bottlenecks. Subsequently, the computer system proactively modifies the allocation of resources and the arrangement of tasks
to preemptively address future challenges. Upon comparison with conventional approaches, the initial findings indicate sig-
nificant advantages in terms of system performance, decreased latency, and improved resource utilization. Furthermore, the
framework’s flexible architecture ensures the capacity to scale and adapt, rendering it well-suited for deployment in dynamic
environments such as cloud-based systems that undergo frequent modifications. This study showcases the transformative
potential of ML in redefining resource allocation and task scheduling inside cloud computing ecosystems.
Keywords: Cloud computing, adaptive resource allocation, load balancing algorithms, scheduling algorithms, machine learn-
ing optimization, efficient computing
Introduction this particular context that possess the capability
to acquire knowledge from their surroundings and
The continuous advancement of cloud computing has
exhibit intelligent decision-making abilities in reac-
brought about a period marked by an ever-increasing
tion to it.
demand for computational capacity, storage capacity,
Subsequently, machine learning (ML) emerged.
and data transit speeds. Complex challenges emerge,
Machine learning is a subfield of artificial intelligence
namely in the domains of resource allocation and
(AI) that enables computers to acquire knowledge
work scheduling, notwithstanding the advantages
from data, enhance their performance, and provide
that this digital paradigm offers in terms of the flex-
predictions or assessments without explicit instruc-
ibility and scalability of the underlying infrastructure.
tion. The utilization of ML techniques in the realm of
In addition to potentially diminishing system perfor-
cloud computing might yield advantageous outcomes
mance, inadequate resource allocation and task man-
for load balancing algorithms, which distribute work-
agement practices can result in the squandering of
loads among accessible resources, as well as sched-
financial and computational resources.
uling algorithms, which determine the timing and
Historically, cloud systems have relied on pre-
sequence of task execution.
defined rules, heuristics, and deterministic algorithms
The proposed system envisions the integration of
to facilitate resource allocation and work scheduling.
machine learning techniques inside cloud settings to
Although these approaches are valuable, they often
enable monitoring, learning, and adaptive capabili-
lack the ability to effectively adjust to dynamic user
ties. The proposed system aims to evaluate the present
requirements, changing workloads, and the always
utilization of resources, forecast future requirements,
evolving characteristics of cloud-based applications.
and implement proactive adjustments in resource
There is an increasing need for solutions within
allocation and job scheduling in order to optimize
a
drsbgoyal@[Link]
500 Adaptive resource allocation and optimization in cloud environments
efficiency. In contrast to the previously employed enhance the energy efficiency of data transmission
static models, the current dynamic and flexible archi- operations, which is a critical necessity in the age of
tecture holds the potential for enhanced processing the Internet of Things (IoT) and ubiquitous wireless
throughput, reduced latency, and increased overall communications.
system performance. Kumari and Saxena (2021) proposed the imple-
This study investigates the possible impact of mentation of an “Advanced fusion ACO approach”
machine learning on cloud-based resource manage- as a means to enhance the optimization of memory in
ment and optimization. Our objective is to provide cloud computing. The methodology utilized in their
insights into potential avenues for enhancing the study involves the implementation of the ant colony
efficiency and adaptability of cloud computing. This optimization (ACO) algorithm, which draws inspira-
will be achieved by a comprehensive examination of tion from the behavior of ants. This approach offers
load balancing and scheduling approaches that are a practical solution for mitigating memory inefficien-
augmented using machine learning techniques. Our cies inside cloud systems.
research contributions are as follows: The present study explores the utilization of
dynamic binary translation (DBT) cache inside cloud
• This study introduces a ML-based framework for computing environments. In order to enhance system
efficient resource allocation and task scheduling performance in cloud environments, a group of aca-
in cloud computing environments. demics devised a specialized optimization technique
• The proposed framework predicts load surges for the store and retrieval operations of the DBT
and optimizes resource allocation, outperform- cache (Yi, 2020).
ing traditional approaches in system performance A comprehensive tabular representation of the ref-
and latency reduction. erenced scholarly papers, encompassing sections on
• By integrating ML algorithms, the framework citation, methods, benefits, drawbacks, and future
dynamically adapts to evolving demands, ensur- directions for study (Table 64.1).
ing scalability and adaptability in cloud-based Table 64.1 provides a concise overview of the
systems. various methodologies, highlighting their respec-
tive merits, drawbacks, and potential areas for
The paper organization – The related work, the pro- future investigation (Chaitra et al., 2020). The ben-
posed methodology, results analysis and finally con- efits, downsides, and research gaps are synthesized
clusion and future work. in accordance with the referenced literature; a more
comprehensive examination of each study may be
Related work required to extract subtle nuances.
The focus of the study is to enhance the allocation of
Methodology
industrial resource services through cloud-based sys-
tems. The study centers on the distinct challenges that The concept of “adaptive resource allocation and
emerge when manufacturing facilities transition their optimization” pertains to the implementation of real-
operations to the digital realm. The primary objective time allocation and optimization strategies for cloud
was to optimize the utilization of existing resources resources (Archana and Kumar, 2023), which are
in order to deliver services with the highest level of adjusted in accordance with the varying demands of
efficiency and effectiveness (Luo et al., 2017). applications and workloads. One approach to achieve
Raj et al. (2020) proposed a study which entails this objective is through the utilization of machine
the utilization of a hybrid approach that incorpo- learning algorithms for predicting resource demands
rates particle swarm optimization (PSO) to effectively and optimizing allocation decisions.
schedule operations in a cloud-based environment. The subsequent technique delineates a conven-
The researchers conducted an investigation into the tional approach for employing machine learning in
potential of PSO to improve scheduling decisions, the context of adaptively distributing and optimizing
with the aim of increasing resource utilization and cloud-based resources (Valarmathi and Sheela, 2017).
optimizing the efficiency of task execution. Their Accumulate information. In order to proceed, it is
work makes a valuable contribution to the discipline important to collect pertinent data pertaining to the
by integrating traditional scheduling techniques with cloud environment. This includes information regard-
heuristic approaches. ing the consumption of resources by applications and
Hengbo and Yu (2022) proposed a novel meth- workloads, the performance of algorithms utilized for
odology for enhancing the efficiency of data trans- load balancing (Yang et al., 2012) and scheduling, as
fer via wireless networks inside cloud computing well as the expectations of users in terms of service
environments. The technique undertaken aimed to quality.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 501
Table 64.1 Comparative analysis
Citation Methods Advantages Disadvantages Research gaps
Chaitra et al., Multi-objective Efficient resource Specific to multi-cloud Exploration of the
2020 optimization using Lion provisioning. Handles environments, might impact of different
optimization algorithm dynamic nature of not generalize to other performance metrics
in a multi-cloud cloud resources. Multi- settings. Dependency on the optimization
environment objective approach on the efficiency of process. Study of how
considers multiple the Lion optimization different cloud models
performance metrics algorithm affect the results
Archana and Resource provisioning Efficient and adaptive As with many bio- Extensive comparison
Kumar, 2023 using spider monkey resource provisioning, inspired algorithms, with other bio-
optimization in cloud natural mimicry there might be inspired optimization
computing of spider monkey’s challenges in techniques, study
foraging behavior brings parameter tuning of its efficiency in
a novel perspective to might not be hybrid or multi-cloud
optimization suitable for all cloud environments
workloads
Valarmathi and Survey on task Comprehensive review Being a survey, it Need for an updated
Sheela, 2017 scheduling using particle of existing PSO-based does not propose a survey that captures
swarm optimization scheduling solutions novel solution might newer developments,
(PSO) under cloud provides insights into miss out on recent implementation of
environment the current state-of-art advancements after the best strategies
2017 highlighted in the
survey
Yang et al., 2012 Cloud resource Hybrid approach tries Older research, might Updated study
allocation strategy based to combine the strengths not consider modern considering the
on particle swarm and of both algorithms. cloud complexities. modern advancements
ant colony optimization Effective resource Hybrid methods can in cloud technology.
algorithm allocation strategy that sometimes become Simplified models that
considers global and overly complex retain the efficiency of
local optimization the hybrid approach
In essence, instruct a computational system to Load balancing algorithms
acquire knowledge and skills. Subsequently, the data The distribution of workloads across a cluster of
is employed for the purpose of instructing a machine computers enhances both their operational efficiency
learning model. To enhance the efficiency of resource and overall availability (Wu, 2018). The following
allocation decisions, it is imperative to train the model are many instances of widely used load balancing
to accurately forecast the requirements of applica- algorithms:
tions and workloads, taking into consideration future Round robin – The algorithm ensures equitable dis-
resource needs and quality of service criteria. tribution of traffic among all servers.
Implement the machine learning strategy (Huang, Weighted round robin – The algorithm in question
2021). After the development of the machine learn- is designed to allocate traffic among servers by tak-
ing model, it can be employed for the allocation of ing into account their respective weights. This fea-
cloud resources. The model has the potential to be ture enables the prioritization of servers with higher
utilized either independently or as an integral com- resource capacities or lower levels of demand.
ponent within a comprehensive cloud management Least connections – The aforementioned technique
framework. is designed to allocate traffic to the server that cur-
It is imperative to monitor cloud-based operations rently possesses the lowest number of active connec-
and ensure that the machine learning model receives tions (Pan and Chen, 2015).
periodic upgrades (Gasior and Seredyński, 2021). The Shortest job first – The technique is designed to
final phase is monitoring the cloud infrastructure and allocate traffic to the server that possesses the capa-
delivering periodic updates to the machine learning bility to do the task within the minimum duration.
model. This method allows for the model to be effec-
tively synchronized with modifications in the cloud Scheduling algorithms
infrastructure as well as the demands of the applica- The regulation of job execution on servers is gov-
tions and workloads (Mulge and Sharma, 2018). erned by scheduling algorithms. The following are the
502 Adaptive resource allocation and optimization in cloud environments
instances of prevalent scheduling algorithms (Gao et predict the resource requirements of applications and
al., 2020; Singh et al., 2020): workloads in the future. The utilization of this data
First come first served (FCFS) – The tasks are exe- can enhance the efficacy of algorithms employed in
cuted sequentially according to the order in which load balancing and scheduling by facilitating more
they were received by the algorithm. precise determinations pertaining to resource alloca-
Shortest job first (SJF) – The algorithm exhibits a tion (Bilgaiyan et al., 2014).
preference for the task with the shortest duration. Optimize resource allocation decisions – The opti-
Priority scheduling – This algorithm prioritizes mization of resource allocation can be enhanced by
activities based on characteristics such as urgency the utilization of machine learning models, which
and relevancy, executing them in the order of their include both projected resource demands and desired
priority. levels of service quality. Machine learning models can
be effectively utilized in several scenarios, such as
determining the most efficient method for distributing
Algorithm: Adaptive Resource Allocation and traffic over multiple servers or identifying the ideal
Optimization using ML number of servers to allocate for a certain application
Inputs: (Kumar et al., 2017).
- List of tasks: tasks[]
- List of available cloud resources: resources[]
- ML model for load balancing: ML_LoadBalancer Detailed steps for the proposed machine learning
- ML model for task scheduling: ML_Scheduler model
Output: User requests – User requests are funneled in through
- Efficient allocation and execution of tasks this entry point in the cloud environment when they
Procedure: are processed. These could range from easy activities
1. INITIALIZE empty list allocatedTasks[] and like retrieving data to more difficult ones like doing
scheduledTasks[] sophisticated computations.
2. FOR each task in tasks[]: Load balancer – The load balancer disperses
2.1 Predict optimal resource using incoming requests among several cloud servers so as
ML_LoadBalancer to maximize throughput, reduce response time, opti-
resource = ML_LoadBalancer.predict(task) mize resource consumption, and prevent overloading
2.2 IF resource is available: of any one resource in particular.
2.2.1 ALLOCATE task to resource Machine learning model – The machine learning
2.2.2 ADD task to allocatedTasks[] model performs an analysis of historical data to deter-
2.3 ELSE: mine workload patterns, resource utilization, and the
2.3.1 QUEUE task for later allocation effectiveness of scheduling decisions in the past in
3. WHILE allocatedTasks[] is not empty: order to forecast optimal allocation techniques.
3.1 FOR each task in allocatedTasks[]:
3.1.1 Predict optimal execution time using
ML_Scheduler
executionTime = ML_Scheduler.predict(task)
3.1.2 SCHEDULE task based on predicted
executionTime
3.1.3 MOVE task from allocatedTasks[] to
scheduledTasks[]
4. EXECUTE all tasks in scheduledTasks[]
5. RETURN “All tasks executed successfully”
End Algorithm
Machine learning for adaptive resource allocation
and optimization
Machine learning has the potential to offer signifi-
cant advantages (Yahyaoui and Moalla, 2016) to
load balancing and scheduling algorithms in various
ways. One potential application of machine learning
is found in the following section:
Predict future resource needs – Machine learn-
ing models built on previous data can be utilized to Figure 64.1 Proposed machine learning model
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 503
Dynamic resource allocation – Algorithms that optimization through machine learning presents a
dynamically allocate resources make adjustments to promising and innovative avenue.
those resources in real time, based on forecasts and This study proposes an adaptive resource allocation
the present status of the system, in order to provide and optimization formula for cloud environments,
load balancing across the cloud infrastructure. specifically focusing on load balancing methods and
Task scheduling – The sequence in which activities scheduling algorithms. The formula incorporates
are carried out can be determined by scheduling algo- machine learning techniques to enhance the efficiency
rithms, which take into account dependencies, prior- and effectiveness of resource allocation and optimiza-
ity, and the expected execution timeframes provided tion in cloud settings.
by the ML model (Peng et al., 2016).
Optimized resource allocation – When allocating R(t) = f(W(t), Q(t), M(t))
resources, an optimum strategy is used, taking into
account both the current state of the system and the where:
predictions generated by the machine learning model. R(t) is the resource allocation at time t
This guarantees that jobs are assigned to the resources W(t) is the workload at time t
that are the most appropriate for them. Q(t) is the quality of service requirements at time t
Execution on cloud resources – The tasks are car- M(t) is the machine learning model at time t
ried out on the resources provided by the cloud in Through the analysis of historical data, machine
accordance with the optimum allocation and time- learning models can acquire the ability to compre-
table in an effort to achieve high levels of efficiency hend the intricate relationship between workload,
while keeping operational costs to a minimum. service quality requirements, and resource alloca-
Monitoring – The execution of the tasks and the tion. After the completion of the training process,
use of the resources are continuously monitored by the model can be employed to ascertain the optimal
the system in order to give real-time data for the allocation of resources in order to fulfill service level
machine learning model. agreements (SLAs) for various workloads and levels
of service quality.
Feedback data – The ML model receives feedback
The machine learning model can ensure its align-
in the form of performance data and the outcomes
ment with fluctuations in workload and adherence to
of the resource allocation and task executions. This
service quality standards. The outcome is a heightened
enables the model to learn and adapt over time, which
level of adaptability and efficiency in the allocation of
improves its ability to make predictions and judg-
existing resources (Nuradis and Lemma, 2019).
ments in the future.
The utilization of machine learning models can
enhance both load balancing and scheduling deci-
Benefits of adaptive resource allocation and optimiza-
sions. The model can be utilized, for example, to
tion
determine the most efficient method of distributing
There exist multiple favorable consequences that can
traffic among multiple servers or the optimal alloca-
arise from the adaptive allocation and optimization
tion of servers for a particular application. The model
of resources.
has the ability to be utilized for the purpose of priori-
Improved performance – The utilization of adap-
tizing server operations and determining the optimal
tive resource allocation and optimization techniques
order in which jobs should be executed.
can improve the performance of cloud applications The enhancement of performance, cost-effective-
and workloads. ness, dependability, and scalability in cloud com-
Reduced costs – The avoidance of overprovision- puting environments can be achieved through the
ing of resources is achieved by the implementation of utilization of adaptive resource allocation and opti-
adaptive resource allocation and optimization tech- mization techniques leveraging machine learning.
niques, which effectively contribute to the mainte- The subsequent representation presents a potential
nance of affordable cloud costs. instantiation of the formula for distributing resources
Increased reliability – The enhancement of the to a cloud-based web application.
dependability of cloud applications and workloads The machine learning model can be trained using
can be achieved through the implementation of adap- historical data in order to uncover the relationship
tive resource allocation and optimization techniques, between the number of users of a web application,
which aim to eliminate any limitations on available the response time required, and the optimal number
resources (Peng et al., 2016). of web servers. Once the model has undergone train-
In order to enhance efficiency, economy, reliability, ing, it can be utilized to ascertain the number of web
and scalability within the realm of cloud computing, servers necessary to meet the response time demands
the utilization of adaptive resource allocation and of a specific user demographic.
504 Adaptive resource allocation and optimization in cloud environments
The machine learning model has the potential the quality of service, we utilize the quality-of-service
to be regularly updated in order to accurately cap- violation as a means of verification.
ture the latest requirements pertaining to through- To ensure accurate resource allocation of the
put and reaction time. The allocation of resources model, the inclusion of the following restrictions is
would exhibit more flexibility and efficacy as a recommended:
consequence. R ij ∈{0,1}, where R ij is 1 if the $i$th IoT device
The enhancement of performance (Shin, 2014), is deployed on the $j$th edge server and 0 otherwise
cost-effectiveness, dependability, and scalability in Σ jM R ij =1 for all i
cloud computing environments can be achieved Σ iN R ij ≤Cmax for all j
through the utilization of adaptive resource allocation where C max is the maximum capacity of an edge
and optimization techniques that leverage machine server.
learning. The problem at hand can be addressed by the utili-
The subsequent illustration presents a mathemati- zation of several machine learning techniques, includ-
cal model that could be employed in tandem with ing linear programming, integer programming, and
machine learning techniques to facilitate adaptive reinforcement learning.
resource allocation and optimization inside cloud Leveraging machine learning for efficient
environments. computing.
minimize: There exist multiple methodologies via which
machine learning can be employed to enhance the
efficiency of resource allocation and optimization.
J(R) = Σ_i^N w_i * d_i(R) + Σ_j^M c_j * C_j(R)
One notable application of machine learning are as
+ Σ_k^K v_k * V_k(R) follows:
Predict future resource needs – The ability to fore-
where: cast the future resource demands of IoT applications
R is the resource allocation can be achieved through the utilization of machine
N is the number of IoT devices learning models that have been trained on historical
M is the number of IoT applications data. Based on the available facts, we can make more
K is the number of quality of service requirements informed decisions on the allocation of our finite
w i is the weight of the $i$th IoT device financial resources.
d i (R) is the distance between the $i$th IoT device Optimize resource allocation decisions – The opti-
and the edge server mization of resource allocation can be enhanced by
c j is the cost of deploying the $j$th IoT application the utilization of machine learning models, which
on an edge server include both projected resource demands and
C j(R) is the number of edge servers required to desired levels of service quality. In order to enhance
deploy the $j$th IoT application on the resource allo- the equitable allocation of traffic among accessible
cation R edge servers, or to ascertain the optimal alloca-
v k is the weight of the $k$th quality of service tion of edge servers for a certain IoT application,
requirement the utilization of a machine learning model may be
V k(R) is the violation of the $k$th quality of ser- employed.
vice requirement on the resource allocation R. Adapt to changes in the environment – To address
The fundamental purpose of the objective func- the integration of emerging IoT devices and the intro-
tion is to minimize a weighted sum of travel times, duction of novel IoT applications, it is possible to peri-
expenditures, and quality of service breaches. The odically update machine learning models within the
prioritization of various IoT devices, applications, cloud environment. This ensures that our resources
and quality of service requirements can be achieved are being utilized efficiently at all times.
through the utilization of weights. The significance Table 64.2 represents the simulation parameters
of service standards may be amplified if they have utilized in a cloud system that employs machine learn-
greater importance to consumers or if they are asso- ing techniques to achieve optimal resource allocation
ciated with critical or possibly more profitable IoT and optimization.
applications. Table 64.3 provides can be modified according to
Increasing the physical separation between the the specified needs, which may entail making adjust-
edge server and the IoT device might lead to a reduc- ments to the default values or including/excluding col-
tion in latency for the IoT application. One potential umns as necessary. However, depending on the nature
strategy for reducing cloud expenses is by deploying of the cloud environment and the desired outcomes
IoT software on an edge server. In order to ensure of the simulation, certain qualities listed in the table
the fulfillment of consumers’ expectations regarding may hold greater significance than others in practical
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 505
Table 64.2 simulation parameters utilized in a cloud system that employs machine learning techniques to achieve optimal
resource allocation and optimization.
Parameter name Description Values/range Default value
Environment parameters
Total resources Number of virtual machines or 50–500 100
physical servers
Resource capacity CPU, RAM, storage capacity of Varies (e.g., 2–16 CPUs, 4 CPUs, 8 GB RAM, 200
each resource 4–64 GB RAM, 100–500 GB storage
GB storage)
Workload type Nature of incoming tasks (CPU- CPU-intensive, memory- CPU-intensive
intensive, I/O-intensive, etc.) intensive, balanced, etc.
Task arrival rate Average number of tasks arriving e.g., 10–100 tasks/min 50 tasks/min
per time unit
Task length Duration to complete a task Varies based on workload 5 minutes
type
Load balancing algorithms
Algorithm type Type of load balancing algorithm Round Robin, least Round Robin
used connection, weighted
distribution, etc.
Prediction window In case of predictive algorithms, 5–15 minutes 10 minutes
the time window for prediction
Scheduling algorithms
Algorithm type Type of scheduling algorithm used First come first serve FCFS
(FCFS), shortest job first
(SJF), priority-based, etc.
Preemption Ability to interrupt a currently Enabled/disabled Disabled
running task for a higher priority
one
Machine learning parameters
ML algorithm Machine learning algorithm used Decision trees, neural Neural networks
for prediction/optimization networks, SVM, etc.
Training data size Number of past data points used 10,000–100,000 data points 50,000 data points
for training the model
Features Features/parameters considered by Resource utilization, task Resource utilization, task
the ML model length, arrival rate, etc. length
Model update Frequency at which the ML model After every 1000 tasks, 24 After every 1000 tasks
frequency is updated/retrained hours, etc.
Performance metrics
Throughput Number of tasks completed per Tasks per minute/hour -
time unit
Resource utilization Percentage of resources being used 0–100% -
Waiting time Time a task waits before it starts Time units (e.g., seconds, -
executing minutes)
Makespan Total time taken to complete all Time units (e.g., minutes, -
tasks hours)
application. The analysis of results table can be uti- Achieving consistent outcomes can be facilitated
lized to present the final outcomes of the simulation through the integration of Round Robin scheduling,
across different configurations. As the availability of first-come-first-serve (FCFS) scheduling, and neural
actual numerical data is lacking, it is important to networks. The least connection algorithm exhibited
note that the table provided serves solely as an illus- reduced waiting times compared to the baseline, while
trative sample. Once the simulations have been con- achieving equivalent throughput. The implementation
cluded, the actual findings can be inputted. of shortest job first (SJF) scheduling has resulted in a
506 Adaptive resource allocation and optimization in cloud environments
Table 64.3 Results analysis
# Load Scheduler ML algorithm Throughput Avg. Avg. waiting Makespan Remarks
balancer (tasks/min) resource time (min) (hours)
utilization
(%)
1 Round FCFS Neural 45 70 2 10 Stable
Robin networks performance
2 Least FCFS Decision trees 48 68 1.8 9.5 Slight
connection improvement in
waiting time
3 Round SJF Neural 46 72 1.5 9.8 Improved
Robin networks waiting time
but similar
throughput
4 Weighted Priority- SVM 50 75 1.3 9.2 Best throughput
distribution based and reduced
makespan
5 Round FCFS SVM 44 69 2.1 10.5 No significant
Robin improvement
Figure 64.2 Comparative analysis different machine learning model
decrease in wait times while maintaining a high level integration of weighted distribution, a priority-based
of throughput, hence enhancing overall efficiency. The scheduler, and support vector machines (SVM). There
attainment of optimal performance is realized by the is a lack of significant advancement. In comparison
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 507
to the control group, the performance of SVM with management systems capable of acquiring knowledge
Round Robin and FCFS did not exhibit statistically and adjusting to novel workloads without the need
significant improvement. Several key observations for human intervention. Utilizing machine learning
can be derived from the presented tabular data: techniques for the purpose of dynamic resource man-
The achievement of optimal overall performance is agement and optimization in cloud-based environ-
facilitated by the utilization of a weighted distribution ments is not only a prominent advancement in the
strategy in combination with a priority-based sched- realm of efficient computing, but also an impera-
uler and support vector machines (SVM). Machine tive necessity. The integration of machine learning is
learning techniques, such as support vector machines expected to play a crucial role in ensuring the effi-
(SVMs), demonstrate exceptional performance in cacy, efficiency, and reliability of cloud operations as
certain scenarios, while encountering challenges in the cloud ecosystem progresses and reaches a more
alternative contexts. The duration of waiting periods advanced stage.
for tasks is significantly impacted by the scheduling
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65 Quantum deep learning on driven trust-based routing
framework for IoT in the metaverse context
S. B. Goyal1,a, Anand Singh Rajawat2, Jaiteg Singh3 and Chawki Djeddi4
1
City University, Petaling Jaya, 46100, Malaysia
2
School of Computer Science & Engineering, Sandip University, Nashik, Maharashtra, India
3
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
4
Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Larbi Tebessi University, Tebessa, Algeria
4
LITIS Lab, Rouen University, Rouen, France
Abstract
As the Internet of Things (IoT) progresses towards the concept of the metaverse, it becomes evident that a complex network
of interconnected devices and services emerge, hence demanding innovative strategies for routing and ensuring security. This
study presents a novel architecture that utilizes quantum deep learning techniques to construct a trust-based routing mecha-
nism for IoT landscape within the metaverse. The architecture combines the variational quantum eigensolver (VQE) and
quantum annealing (QA) to achieve this objective. The VQE algorithm, commonly utilized for the purpose of determining
the lowest energy state of quantum systems, is being applied in this study to model trust levels. These trust levels are based
on the historical and real-time interactions of devices. Simultaneously, the proficient professionals at quality assurance (QA)
employ these confidence levels to dynamically construct ideal routing paths. The integration of quantum algorithms and
conventional deep learning methods has dual benefits of safeguarding data privacy and enhancing routing efficiency. This
integration enables the system to efficiently tackle the unique issues presented by the expansive digital environment known
as the metaverse. Based on the first data, it is anticipated that there will be a significant decrease in malicious routing at-
tempts, enhanced throughput, and increased network robustness. The findings presented in this study illustrate the potential
of quantum deep learning to significantly transform future practices in metaverse IoT routing.
Keywords: Quantum machine learning, variational quantum eigensolver (VQE), quantum annealing (QA), trust-based rout-
ing, Internet of Things (IoT), metaverse infrastructure
Introduction Quantum computing is a promising avenue for
addressing the complex challenges of the metaverse,
The concept of the metaverse, often envisioned as a
as it has the capacity to do advanced computations at
vast and comprehensive digital universe, is currently
previously deemed impractical speeds. The category
undergoing rapid development and realization. The
of quantum computing encompasses the variational
Internet of Things (IoT) holds the potential to estab-
quantum eigensolver (VQE) and quantum annealing
lish a seamless connection between physical objects
(QA) algorithms. The trustworthiness of IoT devices
and virtual entities, thereby bridging the gap between
can be assessed and analyzed by including historical
our tangible reality and the digital realm. The inte-
interactions and real-time data, leveraging the capabil-
gration of a growing number of IoT devices into the
ities of VQE in accurately estimating the ground states
metaverse results in a heightened level of complexity
of quantum systems. However, QA can be utilized to
in the underlying communication networks. Ensuring
identify dependable and effective routing paths due to
both security and efficiency in data routing is of para-
its widely recognized optimizing capabilities.
mount significance within this intricate context.
In this study, we provide a novel routing architecture
While existing routing protocols and frameworks
for IoT in the metaverse that is built on trust. Our pro-
have proven effective in smaller settings, they may
posed design integrates quantum techniques with the
encounter difficulties in handling the immense scale
pattern recognition and predictive modeling capabili-
and intricate nature of the metaverse. The need for
ties of deep learning. The present section serves as an
a routing method that is dynamic, adaptable, and
initial foundation for the ensuing analysis of the partic-
highly secure arises from the unexpected behavior of
ulars, practical application, and potential ramifications
devices and the probable presence of hostile entities.
of this innovative approach. Various metaverse worlds
In this discussion, we present quantum deep learn-
in order to increase global interoperability and connec-
ing, a potent integration of quantum computing tech-
tivity, enabling a unified yet diverse digital ecosystem.
niques with deep learning frameworks.
a
drsbgoyal@[Link]
510 Quantum deep learning on driven trust-based routing framework for IoT in the metaverse context
Related work of computation, communication, and optimization in
the post-2030 era (Table 65.1).
Lokes et al. (2022) embarked down the trajectory of
employing variational quantum circuits to integrate
the realms of quantum computing and deep reinforce- Methodology
ment learning. The main objective of their research, A methodology for a quantum deep learning VQE +
to be showcased at the TQCEBT 2022 conference, is quantum annealing (QA))-driven trust-based routing
to harness the enhanced computational capabilities of framework for IoT in the metaverse context:
quantum computers in order to address challenges in
reinforcement learning. The utilization of variational Step 1: Data collection and preparation:
quantum circuits presents a novel aspect, offering the Prior to delving into the metaverse ecosystem, it is
possibility to address issues pertaining to the scalabil- imperative to obtain pertinent information pertaining
ity and efficiency of classical algorithms 1. to IoT. Several instances of such information include:
The quantum path kernel, a variation of the neural The topic of discussion pertains to the location and
tangent kernel, was proposed by Incudini et al. (2023). operation of IoT devices (Chen et al., 2020; Gera et
This variant incorporates deep quantum machine al., 2021).
learning techniques. Engaging in this practice offers The communication mechanisms employed by IoT
a theoretical foundation for the practical applications devices to interact with one other.
of machine learning algorithms based on quantum The interplay between security and trust within the
principles. Additionally, it establishes a comprehen- context of IoT devices (Liu et al., 2022).
sive framework for examining the training dynamics Subsequently, the acquired data can be inputted
of quantum neural networks in a general sense. into quantum deep learning frameworks. One poten-
The paper by Gupta et al. (2017) provided a com- tial step in the data analysis process is the normaliza-
prehensive examination of the interplay between tion of data and the removal of outliers.
quantum computing, deep learning, and artificial intel-
ligence. The research, presented at the International Step 2: VQE and QA algorithm development:
Conference on Emerging Technologies in Engineering The subsequent phase involves the development of
and Computer Science (IEMECON) in 2017, serves the VQE and QA algorithms required for the imple-
as a fundamental reference for understanding the mentation of trust-based routing. The VQE algorithm
interplay between quantum computing paradigms (Incudini et al., 2023) has the capability to replicate
and classical machine learning frameworks. the functionalities of IoT devices within the metaverse
Baliuka et al. (2023) examined the matter of sus- environment. The utilization of the quality assurance
ceptibilities in quantum systems from a novel per- algorithm can be employed to ascertain the optimal
spective. Deep learning was employed to orchestrate paths for devices in IoT ecosystem, owing to the
TEMPEST assaults on a quantum key distribution trust relationships established between these devices
(QKD) sender. Given the potential threats posed by (Gupta et al., 2023).
conventional machine learning techniques, our study
underscores the importance of ensuring the resilience Step 3: VQE and QA algorithm training:
and security of quantum systems. In order to optimize the performance of VQE and
A novel proposal was put forth by Suryotrisongko quantum approximate optimization algorithm, it
and Musashi (2021), which combine quantum deep is important to conduct training utilizing the data
learning and differential privacy inside a distinct obtained during the initial stage. This training pro-
framework. The strategy employed by the research- gramme aims to enhance the algorithms’ comprehen-
er’s aims to detect botnets utilizing domain genera- sion of the dependability of interconnected entities
tion algorithms (DGA). This method underscores the and their interactions inside the metaverse.
potential of hybrid models that integrate quantum and
classical methodologies, offering enhanced computa- Step 4: VQE and QA algorithm deployment:
tional efficiency and strong privacy safeguards. The The VQE and QA algorithms can subsequently
user’s text is too short to be rewritten academically. be used on IoT devices following their training. The
Jain et al. (2022) conducted an examination of the algorithms will thereafter be employed by the devices
prospective developments in quantum machine learn- to provide secure routing.
ing and their potential implications for quantum com-
munication networks. This study serves as a visionary Step 5: Monitoring and evaluation:
piece, offering a glimpse into potential future scenar- The evaluation and monitoring of the trust-based
ios and shedding light on the transformative impact routing framework powered by quantum learning will
that quantum technologies could have on the domains be conducted. In order to accomplish this objective,
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 511
Table 65.1 A comprehensive compilation of critical information from each study
Citation Methods Advantage Disadvantage Research gaps
Ren, et al. Quantum generative Quantum-enhanced image Limited to quantum Exploration on
(2020) adversarial learning processing capabilities. systems. Hardware diverse image
in quantum image Potential speedup in image limitations and types and real-
processing processing tasks noise can affect world applications.
performance Comparison with
classical algorithms in
terms of efficiency
Chen, et al. Variational quantum Integration of quantum Requires specialized More real-world
(2020) circuits for deep circuits with reinforcement quantum hardware. applications to
reinforcement learning learning. Potential speedup in Might be less effective evaluate practical
learning complex tasks than classical usability. Improved
approaches in some quantum circuit
scenarios architectures for
diverse RL tasks
Liu, et al. Inverse design Uses deep learning for Complex computation Research on
(2022) local-density-of- predicting quantum due to deep learning scalability of the
states via deep nanophotonic properties. integration. Reliability method. Exploration
learning in quantum Enhanced accuracy in and scalability issues of different deep
nanophotonics designing quantum systems in larger systems learning architectures
for better results
Incudini, et The quantum path A generalized approach Requires deep More empirical
al. (2023) kernel: A generalized for quantum machine understanding of studies on real-
neural tangent kernel learningoffers flexibility quantum mechanics. world applications.
for deep quantum and robustness in quantum Performance heavily Development of
machine learning computations dependent on the optimized algorithms
chosen parameters based on the quantum
path kernel
Gupta, et al. Quantum machine Integrates quantum Limited availability of More practical
(2017) learning-using computation with AI and quantum hardware. implementations
quantum computation DNNs. Potential to improve Initial challenges in and benchmarking
in artificial intelligence computational efficiency integrating quantum detailed analysis of
and deep neural and classical systems quantum advantages
networks over classical ML
it is important to collect pertinent data regarding optimization algorithm on IoT devices. The algo-
the decision-making process employed by devices in rithms have the potential to be deployed as a cloud-
selecting data routes, and subsequently analyze the hosted web service. An alternate approach involves
implications of such routing decisions on the overall executing the algorithms on local devices situated at
functionality and performance of IoT network. the edge, such as IoT devices (de Silva et al., 2022)
Additional considerations to take into account (Figure 65.1).
when utilizing this approach include: The application of the proposed methodology within
The VQE and QA algorithms can be implemented a metaverse context has the potential to enhance the
using either a hybrid quantum-classical approach or a security and reliability of IoT networks. To mitigate
purely quantum approach. The selection of the imple- potential security threats targeting IoT devices and
mentation strategy will be contingent upon various ensure their secure communication, the system utilizes
aspects, including the availability of resources and the quantum deep learning techniques to implement trust-
desired performance objectives (Li et al., 2022). based routing (Guan and Morris, 2022).
A diverse array of machine learning methodologies The subsequent expression is a trust-oriented rout-
can be employed for the training of VQE and quan- ing mechanism designed for IoT within the metaverse,
tum approximate optimization algorithms. The selec- leveraging quantum deep learning techniques such as
tion of the right machine learning method will depend VQE and QA.
on the specific characteristics and requirements of the
problem under consideration. R = f(VQE(QA(x)), T)
There are multiple methodologies available for the
implementation of VQE and quantum approximate where:
512 Quantum deep learning on driven trust-based routing framework for IoT in the metaverse context
the devices, the necessary resources they demand, and
the level of dependability exhibited by each individual
device.
Subsequently, the identification of the most opti-
mal and reliable pathway may be ascertained by the
use of the quantum deep learning method. The deter-
mination of a routing path’s cost might be based on
the relative locations of the devices involved and the
resources they demand. The amount of trust between
the gadgets can be evaluated based on their previous
experiences (Bouachir et al., 2022).
In order to ensure consistent and efficient routing
at all instances, it may be necessary to execute this
operation at each time interval.
This represents a singular potential implementa-
tion of a quantum deep learning algorithm for the
purpose of modeling trust-based routing within the
metaverse. There exist multiple possible approaches
for constructing both the procedure and the input
data.
The topic of quantum deep learning is character-
ized by a continuous development of novel methods.
There is a significant amount of investment and inter-
est surrounding the potential advancements in quan-
tum deep learning for trust-based routing (Brik et al.,
2023).
In the context of the metaverse, this paper pres-
ents a mathematical model for a trust-based routing
Figure 65.1 Details flow system in IoT, incorporating quantum deep learning
techniques (specifically, VQE + QA).
• R is the routing path Objective function:
• VQE is the variational quantum eigensolver
• QA is the quantum annealing minimize: J(r) = Σ_i^N w_i * d_i * T_i(r)
• x is the input data
• T is the trust matrix. where:
The equation provided can be utilized to represent • r is the routing vector
and simulate the input data, trust matrix, and routing • N is the number of IoT devices
path. The determination of cost-effective and reliable • wi is the weight of the $i$th IoT device
routing can be achieved through the utilization of • diis the distance between the $i$th IoT device
VQE and quantum approximate optimization algo- and the destination
rithms. A trust matrix can be derived by analyzing the • Ti(r) is the trust score of the $i$th IoT device on
historical behaviors of IoT devices. the routing path r
Below presented an exemplification of the equa- • Constraints:
tion that models trust-based routing in the metaverse • ri∈R, where R is the set of all possible routes
(Bujari et al., 2023). from the $i$th IoT device to the destination
Let’s imagine the metaverse is home to a network • ΣiNri=1
of IoT devices. Our objective is to develop a system
capable of consistently and effectively redirecting The objective of this function is to determine the
data across several devices. most optimal route for communication between a
The relationship among the data input, trust group of IoT devices, with the aim of minimizing
matrix, and selected routing path can be represented a combined value of journey distances and device
through the application of a quantum deep learning trust ratings. The process of prioritizing different IoT
algorithm. Inputs for the analysis may include data devices is accomplished by the utilization of weights.
pertaining to the present geographical positions of The importance and relevance of an IoT device
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 513
should be proportionate to its level of significance or The trust-based routing framework, which is pro-
resource abundance (El Saddik, 2023). pelled by quantum learning (VQE + QA), encounters
Trust scores are employed to ensure a secure and notable challenges:
reliable routing path. In the event that an IoT device
possesses a low trust score or is recognized as suscep- • In order to perform this task, it is important to
tible to attacks, it would be advisable to refrain from have access to a quantum computer.
transmitting data over said device. • The system is susceptible to interference caused
The presence of constraints ensures that each IoT by quantum computer noise.
device is exclusively utilized on a singular route. • Training the VQE and quantum approximate
A framework for quantum trust-based routing optimization algorithm, as well as encoding the
driven by VQE and question-answer (QA)-based deep routing problem into a quantum circuit, might
learning. pose significant challenges.
In order to tackle the optimization difficulty dis-
cussed earlier, we provide a trust-based routing Algorithm
architecture that is powered by quantum deep learn-
ing, namely the combination of VQE and quantum Initialize Quantum Deep Learning Environment:
annealing (QA). Initialize Quantum Circuit for VQE
One can employ a quantum circuit for the purpose Initialize Quantum Circuit for QA
of encoding the routing problem. In order to accom- Function VQE-Based_Trust_Modeling(device_
plish this task, it is possible to represent each IoT interactions_data):
node as a quantum bit (qubit) and each potential con- Use VQE to determine the ground state of device
nection as a trajectory inside the quantum circuit. The interactions
characteristics of a quantum circuit can be adjusted to Model trust levels based on historical and real-
accommodate considerations of trustworthiness and time interactions
relevance of IoT devices. Return trust_levels
The objective is to determine the ground state of a Function QA-Based_Routing_Optimization(trust_
quantum circuit using the VQE algorithm. The rout- levels, current_routing_paths):
ing solution that possesses the minimum energy state Use QA to find the optimal routing path based on
is considered to be optimal. trust_levels
The global minimum of the energy function can be Avoid paths with low trust_levels
determined via quantum annealing (QA). Given that Return optimal_routing_path
the VQE algorithm is limited to identifying local min- Function Quantum_Deep_Learning_
ima, this characteristic becomes crucial. Routing(device_interactions_data,
The advantages of employing a trust-based routing current_routing_paths):
system propelled by quantum learning, namely the trust_levels = VQE-Based_Trust_Modeling(device_
combination of VQE and quantum annealing (QA), interactions_data)
are significant. optimal_path = QA-Based_Routing_
The trust-based routing architecture that utilizes Optimization(trust_levels, current_routing_paths)
the quantum deep learning algorithm (VQE + QA)
presents several advantages when compared to con- If optimal_path is valid:
ventional routing methods: Route data through optimal_path
Else:
• Utilization of this approach proves to be more Flag for manual review or fallback to traditional
efficient in identifying the optimal routing alter- routing
native, particularly within extensive and intricate
network systems. Return routing_status
• Enhancing the safety and reliability of routing On IoT Device Data Request in Metaverse:
can be achieved by considering the trust scores device_interactions_data = Fetch historical and
associated with IoT devices. real-time interactions
• The system exhibits enhanced resilience to varia- current_routing_paths = Fetch available paths for
tions in both traffic volume and network topol- data routing
ogy.
routing_status = Quantum_Deep_Learning_
Challenges encountered in the trust-based routing Routing(device_interactions_data,
framework for quantum deep learning (VQE + QA). current_routing_paths)
514 Quantum deep learning on driven trust-based routing framework for IoT in the metaverse context
Table 65.2 Simulation parameters and quantum parameters.
Parameter Description Possible values/range
Quantum parameters
Qubits Number of quantum bits used in the quantum e.g., 4, 8, 16, 32, ...
processor
Variational form The choice of variational form or ansatz in VQE UCCSD, Ry, Rz, RyRz, custom ...
Optimizer Classical optimization algorithm used in VQE COBYLA, L-BFGS-B, SPSA, etc.
Entanglement Specifies how qubits are entangled in the Linear, full, circular, custom
quantum circuit
Max iterations (VQE) The maximum number of iterations for VQE e.g., 100, 500, 1000
convergence
Quantum annealing schedule The annealing time or schedule Linear, quadratic, custom
Annealing time Duration of the annealing process e.g., 10 ms, 20 ms, 50 ms
IoT & metaverse parameters
Number of IoT devices Total number of IoT devices in the metaverse e.g., 100, 500, 1000, 10k
simulation
Connectivity model The model dictating how IoT devices are Random, scale-free, small-world, grid
interconnected
Trust evaluation interval How often the trust value for a route or device e.g., 10 s, 60 s, 5 min
is re-evaluated
Trust threshold Minimum trust value required for a route to be e.g., 0.5, 0.7, 0.9
considered valid
Initial trust value Initial trust assigned to devices/routes e.g., 0.5, 1.0
Trust decay rate Rate at which trust value degrades over time e.g., 0.01, 0.05 per minute
without positive reinforcement
Simulation parameters
Simulation time Total time for which the simulation is run e.g., 1 hour, 24 hours
Data packet generation rate Rate at which data packets are generated by IoT e.g., 1 packet/s, 10 packets/s
devices
Malicious node ratio Percentage of nodes that behave maliciously or e.g., 5%, 10%, 20%
unpredictably
Routing protocol The routing protocol employed (with or Classical, quantum-enhanced
without quantum trust considerations)
Traffic model The pattern or model dictating data traffic Uniform, bursty, cyclic
generation
computing and the IoT have the potential to induce
If routing_status is successful:
a shift in both the overall framework and particular
Continue data exchange
characteristics. Furthermore, it is important to con-
Else:
sider that diverse criteria may be required to address
Handle routing error
different research inquiries and objectives.
In general, the results of several simulation runs
Results analysis employing diverse parameter settings are commonly
The consideration of quantum computing and the IoT consolidated and juxtaposed within a “Results anal-
is crucial when determining simulation parameters ysis” table. The primary objective of this table is to
that are special to the metaverse, given the complexity visually depict the impact of different simulation
of the system. Table 65.2 presented a comprehensive parameters on the ultimate outcomes. Table 65.3
tabular presentation encompassing several crucial ele- illustrates the system under consideration.
ments that warrant careful consideration. An analysis of the recently introduced columns –
Factors such as specific requirements, technologi- Each set of simulation parameters is assigned a dis-
cal advancements, and advancements in quantum tinct identification.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 515
Table 65.3 Results analysis
Experiment Qubits Variational Optimizer IoT Connectivity Trust Average Successful Detected
# form devices model threshold packet routes (%) malicious
latency (ms) nodes
1 4 UCCSD COBYLA 100 Random 0.7 50 95 4
2 4 Ry COBYLA 100 Random 0.7 45 97 3
3 8 UCCSD SPSA 500 Scale-free 0.7 60 93 20
Average packet latency – This metric denotes the integration of IoT devices becomes increasingly
the average duration required for a packet to go embedded within its structure. This quantum deep
from its point of origin to its ultimate destination. learning-driven approach sets the stage for the devel-
A lower numerical value corresponds to improved opment of future routing frameworks that are secure,
performance. efficient, and based on trust. It offers the potential
Successful routes (%) – Taking into consideration for the harmonious coexistence of numerous devices
the trust-based framework, this particular indication and services inside the constantly evolving metaverse,
provides insight into the percentage of data packets thereby ensuring a dynamic and resilient infrastruc-
that successfully reached their intended destination. A ture for digital interactions
bigger share corresponds to increased reliability and
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66 Advancing network security paradigms integrating
quantum computing models for enhanced protections
Anand Singh Rajawat1, S. B. Goyal2,a, Chaman Verma3 and Jaiteg Singh4
1
School of Computer Science & Engineering, Sandip University, Nashik, Maharashtra, India
2
City University, Petaling Jaya, 46100, Malaysia
Faculty of Informatics, Department of Media and Educational Informatics, Eötvös Loránd University, 1053 Budapest,
3
Hungary
4
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
Abstract
This study investigates the incorporation of quantum computing models into established network security paradigms in
order to bolster defense mechanisms against emerging cyber threats. The emergence of quantum computing poses a poten-
tial threat to the effectiveness of conventional cryptographic techniques, hence demanding a fundamental transformation
in the field of network security. Our study focuses on exploring the use of quantum algorithms and quantum key distribu-
tion (QKD) mechanisms to enhance encryption and ensure secure communications. The review commences by providing a
comprehensive examination of the fundamental concepts of quantum computing and its potential ramifications for the field
of cybersecurity. Next, we proceed to explore particular quantum algorithms that provide resilient encryption solutions,
surpassing classical equivalents in terms of both security and efficiency. This study delves deeper into the obstacles encoun-
tered during the introduction of quantum technologies and the potential ramifications they may have on network security
infrastructure. By conducting simulations and theoretical evaluations, we provide evidence to support the effectiveness of
quantum-enhanced security models in preventing advanced cyber-attacks. The results of our study indicate that the imple-
mentation of quantum computing models is not only viable but also essential for the progression of network security in the
contemporary digital age
Keywords: Quantum computing, network security, quantum algorithms, quantum key distribution (QKD), cybersecurity,
cryptographic methods
Introduction standards RSA and ECC, which now serve as the foun-
dation for encryption protocols, face the possibility
In the current epoch characterized by the centrality
of becoming obsolete due to the advent of quantum
of digital information in global communication and
computers. These advanced computing systems pos-
business, the significance of network security has
sess the capability to decrypt RSA and ECC encryp-
reached unprecedented levels. The expeditious evolu-
tions far faster than their classical counterparts. With
tion of cyber threats calls for a fundamental change
the recognition of the imminent threat, the objective
in our approach towards network security. The emer-
of this study is to examine and suggest approaches
gence of quantum computing has introduced possible
for the incorporation of quantum computing models
flaws to traditional encryption systems that were pre-
inside network security frameworks. The objective is
viously considered impervious. This study explores
to not alone mitigate the risks brought forth by quan-
the incorporation of quantum computing models into
tum computing, but also to leverage its capabilities
the domain of network security, potentially leading
in order to strengthen network defenses. This paper
to a transformative impact on data and communica-
investigates the concept of quantum key distribution
tion protection within the digital sphere. The advent
(QKD), a cryptographic protocol (Ceylan and Yılmaz,
of quantum computing marks the dawn of a novel era
2021) that leverages principles from quantum physics
in computational capabilities. In contrast to conven-
to establish a secure communication channel, hence
tional computers that operates on binary bits (0s and
ensuring resistance against interception or eavesdrop-
1s), quantum computers (Mukherjee and Kumar Barik,
ping. Additionally, our research encompasses the field
2020) employ quantum bits, or qubits, which enable
of post-quantum cryptography, which entails the
the representation and processing of intricate datas-
creation and refinement of cryptographic algorithms
ets with more efficiency. The substantial advancement
that offer robust security against both quantum and
in computer capacity presents a notable challenge
classical computers. This focus ensures a smooth and
to traditional encryption techniques. The encryption
a
drsbgoyal@[Link]
518 Advancing network security paradigms integrating quantum computing models
uninterrupted transition in the face of the increasing in order to safeguard quantum networks against
prevalence of quantum computing. The incorpora- advanced cyber threats. The research presents a dis-
tion of quantum computing into the realm of net- tinctive methodology for analyzing vulnerabilities in
work security presents inherent difficulties. Careful quantum internet, so offering a useful contribution
consideration is required for the issues pertaining to towards the advancement of secure quantum commu-
scalability, interoperability with existing infrastruc- nication systems.
ture, and the current early stage of development in The study did by Kato et al., (2021) introduces an
quantum technology. The objective of this paper is innovative approach to quantum network coding,
to tackle the aforementioned difficulties by provid- which aims to improve the security and efficiency of
ing valuable insights on strategies to overcome them, quantum networks. The researchers have devised a
ultimately leading to the attainment of a more robust quantum network coding protocol that ensures secu-
and secure digital landscape. As we find ourselves on rity in a single-shot manner. This protocol is specifi-
the cusp of a quantum revolution, it becomes crucial cally designed to be very efficient for multiple unicast
to reconsider and reorganize our existing network networks, which are commonly seen in quantum
security paradigms. This research aims to provide a communication systems.
scholarly contribution to the ongoing discussion by Diamanti’s (2019) research showcases the tangible
presenting a comprehensive plan for incorporating benefits associated with the use of photonic systems in
quantum computing models into the field of network the field of quantum computing, particularly in terms
security. This integration is expected to enhance the of bolstering security measures and improving oper-
security and resilience of digital infrastructure, partic- ational efficiency. This study presents a comprehen-
ularly in light of the ever-evolving landscape of cyber sive examination of the practical implementations of
threats. quantum technology in the realm of network security.
It emphasizes the discernible advantages and progres-
Related work sions that quantum systems can provide in compari-
son to classical systems.
In recent years, there have been notable breakthroughs Table 66.1 presents a concise overview of signifi-
in the science of quantum computing and its utiliza- cant research conducted in the domain of quantum
tion in network security. The subsequent scholarly computing, specifically focusing on its implications
articles offer significant perspectives on diverse facets for network security. Every study makes a substantial
of quantum network security, encompassing the eval- contribution to the progress of quantum computing
uation of security measures and the implementation in this field, while also emphasizing the necessity for
of these measures in real-world industrial settings. additional research, specifically in terms of practical
The paper presented by Zhou et al. (2022) thor- implementations and wider applications.
oughly evaluates the security aspects pertaining to
quantum networks. This study explores the essential Methodology
techniques employed in managing cryptographic keys,
which play a pivotal role in preserving the security An investigation into the fundamentals of quantum
and reliability of quantum communication networks. computing is as follows:
The research conducted by the author centers around Quantum principles: The essay by Zhou et al. (2022)
the examination of vulnerabilities and threat models aims to provide an introduction to the fundamental
that are unique to quantum networks. Their primary principles of quantum computing, with a particu-
objective is to establish a comprehensive framework lar emphasis on features that are highly pertinent
for the assessment and improvement of security mea- to the field of security. The discussion will primar-
sures in these networks. ily revolve on two key concepts: superposition and
The study by Ahmad et al. (2021) investigates the entanglement.
utilization of quantum computing for the purpose of
augmenting security measures inside the Industrial Quantum principles
Internet of Things (IIoT) domain. This paper aims The purpose of this paper is to provide an introduc-
to discuss the escalating apprehensions around the tory overview of the field of quantum computing.
security of networked devices inside industrial envi- Quantum computing is a rapidly evolving area of
ronments. The authors suggest employing quantum research that explores the principles and applications
computing to enhance the security of these networks. of quantum mechanics in the context of information
The study by Satoh et al. (2021) examines potential processing.
vulnerabilities and threats targeting the infrastructure Definition and overview: Quantum computing is a
of quantum internet. The statement underscores the computational paradigm that leverages quantum-
importance of implementing strong security measures mechanical principles, such as superposition and
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 519
Table 66.1 Comparative table.
Citation Methods Advantages Disadvantages Research gap
Li, et al. (2021) Creating an OSI-like Structures a scalable High implementation Implementation and
quantum Internet quantum Internet for complexity and integration with
paradigm security and efficiency resource needs current infrastructures
require more
investigation
Moreolo, et al. Planning efficient Increases optical Limited to optical Applying to networks
2023) quantum-secure network security with networks; scalability other than optical ones
optical network quantum methods concerns across
communications networks
Aji, et al. 2021 Examining QKD Helps comprehend Concentrates on Research on real-world
network simulation and construct QKD simulation, not implementation issues
systems simulations by application needed
providing an overview
Tong, et al., 2022 Big data research on Combines quantum Limitations in route Route and line model
quantum secure route security with large data and line model picture photo encryption
models and image to improve encryption encryption limitations
encryption
Das and Kule, A new quantum Increases quantum Needs neural network Exploration of simpler,
2022 cryptography error cryptography error integration, which may more efficient quantum
correction method correction reliability be complicated cryptography error
employing artificial correction algorithms
neural networks
entanglement, to execute computational tasks on data Entanglement
(Ahmad et al., 2021). Understanding entanglement: Entanglement is a
quantum phenomena characterized by the intercon-
Contrast with classical computing: In the field of
nectedness of pairs or groups of particles, such that
classical computing, data undergoes processing
the state of one particle is intrinsically correlated with
through the utilization of binary bits, which consist
the state of another particle, irrespective of the spatial
of two distinct values: 0s and 1s. Quantum comput-
separation between them (Kato et al., 2021).
ing employs quantum bits, commonly referred to as
qubits, which possess the unique ability to exist in Implications for network security: The utilization
several states simultaneously due to the phenomenon of entangled qubits facilitates QKD, an encrypted
of superposition. communication technique that allows two entities
to generate a mutually shared random secret key for
Superposition the purpose of message encryption and decryption.
Fundamentals of superposition: A qubit possesses Quantum key distribution is considered to possess
the unique ability to concurrently embody the states theoretical security because to the inherent disruption
of both 0 and 1, in contrast to a traditional bit. The of entanglement and subsequent detection that occurs
aforementioned concept is commonly referred to as when any unauthorized effort is made to intercept the
superposition. Quantum computers possess the capa- key.
bility to concurrently process an extensive range of Quantum advantage: Discuss how quantum comput-
potential outcomes. ing offers computational advantages over classical
Relevance to security: The utilization of superposi- computing in specific security scenarios.
tion in the field of network security allows quantum Quantum computing signifies a fundamental trans-
computers to effectively address intricate challenges formation in processing capacities (Diamanti, 2019),
with significantly more efficiency compared to clas- presenting notable benefits in comparison to tradi-
sical computers. The aforementioned capability has tional computing, particularly within the domain of
great importance in tasks such as cryptographic key network security. In contrast to conventional comput-
generation and decryption, rendering certain classi- ing systems, which operate on binary digits (0s and
cal encryption techniques susceptible to compromise 1s), quantum computers employ quantum bits, com-
(Satoh et al., 2021). monly referred to as qubits. The inherent disparity
520 Advancing network security paradigms integrating quantum computing models
between quantum computers and traditional comput- the identification of possible security concerns with
ers enables quantum computers to effectively handle enhanced precision compared to traditional systems.
intricate information with significantly enhanced effi- The field of secure multi-party computation (SMPC)
ciency. The potential of quantum computing to revo- also shows potential for advancements through the
lutionize cryptographic systems renders it a highly utilization of quantum computing. Secure multi-
significant advantage in the realm of network security. party computation (SMPC) (A New Error Correction
Classical cryptography (Li et al., 2021; Brar et al. 2022), Technique in Quantum Cryptography Using Artificial
which encompasses prominent techniques such as Neural Networks 2022) enables the collaborative com-
RSA and ECC, is predicated upon the computational putation of a function by many parties, ensuring the
complexity associated with factoring big numbers or privacy of their respective inputs. Although classical
solving discrete logarithm problems. The aforemen- solutions are characterized by high computational
tioned systems, albeit resistant to conventional com- intensity and inefficiency, quantum computing has
puter attacks, may be susceptible to compromise by the potential to perform these operations with greater
a quantum computer employing Shor’s algorithm. speed and security, hence ensuring strong security
The aforementioned technique exhibits significantly for collaborative computational tasks. Finally, the
improved efficiency in factoring huge numbers when utilization of quantum computing has the potential
compared to the most advanced algorithms now to contribute to the advancement of artificial intel-
available on classical computers. Consequently, this ligence (AI) and machine learning models specifically
advancement poses a significant threat to the secu- designed for enhancing network security. Quantum-
rity of existing cryptographic systems. Therefore, the enhanced machine learning algorithms provide supe-
advancement of quantum computing (Moreolo et al., rior accuracy and efficiency in pattern analysis and
2023) requires the creation of novel cryptographic identification of possible security concerns compared
protocols, sometimes referred to as post-quantum to classical techniques. The possession of this skill has
cryptography, that possess the ability to withstand the potential to play a vital role in mitigating the esca-
quantum attacks. Quantum computing exhibits nota- lating complexity of cyberattacks. The incorporation
ble benefits in the realm of secure communications. of quantum computing models into network security
Quantum key distribution is a cryptographic proto- paradigms presents significant benefits in compari-
col that leverages the fundamental principles of quan- son to traditional computing. Quantum computing is
tum physics to establish a highly secure and robust poised to significantly contribute to the advancement
communication channel. In contrast to conventional of network security, encompassing several aspects
key distribution techniques, which are susceptible to such as reinforcing cryptographic systems against
interception and decryption through the utilization quantum attacks, enhancing secure communications,
of significant processing resources, QKD (Aji et al., and improving anomaly detection. As the advance-
2021) leverages the inherent quantum characteristics ment of this technology progresses, it becomes cru-
of particles such as photons to identify any potential cial for organizations to adjust and make necessary
eavesdropping activities throughout the transmission arrangements for the quantum age, in order to safe-
process. When an individual attempts to observe the guard their networks from emerging cyber risks.
quantum states of these particles without authoriza-
tion, the state of the particle undergoes a transforma- Quantum-enhanced security models
tion as a result of the no-cloning theorem in quantum Quantum key distribution (QKD): This paper delves
mechanics. This alteration serves as a signal to the into the practical application of QKD as a means to
communicating entities, indicating the existence of establish unbreakable encryption, hence guaranteeing
an unauthorized third party. Quantum key distri- the security of communication lines.
bution is rendered fundamentally secure against all Quantum key distribution is an advanced technique
forms of computational advancements, including the within the field of cybersecurity that gives a promising
advent of quantum computing. In addition, the uti- solution for encryption, with the potential to provide
lization of quantum computing has the potential to an invulnerable method of securing data. The incor-
greatly augment network security by enabling more poration of this technology into evolving network
effective anomaly detection mechanisms. Classical security frameworks, especially when integrated with
computers have challenges when confronted with quantum computing models, signifies the arrival of a
the immense quantities (Tong et al., 2022) of data novel era characterized by fortified defense mecha-
and intricate patterns that are essential for achiev- nisms against progressively intricate cyber risks. The
ing proficient anomaly detection in extensive net- fundamental basis of QKD is rooted in the concepts
works. Quantum computers provide the capability to of quantum physics, with a primary focus on utiliz-
do intricate computations and concurrently analyze ing the characteristics of photons to enable secure
extensive datasets, hence enabling them to expedite communication. The fundamental principle at the
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 521
center of this discussion is the Heisenberg Uncertainty scale. An additional aspect of interest pertains to
Principle, which posits that the process of observing the incorporation of QKD systems into pre-existing
a quantum system inherently modifies its state. The network infrastructures. This encompasses both the
aforementioned principle holds significant impor- physical layer of networks and the establishment of
tance in the context of QKD (Wang et al., 2020), as novel protocols and standards capable of accommo-
it signifies that any endeavor to intercept confiden- dating the distinct demands of quantum key distribu-
tial information can be identified, as it will inevita- tion. The establishment of a safe and interoperable
bly alter the state of the observed quantum system. framework for quantum communication necessi-
The BB84 protocol, which was devised by Charles tates the essential involvement of industry, academia,
Bennett and Gilles Brassard in 1984, is widely recog- and government organizations through collabora-
nized as one of the most frequently employed QKD tive efforts. The incorporation of QKD (Djordjevic,
methods. In this experimental procedure, two enti- 2020) into the progression of network security para-
ties, typically denoted as Alice and Bob, engage in digms shows great potential in attaining impregnable
the exchange of photons that exhibit polarization in encryption amongst the ever-evolving landscape of
one of four distinct orientations. The aforementioned cyber threats. Despite the existence of obstacles in
polarizations serve as discrete units of information, achieving widespread adoption, the ongoing progress
specifically denoted as binary digits, encompass- in quantum technologies and the combined endeav-
ing both 0 and 1 values. The fundamental aspect of ors across diverse sectors are gradually surmounting
security within this protocol lies in the utilization of these problems. This progress signifies a noteworthy
two distinct bases for measuring polarizations. These advancement in the pursuit of secure global commu-
bases are selected in a random and independent man- nication networks.
ner by both participating entities. The uncertainty of Quantum algorithms: This study aims to develop
the basis used for measurements by an eavesdropper and analyze quantum algorithms with the potential to
(referred to as Eve) results in any interception and improve threat detection and response systems.
measurement of photons causing a disturbance to
their state. This disturbance serves as an indication Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) - BB84 Protocol
to Alice and Bob, the communicating parties, about
the presence of an eavesdropper. The incorporation Initialization
of QKD into sophisticated network security systems Alice and Bob agree on two sets of basis vec-
assumes paramount importance in the age of quan- tors, say rectilinear (+) and diagonal (×).
tum computing. Traditional encryption techniques,
such as RSA, may have possible vulnerabilities when Key Generation by Alice
confronted with quantum computers. Theoretically, For each bit of the key she wants to send:
these advanced computing systems have the capabil- a. Alice randomly chooses a basis (+ or ×) and
ity to compromise conventional cryptographic sys- a bit value (0 or 1).
tems in considerably less time compared to classical b. She prepares a qubit in the state corre-
computers. Nevertheless, QKD provides a heightened sponding to her choice.
level of security that is theoretically impervious to (e.g., if she chooses + basis and bit 0, she
quantum attacks. This is due to the fact that the secu- prepares the qubit in state |0〉).
rity of QKD is not contingent upon computational c. She sends the qubit to Bob.
complexity, but rather on the basic principles gov-
erning quantum physics. The use of QKD in practi- Measurement by Bob
cal settings poses numerous obstacles. Two primary For each qubit received:
issues in the field of QKD are the practical deploy- a. Bob randomly chooses a basis (+ or ×) to
ment range and the generation and distribution rate measure the qubit.
of cryptographic keys. Conventional QKD systems b. He measures the qubit and records the out-
encounter (Al-Mohammed et al., 2021) a constraint in come (0 or 1).
terms of the maximum distance over which quantum
states may be preserved without experiencing dete- Basis Reconciliation
rioration, often spanning a few hundred kilometers a. After all qubits are transmitted and mea-
when transmitted via fiber-optic cables. Nevertheless, sured, Alice and Bob communicate over a
new technological developments, such as the imple- classical channel.
mentation of quantum repeaters and the utilization b. They reveal to each other which basis they
of satellite-based QKD, are expanding the limits of used for each qubit, but not the bit values.
quantum-secure communication networks, thus facil- c. They discard any bits where they used dif-
itating their potential deployment on a worldwide ferent bases.
522 Advancing network security paradigms integrating quantum computing models
d. The remaining bits form the raw key. // Pseudo-Code for Quantum Algorithm in Threat
Detection using Cryptography
Key Sifting (Optional)
Alice and Bob can further process the raw key QuantumAlgorithm EnhancedThreatDetection:
for errors or eavesdropping detection:
a. They may decide to disclose a portion of // Initialize Quantum Registers
their key to check for discrepancies. Initialize qubits in superposition to represent all
b. If the error rate is acceptable, they proceed; possible data states
otherwise, they abort the protocol. Initialize ancillary qubits for intermediate
calculations
Final Key // Apply Quantum Cryptographic Algorithm
a. The remaining undisclosed part of the raw Function QuantumCryptography():
key, after any necessary error correction Apply Quantum Fourier Transform (QFT) for
and privacy amplification, becomes the data encryption
shared secret key. Use entanglement and superposition for secure
data sharing
The objective of this research is to devise quantum Return encrypted data state
algorithms that can significantly improve threat
detection capabilities. // Quantum Threat Detection Routine
Function
Algorithm design: The development of quantum algo- QuantumThreatDetection(encryptedData):
rithms for threat detection (Djordjevic, I. B. et al. , For each data sample in encryptedData:
2022) entails the formulation of computational pro- Apply Grover’s algorithm to search for
cedures capable of efficiently processing extensive anomalies
datasets, hence enabling the identification of possible If anomaly detected:
threats with enhanced precision compared to conven- Mark the data sample as a potential threat
tional algorithms.
Figure 66.1 Chronological order of face shield development
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 523
Return list of potential threats pose significant difficulties for unauthorized entities
// Main Execution attempting to decipher the data in the absence of the
Function Execute(): corresponding quantum key or algorithm employed
encryptedData = QuantumCryptography() in the encryption procedure.
potentialThreats = QuantumThreatDetection( In order to obtain the original data, the encrypted
encryptedData) state undergoes the application of the inverse Quantum
Measure and collapse qubits to retrieve poten- Fourier Transform (IQFT) throughout (Mahdi, S. S. et
tial threats al., 2022) the decryption process. The equation for
Return potentialThreats decryption utilizing the Inverse Quantum Fourier
Transform (IQFT) can be expressed as in Equation (2)
// Execute the algorithm
result = [Link]() IQFT(QFT(|y〉)) = |y〉..(2)
Print(result)
Quantum threat detection: The utilization of Grover’s
Initialization: Quantum registers, also known as algorithm, a quantum search technique, enables an
qubits, are initially set in a superposition state, which efficient search through encrypted data in order to
encompasses the representation of all potential data identify potential dangers or anomalies.
states. Execution and measurement: The primary execution
Quantum cryptography: A function is employed to function is responsible for executing the cryptography
implement quantum cryptography techniques, such and threat detection functions. Ultimately, the qubits
as Quantum Fourier Transform (QFT), in order to undergo measurement in order to induce the collapse
encrypt the data. The implementation of this measure of their respective states and subsequently extract per-
guarantees the preservation of data security through- tinent data regarding potential hazards.
out the detection procedure (Geddada and Lakshmi, Quantum machine learning: Quantum machine learn-
2022). ing (QML) algorithms possess the capability to effi-
ciently process and analyze data in manners that are
The integration of Quantum Fourier Transform not practical for traditional computing systems. This
(QFT) into the advancement of network security par- enables the timely identification of advanced cyber
adigms, particularly in the context of incorporating threats, especially those concealed within extensive
quantum computing models for increased protection, datasets.
can be conceptualized by employing QFT in specific
applications of quantum algorithms. An example of In the domain of quantum machine learning
a potential application is within the realm of encryp- (QML) applied to network security, specifically in the
tion and decryption procedures, where the utilization realm of identifying intricate cyber risks within exten-
of QFT serves to modify quantum states in a manner sive datasets, it is vital to examine an equation that
that augments the level of security. The equation that embodies a quantum-empowered machine learning
serves to demonstrate the aforementioned principle is algorithm. The fundamental component of such an
illustrated below. algorithm generally encompasses a quantum adapta-
Let us consider a quantum state |y〉 that serves as tion of a conventional machine learning model, such
a representation for a sequence of data bits within a as a quantum neural network or a quantum decision
quantum encryption scheme. The utilization of quan- tree.
tum field theory (QFT) in the context of encryption The aforementioned equation exemplifies the fun-
can be expressed as in Equation (1). damental concept that the application of the inverse
quantum Fourier transform to a state that has under-
(1) gone the QFT results through the Equation (2) in the
retrieval of the original state |y〉. This observation
serves as evidence for the practicality of implement-
where, in equation (1) N is the number of qubits. | ing secure encryption and decryption inside quantum-
jk〉 are the basis states e2πijk⁄N represents the complex enhanced network security systems.
exponential fact. A simplified depiction of a quantum machine learn-
In the present situation, quantum field theory (QFT) ing algorithm designed for the purpose of threat iden-
is employed to encode the data into a quantum state, tification is as follows:
exhibiting a level of security that surpasses classical
methodologies. The intricate nature and interconnec- y(x) = ∪(q,X)|y0〉...(3)
tion brought about by quantum field theory (QFT)
524 Advancing network security paradigms integrating quantum computing models
where in Equation (3),
• y(x) is the quantum state representing the output
of the algorithm for an input data point x.
• U(q,x) is the unitary operation (quantum gate
The ratio between these durations provides an indi-
operation) applied to the quantum system. This
cation of the acceleration obtained by the utilization
operation is parameterized by q and is dependent
of quantum algorithms.
on the input data x.
• |0〉|y0〉 is the initial quantum state before any op-
eration is applied. Typically, this is a simple state (6)
like all qubits in the |0〉|0〉 state.
The fundamental component of a QML algorithm In Equation (6), the observed increase in performance
is the unitary operation U, which serves as the cen- is noteworthy, particularly when considering larger
tral element of the learning model, akin to the weights values of N. This is particularly relevant in network
and structure found in a classical neural network. The security contexts, where the necessity to scan exten-
optimization of these processes occurs during the sive datasets for threat detection is prevalent. Hence,
training phase with the objective of minimizing a loss the optimization of quantum search algorithms
function. In the domain of network security, this loss assumes significance in augmenting the efficacy and
function is typically associated with the accuracy of promptness of network security systems.
threat detection.
One notable benefit of utilizing QML (Dong, Y., Results
Zhou, et al., 2022) in this particular context is in its
capacity to expedite the processing and analysis of Simulation environment: Quantum computing simu-
extensive and intricate datasets in comparison to con- lations are employed to evaluate the proposed models
ventional algorithms. This is primarily attributed to within a controlled experimental setting.
the utilization of quantum superposition and entan- Speed and efficiency: This study aims to analyze the
glement, which enable enhanced computational capa- enhancements in processing speed and efficiency that
bilities. The acceleration provided by this technology arise from the utilization of quantum algorithms for
facilitates the timely identification of complex threats the purposes of threat detection and response.
that may otherwise go unnoticed or require a signifi- Accuracy in threat detection: This analysis aims
cant amount of time to be detected by conventional to assess the precision of quantum algorithms in
approaches. threat detection when compared to conventional
Optimization of quantum search algorithms – methodologies.
Quantum search algorithms, such as Grover’s algo- Encryption and data protection evaluates the effi-
rithm, has the capability to perform searches on cacy of quantum encryption techniques, such as
unsorted databases at an exponentially accelerated quantum key distribution (QKD), in augmenting the
rate compared to classical algorithms. The adaptation level of data security (Table 66.1).
of these strategies for network security has the poten-
tial to substantially decrease the duration required for Explanation of Table 66.1
threat detection.
In order to elucidate the optimization of quantum QuantumNetSim: This study examines the potential
search algorithms, such as Grover’s algorithm, within application of QML techniques in the detec-
the realm of network security, it is possible to con- tion of threats within virtual private networks
struct an equation that showcases the improvement in (VPNs), emphasizing the evaluation of accuracy
performance when compared to classical techniques. and speed as crucial performance indicators.
One notable example is Grover’s algorithm, which is CyberQ-virtual lab: This study examines the robust-
renowned for its capacity to do searches on unsorted ness of quantum cryptography within corporate
databases in O(N) time complexity, where N is the networks, with a specific emphasis on evaluating
total amount of objects included within the database. the effectiveness of encryption algorithms and the
In contrast, the traditional equivalent necessitates efficiency of quantum key exchange protocols.
O(N) time for doing the identical work. The optimi- Quantum-ready testbed: This study evaluates the fea-
zation equation in the context of network security can sibility of integrating quantum models into In-
be expressed as follows, where Equation (4 and 5) ternet of Things (IoT) networks, with a specific
Tquantum and Tclassical denote the respective durations of focus on examining compatibility and scalability
quantum and classical algorithms: aspects.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 525
Table 66.1 Encryption and data protection
Simulation Description Focus area Quantum model Network type Key metrics
environment used tested
QuantumNetSim A virtual simulation Quantum Quantum Virtual private Accuracy,
environment for evaluating threat machine learning networks speed, false
quantum computing detection algorithms (VPN) positives
network security techniques.
scenarios
CyberQ-virtual Testing quantum Quantum Quantum key Corporate Encryption
lab cryptography methods cryptography distribution networks strength, key
on a realistic network (QKD) exchange
infrastructure cybersecurity efficiency
simulation platform
Quantum-ready A hybrid environment that Integration Hybrid quantum- Internet of Compatibility,
testbed mixes classical and quantum and scalability classical Things (IoT) scalability,
computing features to algorithms networks performance
analyze the integration of impact
quantum models in existing
network topologies
Quantum cloud A cloud-based simulation Cloud Quantum Cloud Data
simulator framework for distributed network entanglement- networks protection,
network quantum algorithm security based protocols latency,
testing throughput
AI-quantum A quantum computing-AI Predictive Quantum neural Enterprise Predictive
framework environment for predictive analytics networks networks accuracy,
threat modeling and real- response
time security analytics time, anomaly
detection
Table 66.2 A comparative analysis of the performance of QML algorithms and standard (classical) machine.
Metric/algorithm Classical machine learning Quantum machine learning
Data processing speed
Time to analyze Large dataset 8 hours 15 minutes
Time to process complex queries 3 hours 20 minutes
Accuracy
Threat detection accuracy 85% 98%
False positive rate 10% 3%
Scalability
Performance with increased data Decreases by 20% Stable
Adaptability
Learning from new data types Moderate High
Response time to threats
Average response time 30 minutes 5 minutes
Quantum cloud simulator: This study places empha- terprise networks, facilitating the measurement
sis on the evaluation of quantum entanglement- of predicted accuracy and response time.
based protocols within cloud networks, specifi-
cally examining aspects related to data safety A comparative analysis of the performance of QML
and network performance measures. algorithms and standard (classical) machine learn-
AI-Quantum Framework: Integrating artificial intel- ing methods in the detection of sophisticated cyber
ligence (AI) with quantum computing enables threats (Table 66.2).
enhanced threat detection capabilities within en-
526 Advancing network security paradigms integrating quantum computing models
Explanation of Table 66.2 Adaptability: This pertains to the capacity of algo-
rithms to acquire knowledge from diverse and
Data processing speed: This statistic quantifies the
novel forms of data. Quantum algorithms dem-
temporal efficiency of different algorithms in
onstrate exceptional performance in this do-
the analysis of voluminous datasets and the ex-
main, exhibiting enhanced adaptability to novel
ecution of intricate queries. Quantum machine
data formats.
learning exhibits a notable speed advantage, as
Response time to threats: The aforementioned du-
it is capable of analyzing data in a considerably
ration is the mean period required for the al-
shorter duration compared to classical algo-
gorithm to provide a response subsequent to
rithms.
the detection of a potential danger. Quantum
Accuracy: This study assesses the efficacy of each al-
algorithms provide expedited response times,
gorithm in accurately detecting and classifying
a critical factor in efficiently addressing cyber
potential security risks. Quantum algorithms ex-
threats.
hibit enhanced precision and reduced incidence
of false positives owing to their capacity to ef- Table 66.3 presents a comparative analysis of classical
ficiently analyze intricate data patterns. and quantum search algorithms. The purpose of this
Scalability: As the volume of data expands, conven- analysis is to examine the differences between these
tional algorithms exhibit a tendency to experi- two types of algorithms in terms of their performance
ence decreased efficiency, however quantum and efficiency. The table provides a comprehensive
algorithms consistently maintain optimal perfor- overview of the key characteristics and features of
mance, hence showcasing their aptitude for man- classical and quantum search algorithms, allowing
aging extensive datasets. for a clear understanding of their respective strengths
Table 66.3 Comparative analysis of classical and quantum search algorithms.
Metric Classical algorithm Quantum algorithm (e.g., Grover’s algorithm)
Time to detect threat 30 minutes 2 minutes
Accuracy of threat detection 85% 95%
Data processed per second 5 GB/s 50 GB/s
Energy efficiency Moderate High
Table 66.4 A visual representation of the potential superiority of quantum algorithms.
Criteria Classical algorithm Quantum algorithm (e.g., Notes/comments
performance Grover’s) performance
Search speed Linear time complexity Quadratic speedup Quantum algorithms explore unsorted datasets
(Square root of N) exponentially quicker
Data scalability Decreases with large Remains efficient for Quantum algorithms scale with data without
datasets large datasets losing performance
Accuracy High (varies by High and consistent Quantum algorithms consistently detect threats
algorithm)
Resource High for large datasets Lower compared to Quantum computing uses less for similar tasks
utilization classical algorithms
Threat Varies (generally Significantly reduced Faster cyber threat detection due to efficient
detection time slower) search
Adaptability to Moderate High Quantum algorithms can quickly adapt to
new threats advanced cyberattacks
Quantum Not applicable Inherently resistant to Protects against quantum computing dangers
resilience quantum attacks
Implementation Low to moderate High (due to current Quantum algorithm implementation is
complexity stage of quantum tech) complicated and requires expertise
Energy Moderate Higher Quantum computers can perform complex
efficiency calculations with less energy
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 527
Table 66.5 Measurements of electronic components.
Parameter Classical Algorithm Performance Quantum Algorithm (e.g., Grover's) Performance
Search Speed Linear time complexity Quadratic speedup (Square root of N)
Data Scalability Decreases with large datasets Remains efficient for large datasets
Accuracy High (varies by algorithm) High and consistent
Resource Utilization High for large datasets Lower compared to classical algorithms
Threat Detection Time Varies (generally slower) Significantly reduced
Adaptability to New Threats Moderate High
Quantum Resilience Not applicable Inherently resistant to quantum attacks
Implementation Complexity Low to moderate High (due to current stage of quantum tech)
Energy Efficiency Moderate Higher
and limitations. By comparing and contrasting these research has examined the potential of quantum com-
algorithms, researchers. puting to revolutionize threat detection and response
mechanisms, highlighting the significance of quan-
Explanation of Table 66.3 tum algorithms as a crucial answer in the continu-
ous fight against more advanced cyber threats. The
Time to detect threat: The utilization of the quantum
field of quantum computing has exhibited remarkable
algorithm yields a substantial decrease in the
computational powers that hold the promise of fun-
duration required to identify potential risks in
damentally transforming our approach to network
network security, hence enhancing its efficacy as
security. The utilization and advancement of quantum
a tool for promptly detecting and responding to
machine learning algorithms have provided insights
attacks in real-time.
into a prospective era where the identification and
Accuracy of threat detection: The accuracy of threat
mitigation of cyber threats can be accomplished with
detection has seen a discernible enhancement, a
unparalleled efficiency and precision. The remarkable
critical factor in the mitigation of false positives
aspect of quantum algorithms is in their capacity to
and false negatives within the realm of network
handle and analyze extensive datasets in manners that
security.
are unattainable for classical computers. The afore-
Data processed per second: The quantum algorithm
mentioned feature not only facilitates the timely iden-
exhibits a notable capacity for processing data at
tification of complex threats, particularly those that
an accelerated pace, indicating its potential for
are concealed within extensive data streams, but also
effectively managing extensive network data, a
amplifies the scalability and agility of network security
prevalent occurrence in contemporary network
systems. Furthermore, the incorporation of quantum
settings.
models into the realm of network security serves not
Energy efficiency: Quantum algorithms include inher-
only to uphold alignment with the progressing intri-
ent computational efficiency and tend to exhibit
cacy of cyber dangers, but also to proactively surpass
greater energy efficiency, so making them a sig-
them. The advent of quantum cryptography, exempli-
nificant factor to consider in the context of sus-
fied as QKD, presents an encryption technique that
tainable computing practices.
is potentially impervious to decryption, hence offer-
ing a degree of security that is presently unachievable
A visual representation of the potential superiority of
through classical cryptographic methodologies. The
quantum algorithms over classical algorithms in the
significance of this improvement is particularly evi-
domains of search and threat detection is illustrated
dent in a contemporary context where conventional
in Table 66.4. This advantage is expected to grow
encryption techniques are progressively susceptible
as quantum computing technology progresses and
to quantum-level risks. Nevertheless, similar to other
becomes more widely available.
nascent technologies, the process of incorporating
quantum computing into network security encoun-
Conclusion ters several obstacles. The domain of quantum com-
The incorporation of quantum computing models puting is currently in its early developmental phase,
into network security paradigms represents a nota- and the practical deployment of this technology on a
ble progression in the domain of cyber defense. This large scale continues to present significant challenges.
528 Advancing network security paradigms integrating quantum computing models
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67 Optimizing 5G and beyond networks: A comprehensive
study of fog, grid, soft, and scalable computing models
S. B. Goyal1,a, Anand Singh Rajawat2, Jaiteg Singh3 and Tony Jan4
1
City University, Petaling Jaya, 46100, Malaysia
2
School of Computer Science & Engineering, Sandip University, Nashik, Maharashtra, India
3
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
4
Department of Information Technology, Torrens University, Australia
Abstract
The emergence of 5G technology and the excitement around future networks beyond 5G have marked the onset of a novel
phase in digital connectivity. This phase is distinguished by exceptionally fast speeds, low delays in data transmission, and
the ability to connect a vast number of devices simultaneously. In order to maximize the capabilities of advanced networks,
it is imperative to thoroughly investigate and include various computing models that can effectively complement and aug-
ment their potential. This research study examines the investigation of four significant computing paradigms such as fog,
grid, soft, and scalable computing and their incorporation into 5G and subsequent networks. Fog computing facilitates the
proximity of computing resources to end-users, resulting in a reduction of latency and an improvement in data processing
speeds. Grid computing is a technique to distributed computing that facilitates the sharing of abundant resources across
networks. This is particularly crucial for effectively managing the substantial volume of data produced by 5G networks. Soft
computing, characterized by its emphasis on artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML), offers the essential flex-
ibility and decision-making capabilities needed in dynamic network environments. Scalable computing plays a crucial role
in facilitating the efficient scaling of network infrastructures in response to varying demands, which is an essential necessity
for accommodating the dynamic workloads commonly observed in contemporary networks. The objective of this study is
to gain a holistic comprehension of the integration of these models inside 5G and forthcoming network architectures. The
integration being discussed holds the potential to improve network efficiency, stability, and scalability, hence opening up new
possibilities for advancements in network performance and user experience.
Keywords: Computing, grid computing, soft computing, scalable network architectures, 5G technology enhancements, next-
generation network models
Introduction prominence as a significant paradigm, expands the
reach of cloud computing to the periphery of the
The unwavering dedication to advancing technology
network. This extension provides advantages such as
in the field of telecommunications has introduced a
decreased latency, greater utilization of bandwidth,
period characterized by the emergence of 5G net-
and improved levels of privacy and security (Ahvar
works, therefore, facilitating the development of
et al., 2021). The relevance of its integration with
“beyond 5G” (B5G) technologies. The ongoing growth
5G networks is particularly evident in situations that
in digital communication and data sharing holds the
require real-time processing and analytics, such as
potential to bring about significant advancements
applications related to the Internet of Things (IoT) and
in connectivity, speed, and efficiency. These develop-
smart cities. Grid computing is a computing paradigm
ments are expected to have a transformative impact
known for its capacity to effectively handle and pro-
on the digital landscape. In order to maximize the
cess large datasets across distributed resources, which
capabilities of these sophisticated networks, it is cru-
are often diverse in nature. This presents a promising
cial to thoroughly investigate and incorporate various
prospect for enhancing the capability of 5G networks
computing models. The paper titled “An investigation
in managing the substantial volumes of data gener-
into fog, grid, soft, and scalable computing models for
ated by an ever expansive digital environment. Soft
enhancing 5G and beyond networks undertakes an
computing is a computational paradigm that employs
in-depth examination with the objective of identifying
many techniques such as fuzzy logic, neural networks,
and analyzing the potential collaborations and inter-
and evolutionary algorithms. This paradigm provides
actions that exist between various computing para-
a versatile approach to both modeling and problem-
digms and the forthcoming network architecture of
solving. The versatility and tolerance for imprecision
the next-generation. Fog computing, which is gaining
a
drsbgoyal@[Link]
530 Optimizing 5G and beyond networks
exhibited by this candidate render it very suitable (AI) and machine learning (ML), with the aim of
for enhancing resource allocation, network manage- addressing intricate challenges within 5G networks.
ment, and decision-making processes within intricate This research enhances the comprehension of how
5G networks. Scalable computing, which is essential soft computing techniques can be utilized to enhance
for addressing the dynamic requirements of contem- network performance and user experience in the con-
porary networks, guarantees the effective expan- text of 5G technology.
sion or contraction of the computing infrastructure Gupta and Singh (2022) in their study provided a
in accordance with varying network loads and user novel approach that integrates a deep reinforcement
demands. The capacity to adapt is of utmost impor- learning framework with a hybrid grey wolf and mod-
tance in ensuring optimal performance and service ified moth flame optimization technique. The objec-
quality within the contexts of 5G and B5G (Meng tive of this approach is to increase load balancing in
et al., 2020) settings. The objective of this article is fog-IoT situations. The significance of this research
to analyses the roles of different computing models, lies in its pioneering methodology for tackling the
evaluate their possible implications, and anticipate complexities associated with load balancing in intri-
how their integration can advance 5G and future cate fog-IoT networks. It presents a unique solution
networks in realizing their complete revolutionary that combines advanced optimization techniques with
potential. Through the comprehensive analysis of deep learning.
these models, our aim is to establish a fundamental
basis for forthcoming advancements and pragmatic Methodology
applications that will significantly influence the tra-
jectory of telecommunications. The swift progression of wireless networks, notably
The paper is organized in the following section such with the introduction of 5G (Khattar et al. 2020,
as the related work, proposed methodology, results Akram et al. 2021) and the expectation of B5G tech-
analysis, discussion, and finally conclusion and future nologies, calls for a reassessment of computing para-
work. digms to effectively accommodate these advanced
networks. The efficacy of traditional cloud-centric
models is progressively diminishing as a result of
Related work
issues related to latency, bandwidth, and processing.
Singh and Kumar (2023) in their paper introduces a This paper provides an examination of many alter-
methodology for maintaining privacy in the aggre- native computing paradigms, namely fog computing,
gation of multidimensional data within smart grid grid computing, soft computing, and scalable comput-
systems, with a particular focus on ensuring secure ing, and their possible implications for the advance-
processing of queries. The proposed framework meets ment of 5G and future networks (Table 67.1).
the crucial requirement for privacy in smart grids by
presenting a comprehensive approach that guarantees Fog computing
data confidentiality, while also facilitating rapid data Fog computing is an extension of cloud computing
aggregation and query processing. The significance that aims to deliver processing, storage, and network-
of the scheme in the era of intelligent infrastructure ing services in closer proximity to data sources and
underscores its relevance in the management and end-users by moving them to the edge of the net-
security of intricate data systems. work. The close proximity between devices results in
Chen et al. (2021) in their work investigate the decreased latency, which is an essential factor for the
optimization of fog radio access networks (F-RAN) in successful operation of 5G applications such as IoT,
the context of 5G technology, by utilizing user mobil- autonomous vehicles, and real-time analytics. The
ity and traffic statistics. The study presents a meth- decentralized architecture of fog computing offers
odology for improving network efficiency and user improved data privacy and security by enabling local
experience in 5G networks by incorporating real-time data processing instead of relying on transmission to
data analytics into F-RAN. The research concentrates a central cloud infrastructure. Nevertheless, the man-
on the utilization of user mobility and traffic data to agement and security of a large quantity of fog nodes
optimize networks, offering vital insights into effi- present considerable obstacles (Khan et al., 2017).
cient resource allocation and network management
strategies in the context of 5G. Grid computing
Divakaran et al. (2022) conducted a technical Grid computing is a process that entails the amal-
investigation on the utilization of soft computing gamation of distributed computing resources, which
techniques to augment the functionality of 5G net- are frequently located in different geographical loca-
works. The study explores a range of soft computing tions, for the purpose of collectively executing a sin-
methodologies, encompassing artificial intelligence gular operation. This approach is very well-suited for
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 531
Table 67.1 Optimizing 5G and beyond networks.
Model type Key parameters Equations & functions Performance metrics Use cases in 5G
Fog Latency, bandwidth, Data processing time, Response time, data Edge analytics, real-
computing node capacity network latency, resource throughput, energy time IoT applications
allocation efficiency
Grid Computational power, Load balancing algorithm, Computational High-performance
computing data storage, task data transfer rates, resource efficiency, scalability, computing, large-scale
scheduling utilization reliability simulations
Soft Fuzzy logic parameters, Machine learning Accuracy, flexibility, AI-driven network
computing neural network layers, algorithms, optimization robustness management,
genetic algorithm techniques, adaptive control predictive
variables systems maintenance
Scalable Scalability metrics, Dynamic resource scaling, System scalability, Cloud services,
computing resource allocation, virtual network function, resource optimization, dynamic network
virtualization techniques auto-scaling algorithms cost efficiency configurations
intricate computations that need substantial resources, demands. Scalable computing is a critical aspect of
which could be facilitated by 5G networks. Examples network infrastructure that guarantees the ability to
of such computations include large-scale simulations efficiently process and manage substantial volumes of
and data processing. Grid computing is a method that data originating from a multitude of devices, while
enables the use of underutilized resources distributed maintaining optimal performance levels. The key
throughout a network, hence providing a solution obstacle is in the development of systems that pos-
that is cost-effective. Nevertheless, the coordination sess the ability to flexibly adjust to evolving demands
and management of these heterogeneous resources, as while simultaneously upholding efficiency and secu-
well as the guarantee of dependable and continuous rity (Abdali et al., 2021).
service, can present significant challenges.
Integration in 5G and beyond networks
Soft computing The incorporation of these computing paradigms into
Soft computing, in contrast to conventional com- 5G and subsequent generations of networks presents
puting, is concerned with the utilization of approxi- a multitude of advantages.
mation models and the acceptance of imprecision, Enhanced performance: The efficient management
uncertainty, and partial truth in order to attain of high bandwidth and low latency needs in 5G appli-
tractability, robustness, and cost-effectiveness in cations can be achieved by dispersing computing
problem-solving. Soft computing techniques have duties across fog, grid, and scalable systems within
the potential to improve decision-making processes, networks.
adaptability, and learning skills in 5G networks.
These capabilities are essential for effectively man- Proposed Algorithm 1:
aging the complexities of dynamic network envi-
Algorithm steps:
ronments and diverse data sources. The utilization
• Initialization:
of this technology has the potential to enhance the
• Identify the set of computing tasks
efficiency of network traffic, allocation of resources,
T={t1,t2,...,tn} for the 5G network.
and resilience to faults. The primary difficulty is in
• Define the computing resources avail-
the seamless integration of these soft computing
able in fog, grid, and scalable systems:
approaches within established network structures
F={f1,f2,...,fa},
and protocols.
• G={g1,g2,...,gb}, and
• S={s1,s2,...,sc} respectively.
Scalable computing
• Task characterization:
The field of scalable computing is concerned with the
• For each task ti, determine its bandwidth
development of systems that possess the ability to
and latency requirements.
effectively adjust their capacity in response to fluctua-
• Categorize tasks into low-latency (LL),
tions in demand. In the context of 5G (BahraniPour
high-bandwidth (HB), and balanced re-
et al., 2023) and subsequent networks, the ability to
quirements (BR).
scale is of utmost importance because to the dynamic
• Resource assessment:
nature of device quantities and diverse bandwidth
532 Optimizing 5G and beyond networks
• Assess the capabilities of each computing Assign DataStream to a primary Node in
resource in terms of processing power, stor- NetworkNodes
age, bandwidth, and latency. Assign DataStream to a redundant Node in
• Task allocation: RedundantNodes
• For LL tasks, prioritize allocation to fog // Continuous Monitoring of Nodes
resources due to proximity and reduced While Network is Operational
latency. For each Node in NetworkNodes
• For HB tasks, allocate to grid resources If Node is Failing
that offer high processing power and band- Activate corresponding RedundantNode
width. Transfer DataStream to RedundantNode
• For BR tasks, allocate to scalable systems Report Node Failure for Maintenance
that can dynamically adjust resources // Check for restored nodes
based on demand. If any Restored Node in NetworkNodes
• Load balancing: Reassign original DataStream
• Continuously monitor the load on each re- Deactivate corresponding RedundantNode
source. // Scalable adjustment based on network load
• If a resource is overburdened, redistribute If Network Load increases
tasks among other underutilized resources. Scale Up NetworkNodes and RedundantNodes
• Execution monitoring: accordingly
• Monitor the execution of tasks. Else if Network Load decreases
• Ensure that latency and bandwidth re- Scale Down NetworkNodes and RedundantNodes
quirements are being met. accordingly
• Adjust resource allocations in real-time if // Ensure network
necessary.
• Data integration and output: Flexibility and adaptability: Soft computing tech-
• Once tasks are completed, integrate data niques offer the capability (Ahmadzadeh et al., 2021)
from different resources. to effectively adjust to dynamic network conditions
• Process integrated data for final output to and user requirements, hence augmenting the overall
the 5G network. intelligence of the network.
• Feedback and optimization:
• Collect feedback on the performance of the Proposed Algorithm 3:
distributed computing model. Define NetworkSystem
• Use feedback to optimize task allocation Properties:
and resource utilization for future tasks. – currentNetworkCondition
End of algorithm – userDemands
– softComputingModel // This could be a fuzzy
Improved reliability: The incorporation of redun- logic system, neural network, or other soft
dancy within grid and scalable (Habibi et al., 2020) computing models
computing architectures serves to guarantee network Methods:
stability, even in instances where individual nodes – assessNetworkCondition()
experience problems. 1. Gather real-time data about network per-
formance, bandwidth usage, latency, etc.
Proposed Algorithm 2: 2. Update currentNetworkCondition based
Algorithm: Enhanced network reliability through on the collected data.
redundancy – evaluateUserDemands()
Input: NetworkNodes, RedundantNodes, 1. Monitor user data demands and preferences.
DataStreams 2. Update userDemands with the latest user
Output: ReliableNetworkOperation behavior and requirements.
Begin – adaptNetworkSettings()
// Initialize network nodes and redundant nodes 1. Use softComputingModel to analyze cur-
Initialize NetworkNodes rentNetworkCondition and userDemands.
Initialize RedundantNodes 2. Predict optimal network settings for the
// Process for assigning data streams to network current conditions.
nodes 3. Adjust network parameters (like bandwidth
For each DataStream in DataStreams allocation, data routing) accordingly.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 533
– updateSoftComputingModel() 2.2.1: Scale up resources in Scalable
1. Continuously train and update the soft- Resources
ComputingModel with new data. 2.2.2: Allocate scaled resource to request
2. Ensure the model stays accurate and effec- 2.2.3: Add allocated resource to
tive in adapting to changing conditions. AllocatedResources
// Main Program Flow Else:
Initialize NetworkSystem 2.3: Log resource allocation failure for the
Repeat: request
[Link]()
[Link]() 3: Monitor and Optimize:
[Link]() 3.1: Continuously monitor resource usage
[Link]() 3.2: If usage is consistently below a certain
Wait for a predefined interval threshold:
End Repeat 3.2.1: Scale down resources in
ScalableResources to save costs
Cost-effectiveness: Utilizing pre-existing resources
within grid computing frameworks and implement- 4: Return AllocatedResources
ing dynamic resource scaling in scalable computing
models can yield cost-effective outcomes (Yang et al., End Procedure
2020).
The incorporation of fog, grid, soft, and scalable
Proposed Algorithm 4: computing models into 5G and subsequent networks
Algorithm: Cost-effective resource management signifies a fundamental transformation from central-
in grid and scalable computing ized cloud-based models to decentralized, intelligent,
and adaptable frameworks. The integration of many
Input: components is of utmost importance in effectively (Yin
– ResourceRequests: List of computing resource et al., 2022) tackling the obstacles faced by next-gen-
requests eration networks and fully harnessing their capabili-
– GridResources: List of available resources in ties. Nonetheless, the adoption of this technology also
grid computing introduces novel intricacies in terms of governance,
– ScalableResources: List of resources in scal- safeguarding, and incorporation into pre-existing
able computing models infrastructural frameworks. Future research should
– Threshold: The threshold for scaling up or prioritize addressing these problems and enhancing
down the integration between these computer paradigms
and modern network technologies.
Output:
– AllocatedResources: List of allocated Results analysis
resources fulfilling requests cost-effectively
Table 67.2 shows data that we gathered from a
detailed study of different computer systems and how
Procedure:
they improve 5G network performance. This table
brings together information from various places. It
1: Initialize AllocatedResources as an empty list
includes new research on different types of comput-
2: For each request in ResourceRequests:
ing like fog, grid, soft, and scalable, especially related
2.1: Check for availability in GridResources
to modern network structures.
If available:
Table 67.3 shows core discoveries and effects of vari-
2.1.1: Allocate resource from GridResources
ous computing styles on networks in 5G and future
to request
developments. This table's details come from an in-
2.1.2: Add allocated resource to
depth survey of existing writings and our study activi-
AllocatedResources
ties in this field.
2.1.3: Update GridResources to reflect the
allocation
Else: Discussion
2.2: Check for scalability option in Scalable Within the domain of telecommunications, the pro-
Resources gression from 5G to subsequent networks encom-
If scalable and below Threshold: passes more than just enhancements in speed or
534 Optimizing 5G and beyond networks
Table 67.2 Overall impact on 5G networks.
Computing Network latency Resource Scalability Energy Security Overall impact on
model reduction utilization efficiency enhancement 5G networks
efficiency
Fog Edge processing Distribution Highly Data Improved by Highly positive;
computing reduces latency makes it scalable with processing near local data increases data
significantly moderate more edge the source is processing and handling and
devices high storage responsiveness
Grid Moderate High, efficiently Scalable but Maintaining Variable; Positive,
computing reduction, uses idle grid resource- resource relies on especially for
suitable for computing dependent efficiency while grid resource computationally
large dataset resources increasing data security intensive data-
distributed transmission protocols heavy applications
processing
Soft Direct latency High because Widely Moderately Security Positive; improves
computing impact is low it optimizes applicable prioritizes protocol network decision-
decision-making to network algorithmic optimization making and
settings. efficiency over indirectly problem-solving
hardware improves
Scalable It depends High because By definition, High, Scaling security Positive and
computing on the it efficiently highly especially with network necessary for 5G
implementation manages several scalable in dynamic resources network demands
workloads scaling systems improves
Table 67.3 Impact on 5G and beyond networks.
Computing Key findings Impact on 5G and beyond Limitations
model networks
Fog Effective at edge-based data Improves network-edge real-time Very massive network topologies
computing processing, lowering latency and data processing for IoT and real- may have scalability concerns
response times time applications
Grid Scalability issues may arise with Ideal for data-intensive Complex management and
computing huge network topologies applications, improving 5G coordination may cause
network processing for complex inefficiencies in dynamic
operations network situations
Soft Adaptable and imprecision- Enhances 5G network decision- May not always deliver
computing tolerant, it handles ambiguous or making, especially in AI and ML appropriate answers, causing
noisy data well performance fluctuation
Scalable Ability to dynamically alter Supports 5G network scalability Problems maintaining
computing resources to demand to meet growing traffic and user performance and efficiency
demands during rapid scaling
connectivity. The primary focus pertains to the pro- to end-users. In the realm of 5G technology, fog com-
vision, administration, and enhancement of these puting’s close proximity to end-users plays a crucial
networks to effectively accommodate an increasingly role in minimizing latency, which is of utmost impor-
vast volume of data and a diverse range of devices and tance for applications that necessitate real-time pro-
services. This discourse explores four crucial comput- cessing. This is particularly relevant for IoT devices,
ing models – fog, grid, soft, and scalable computing autonomous vehicles, and augmented reality, where
that play a significant role in augmenting 5G (Chen et timely data processing is critical.
al., 2019) and subsequent networks.
Latency reduction: Fog computing significantly
Fog computing: Enhancing edge capabilities reduces the duration required for data process-
Fog computing is a paradigm that expands upon the ing and decision-making by conducting these tasks
principles of cloud computing by facilitating the prox- locally instead of transmitting the data to a central-
imity of processing, storage, and networking services ized cloud.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 535
Bandwidth optimization: Additionally, it mitigates hence posing a potential constraint on their practical
the limitations of bandwidth by reducing the amount implementation.
of data that must be transmitted over extended dis- Scalable computing: Addressing the needs of expand-
tances. This phenomenon proves to be especially ing networks
advantageous in densely populated urban regions The concept of scalable computing pertains to the
characterized by high levels of network congestion. capacity of a computing system to effectively man-
Nevertheless, fog computing presents several issues age increasing workloads or to be easily expanded
in the areas of security and data management due to in order to accommodate such expansion. Scalability
the decentralized nature of data distribution over mul- holds significant importance in the context of 5G and
tiple nodes. The complexity of maintaining consistent subsequent generations of networks.
security standards and effective data synchronization
Handling growing data volumes: With the increasing
increases in decentralized architectures.
proliferation of connected devices and the exponen-
Grid computing: The concept of resource sharing and tial growth in data generation, the concept of scal-
collaborative processing refers to the practice of pool- able computing has emerged as a means to enhance
ing and utilizing shared resources and engaging in network capabilities while maintaining optimal
cooperative efforts to process tasks or solve problems. performance.
Grid computing refers to the utilization of several
Flexible infrastructure: Scalable computing facili-
distributed computing resources that are intercon-
tates enhanced network flexibility, enabling seamless
nected and typically located in different geographical
adaptation to dynamic demands without necessitat-
regions, with the purpose of collectively executing a
ing a comprehensive restructuring of the underlying
singular operation. The use of a collaborative method
infrastructure.
has the potential to greatly augment the computing
capabilities of 5G networks.
The primary difficulty associated with scalable
Resource optimization: Grid computing enables the computing pertains to the development of systems
consolidation of resources, hence facilitating the effi- that can successfully and economically expand in both
cient management of extensive computations and upward and downward directions, while avoiding the
voluminous datasets. issues of resource underutilization and bottlenecks.
Collaborative processing: It facilitates cooperative The incorporation of fog, grid, soft, and scalable
research and development endeavors, allowing for the computing models into 5G and future networks
smooth collaboration of multiple organizations. offers a comprehensive strategy for augmenting net-
One significant limitation associated with grid com- work capabilities. Each model effectively tackles dis-
puting pertains to the intricate nature of its infra- tinct difficulties and contributes distinct value to the
structure, which presents complexities in terms of network architecture. Fog computing facilitates the
coordination and management of the extensive localization of data processing in close proximity to
system. its source, resulting in a reduction in both latency and
Soft computing: The significance of AI and ML. bandwidth consumption. Grid computing utilizes the
Soft computing approaches, including as neural capabilities of dispersed resources to facilitate cooper-
networks, fuzzy logic, and evolutionary algorithms, ative and efficient execution of computationally inten-
have a significant impact on enhancing the intelli- sive tasks. Soft computing is a field that incorporates
gence and adaptability of 5G networks. AI and ML techniques to enhance the intelligence
and adaptability of network management. On the
Predictive analysis and adaptive learning: Artificial
other hand, scalable computing focuses on enabling
intelligence (AI) and ML algorithms have the capa-
networks to expand and adjust in response to evolv-
bility to forecast network congestion and adaptively
ing requirements. Nevertheless, these advantages are
regulate bandwidth allocation, thereby enhancing the
not devoid of their associated difficulties. Addressing
overall efficiency of the network.
security, data management, infrastructure complexity,
Automated optimization: These models have the and resource optimization are crucial challenges that
capability to automate many network administration must be overcome. Furthermore, the successful incor-
operations, hence decreasing the reliance on human poration of these models into pre-existing network
involvement and mitigating the occurrence of errors. architectures necessitates meticulous strategizing and
Nevertheless, the utilization of data for the pur- implementation. As the progression towards increas-
pose of training these models gives rise to appre- ingly sophisticated network technologies unfolds, it
hensions over privacy and the security of data. becomes evident that the integration of various com-
Furthermore, the intricate nature of these algorithms puting models will play a pivotal role in fully harness-
necessitates substantial computational resources, ing the capabilities of 5G and subsequent networks.
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68 Smart protocol design: Integrating quantum computing
models for enhanced efficiency and security
S. B. Goyal1,a, Sugam Sharma2, Anand Singh Rajawat3 and Jaiteg Singh4
1
City University, Petaling Jaya, 46100, Malaysia
2
CSSM Principal Systems Architect, IOWA State University, USA
3
School of Computer Science & Engineering, Sandip University, Nashik, Maharashtra, India
4
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
Abstract
In the context of the swiftly progressing domain of digital communications, the imperative for resilient and effective proto-
cols has become increasingly crucial. The incorporation of quantum computing models into the design of protocols signifies
a significant and innovative transformation, presenting unparalleled improvements in terms of both effectiveness and safe-
guarding measures. The present study, investigates the profound impact that quantum computing can have on the evolution
of communication protocols. Quantum computing offers a unique methodology for data processing and transmission by
leveraging the principles of quantum mechanics, including superposition and entanglement. This approach effectively tack-
les the constraints imposed by classical computing models. This study explores the advancements in quantum-enhanced
protocols, with a specific focus on their greater efficiency in data management and inherent security benefits, particularly in
the face of complex cyber threats. The paper moreover explores the obstacles and prospective remedies associated with the
integration of quantum models into practical communication systems, encompassing issues such as compatibility with pre-
existing infrastructure and the ability to scale effectively. The results highlight the important impact of quantum computing
on the development of safe and efficient digital communication, representing a crucial advancement towards more sophisti-
cated and robust network infrastructures.
Keywords: Quantum computing, protocol design, network security, efficiency enhancement, cryptographic algorithms, quan-
tum resilience
Introduction of classical counterparts. The objective of this study
is to examine and illustrate the successful integration
In the current era characterized by swift technologi-
of quantum computing models into protocol design,
cal progress, the incorporation of quantum comput-
with the intention of tackling significant issues in
ing into the design of protocols signifies a notable
contemporary digital communication systems. This
development towards attaining improved efficiency
encompasses the optimization of data transmis-
and security in the realm of digital communications.
sion efficiency, the establishment of solid security
The research article entitled “Advancing protocol
measures to counter evolving cyber threats, and the
design: Incorporating quantum computing models to
facilitation of novel approaches in secure communi-
improve efficiency and security” thoroughly exam-
cation. The purpose of this introductory section is to
ines the novel convergence of quantum computing
provide a foundation for comprehending the pres-
concepts and classical protocol design in the fields of
ent condition of protocol design and the constraints
telecommunications and cybersecurity. The domain
encountered by traditional approaches. Subsequently,
of quantum computing has experienced significant
the notion of quantum computing will be intro-
expansion due to its capacity to execute intricate
duced, emphasizing its distinctive characteristics and
computations at unparalleled velocities (Ji et al.,
benefits. The subsequent sections of this work will
2019). The ability to exhibit many states simultane-
explore particular domains in which quantum com-
ously and establish interconnections beyond classical
puting can greatly augment the design of protocols.
bits is ascribed to the underlying quantum concepts
These domains include quantum key distribution
of superposition and entanglement. These principles
(QKD) for the purpose of establishing secure com-
enable quantum bits (qubits) to possess this power.
munication (Sehra et al., 2020; Anshu et al., 2023),
The unique characteristic of quantum computing
quantum algorithms for expediting data processing,
presents novel opportunities for the advancement of
and the creation of cryptographic protocols that are
protocols that exhibit not only enhanced speed and
resistant to quantum attacks. In the face of mounting
efficiency, but also inherent security surpassing that
a
drsbgoyal@[Link]
538 Smart protocol design: Integrating quantum computing models
cybersecurity concerns and the ever-growing demand about their contribution to a particular field. The
for better data processing rates, the incorporation study presented a noteworthy advancement in the
of quantum computing into protocol design is not practical application of quantum networking, effec-
merely novel but critical. Through the utilization of tively tackling crucial obstacles related to the disper-
quantum physics, it becomes possible to surpass the sion of entanglement.
constraints imposed by conventional computing and The findings by Chiti et al. (2022) in his research
initiate a novel epoch characterized by highly efficient emphasized the potential of quantum-drone networks
and secure digital communication networks. This in metropolitan settings to boost computing and net-
study aims to provide a scholarly contribution to the working capabilities. Contribution to the field: This
emerging subject by conducting a thorough examina- research has introduced a novel direction in the study
tion of the prospective uses and advantages of quan- of quantum networking, particularly within the
tum computing in the progression of protocol design framework of urban and mobile environments.
community. This paper is organized as to represent The findings by Shi and Li (2022) created a pro-
the related work, proposed methodology, results anal- tocol which offered a method for calculating the
ysis, and finally conclusion and future work. cardinality of intersections between numerous par-
ties, while ensuring the confidentiality of individual
Related work datasets.
Contribution to field: This study has enhanced the
The techniques presented in the study by Ji et al. functionalities of safe multiparty computations in
(2019) offer a secure means of comparing private quantum environments, emphasizing the promise of
data while preserving its confidentiality, by using the quantum computing in addressing intricate privacy-
distinct characteristics of quantum entanglement. preserving issues.
Contribution to field: The present study made Table 68.1 present study examines the various
a valuable contribution to the domain of quan- applications of quantum computing in network and
tum cryptography by improving the efficacy of pri- communication systems.
vacy-preserving techniques employed in quantum
communications.
Methodology
The objective of the study design did by Li (2022)
was to optimize the allocation of quantum entangle- The quantum computing and protocol design
ment across network connections, hence improving Design principles: When designing protocols, it
the efficiency and reliability of quantum networks. The is imperative to take into account the distinctive
user’s text does not provide any specific information characteristics of quantum computing. This entails
Table 68.1 Comparative analysis.
Citation Methods Advantages Disadvantages Research gap
Shi, 2021 Cardinality of quantum Increases multi- Scalability concerns A need for streamlined
multiparty privacy set party privacy; in larger networks; protocols that scale
intersection quantum-resistant implementation with networks
complexity
Cacciapuoti et Quantum teleportation Novel data transmission Entanglement is Explore resource-
al., 2020 for the quantum method; great security resource-intensive efficient quantum
Internet, combining teleportation
entanglement and classical technologies
communications
Doolittle et Variational quantum Non-locality in noisy Optimizing non- Optimizing quantum
al., 2023 optimization of quantum quantum networks is locality is difficult network non-locality
network non-locality addressed, improving and computationally with more efficient
network robustness intensive methods
Shi, 2022 QuNetSim: Quantum Improves quantum Simulations may Unifying simulation
network software network modeling and not portray network with real-world
framework development complexity application
Shi and Li, Auction of anonymous Provides secure and Auction-specific; little Applying this
2022 quantum sealed bids private quantum generalizability technology to
auctions additional secure
communications areas
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 539
the conceptualization of protocols that can utilize Design considerations for quantum protocols
quantum parallelism and entanglement in order to Scalability: Although quantum computing presents
enhance both efficiency and security. The principles notable benefits, a primary obstacle in protocol design
of design refer to a set of fundamental guidelines is in the assurance of scalability. At present, quantum
that are employed in the creation and execution of systems have constraints in terms of the stability of
visual compositions (Yang et al., 2022). These prin- qubits and the duration of coherence, both of which
ciples serve utilizing quantum computing for enhanc- have implications for their capacity to execute opera-
ing protocol efficiency and security The emergence of tions on a wide scale. The development of protocols
quantum computing has initiated a novel epoch of that can effectively function within these limitations is
technical potentials, specifically within the realm of of utmost importance.
protocol design. In contrast to classical computing, Error correction: Quantum systems are susceptible to
which operates on binary bits with discrete states of errors as a result of quantum decoherence (El-Latif et
0 or 1, quantum computing employs qubits that can al., 2018) and various sources of noise. The inclusion
exist in superposition, allowing for simultaneous exis- of effective mistake correcting techniques is neces-
tence in several states. This paper explores the essen- sary in order to uphold the integrity of the protocols.
tial design principles required for the development of Quantum error correction codes, such as the surface
protocols that leverage the distinctive characteristics code, provide strategies for mitigating faults in quan-
of quantum computing in order to improve efficiency tum systems while preserving the integrity of quan-
and security. Quantum parallelism is a phenomenon tum states.
that emerges from the inherent capability of quantum
Interoperability: In order for quantum protocols to
computers (Song and Chen, 2020) to concurrently
achieve widespread adoption, it is imperative that
handle many inputs. The ability of qubits to express
they demonstrate compatibility with pre-existing clas-
many states simultaneously is the underlying cause of
sical networks. This entails the development of hybrid
this phenomenon. In the field of protocol design, this
systems capable of executing quantum and conven-
feature can be utilized to do intricate computations in
tional algorithms, hence assuring a smooth integra-
significantly less time compared to conventional com-
tion and transition between the two computational
puters. An example of this may be seen in quantum
paradigms.
algorithms, such as Shor’s algorithm which is used for
the purpose of factoring huge numbers. These algo- Resource optimization: At present, there is a limited
rithms showcase the ability of quantum systems to availability and high cost associated with quantum
efficiently do tasks that would need significant pro- resources (Guo et al., 2019), such as qubits. The opti-
cessing resources on classical systems. This idea is mal utilization of these resources in the design of pro-
applicable to network protocols that require rapid tocols is crucial for practical implementations. This
processing and decision-making, as seen in high-fre- entails the optimization of algorithms with the aim
quency trading or real-time data analysis systems. of minimizing the quantity of qubits and quantum
operations necessary.
Entanglement and enhanced security Quantum computing: The utilization of the concepts
Entanglement, a basic element of quantum com- of quantum physics is employed, wherein qubits
puting, refers to the situation in which the state of are utilized to represent several states concurrently.
one qubit is intrinsically connected to the state of Quantum computers possess the capability to tackle
another qubit, irrespective of the spatial separation specific issue classes at a significantly accelerated rate
between them. The aforementioned characteristic compared to traditional computers. In the field of
can be leveraged to develop encryption techniques cryptography, this phenomenon has a dual impact:
that are highly resistant to decryption, shown by an unparalleled challenge to existing encryption tech-
quantum key distribution (QKD) (Li et al., 2022). niques and the prospect of developing encryption
Quantum key distribution (QKD) protocols employ systems that are nearly impervious to decryption (Shi
entangled qubits as a means to securely disseminate and Li, 2022).
cryptographic keys. Any endeavor to intercept the
key exchange process results in the modification of Post-quantum cryptography (PQC) by NIST
the quantum state, hence exposing the existence of The primary objective of the National Institute of
an unauthorized party attempting to gain access. The Standards and Technology’s (NIST) post-quantum
incorporation of quantum entanglement into proto- cryptography (PQC) effort is to engage in the devel-
col design enables the attainment of an enhanced opment of cryptographic standards that possess the
level of security, a matter of utmost importance in resilience necessary to withstand the computational
the current period characterized by escalating cyber capabilities of quantum computers. The significance
threats and vulnerabilities. of this endeavor lies in the potential obsolescence of
540 Smart protocol design: Integrating quantum computing models
present encryption approaches due to the emergence EncodedData = QuantumEncode(ClassicalData,
of quantum computing, hence posing new vulnerabil- QK)
ities to sensitive data (Liu and Li, 2023). Return EncodedData
In this context, let P denote the conventional EndFunction
approach to protocol design, whereas QC represents // Step 4: Set Up Quantum Communication
the concepts associated with quantum computing. Channel
The incorporation of PQC (Van Meter et al., 2008) by Function SetUpQuantumChannel()
the National Institute of Standards and Technology QR = InitializeQuantumRegister(QuantumCom
(NIST) inside this framework can be depicted as: putationalResources)
QuantumChannel = EstablishQuantumLink(QR)
NISTPenhanced=P+QC×PQCNIST…(1) Return QuantumChannel
EndFunction
The term “enhanced Penhanced” refers to a proto- // Step 5: Transmit Encoded Data
col architecture that integrates both quantum com- Function TransmitData(EncodedData,
puting models and PQC standards. The equation QuantumChannel)
presented signifies that the design of the enhanced For each quantum bit in EncodedData
protocol is not a mere combination of regular pro- TransmitQuantumBit(QuantumChannel, quan-
tocols with quantum computing, (Yan et al., 2013) tum bit)
but rather a synergistic integration wherein quantum EndFor
computing models are effectively upgraded by includ- EndFunction
ing the resilience of Post-Quantum Cryptography // Step 6: Quantum Key Distribution for
standards set by NIST. Decryption
Function QuantumKeyDistribution(QuantumCh
Proposed algorithm annel, QK)
Algorithm QuantumEnhancedProtocol TransmitQuantumKey(QuantumChannel, QK)
Input: ClassicalData, EndFunction
QuantumComputationalResources // Step 7: Receive and Decode Data
Output: SecureDataTransmission Function ReceiveData(QuantumChannel, QK)
ReceivedData = ReceiveQuantumBits(Quantum
// Step 1: Initialize Quantum Variables Channel)
QuantumKey QK DecodedData = QuantumDecode(ReceivedData,
QuantumRegister QR QK)
// Step 2: Generate Quantum-Resistant Keys Return DecodedData
Function GenerateQuantumKey() EndFunction
QK = QuantumRandomNumberGenerator() // Main Process
Return QK Begin
EndFunction // Generate quantum-resistant key
// Step 3: Encode Classical Data Using Quantum QK = GenerateQuantumKey()
Key
Function EncodeData(ClassicalData, QK) // Encode classical data using the quantum key
Table 68.2 Comparison of key performance metrics.
Metric Traditional protocol design Enhanced protocol design Improvement
(quantum models + PQC)
Data processing speed 100 Mbps 1 Gbps 10× Increase
Encryption strength 128-bit standard 256-bit quantum-resistant 2× Stronger
Resource utilization 80% (high) 60% (optimized) 20% reduction
Latency 10 ms 2 ms 5× Decrease
Error rate 0.1% 0.01% 10× Reduction
Scalability Moderate High Significantly improved
Security against quantum attacks Vulnerable Resilient Greatly enhanced
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 541
EncodedData = EncodeData(ClassicalData, QK) Data processing speed: This statistic demonstrates the
// Set up the quantum communication channel growth in computational capacity for data process-
QuantumChannel = SetUpQuantumChannel() ing. The use of quantum technology into the architec-
// Transmit encoded data ture yields substantial enhancements in performance,
TransmitData(EncodedData, QuantumChannel) resulting in accelerated computational processes and
// Distribute quantum key for decryption expedited data transmission.
QuantumKeyDistribution(QuantumChannel, Encryption strength: This statement reflects the level of
QK) strength and effectiveness exhibited by the encryption
// Receive and decode data employed. The protocol architecture has been improved
SecureDataTransmission = by integrating post-quantum techniques, resulting in
ReceiveData(Quantum Channel, QK) greater encryption capabilities that provide increased
Return SecureDataTransmission resistance against both classical and quantum attacks.
End Resource utilization: This statement highlights the
measure of effectiveness in utilizing computing
Results resources. Quantum computing models, renowned
for their high efficiency, effectively minimize resource
Table 68.2 compares key performance metrics of utilization on a global scale.
traditional protocol designs with those enhanced by
Latency: The reduced latency observed in the
quantum computing models and post-quantum cryp-
improved protocols serves as evidence for the efficacy
tography algorithms.
Table 68.3 Results analysis.
Quantum algorithm Efficiency Security enhancement Time Quantum Limitations
gain complexity robustness
Algorithm 1 (e.g., QKD-based High Significantly increased Moderate High Complex
protocol) against quantum attacks implementation
Algorithm 2 (e.g., Lattice- Moderate High resilience to Low Very high Larger key sizes
based encryption) quantum decryption required
Algorithm 3 (e.g., Hash-based Low Moderate improvement in Very low Moderate Limited use cases
signature) security
Algorithm 4 (e.g., Multivariate Moderate High in specific scenarios Moderate High Vulnerable to
polynomial cryptosystem) certain quantum
attacks
Algorithm 5 (e.g., Code-based High Very high against both High Very high Implementation
cryptography) classical and quantum complexity
attacks
Table 68.4 Results analysis traditional protocol design and QC/PQC-enhanced protocol design.
Parameter Traditional protocol design QC/PQC-enhanced protocol design
Efficiency Baseline efficiency levels Increased efficiency via quantum algorithms
Security Vulnerable to quantum attacks Durable against classical and quantum computing
threats
Computational overhead Lower, due to simpler algorithms Higher due to QC model and PQC integration
complexity
Scalability Good, but limited by classical Excellent use of quantum computing’s parallel
computing constraints processing
Adaptability to future Limited adaptability High flexibility and cyberthreat resistance
technologies
Implementation complexity Relatively simple Complex, needing quantum computing and
cryptography skills
Cost implications Lower initial costs High startup costs from innovative technologies
542 Smart protocol design: Integrating quantum computing models
of quantum models in both request processing and and quantum computing models. The integration of
data transmission. network protocols not only improves efficiency and
Error rate: A lower error rate in the quantum- processing capacities, but also provides a higher level
enhanced design points to the increased reliability and of security that is resistant to both conventional and
accuracy of the protocols. quantum computing threats. The incorporation of
PQC algorithms, as suggested by prominent organi-
Scalability: The quantum-enhanced design exhibits
zations like as the National Institute of Standards and
substantial improvements in its capacity to manage
Technology (NIST), strengthens this strategy by pro-
heightened workload and network expansion.
viding a structure that is resilient to future advance-
Security against quantum attacks: Conventional pro- ments and capable of accommodating changing
tocols typically lack the necessary capabilities to with- technological environments. Moreover, the investiga-
stand quantum attacks, whereas the improved design, tion of diverse quantum algorithms and their imple-
which integrates PQC, demonstrates robustness in the mentations in network security offers a glimpse into
face of these vulnerabilities. the prospective landscape of secure communications.
When these algorithms are included into network pro-
Efficiency gain pertains to the enhancement in pro- tocols, they provide a twofold benefit: they harness
cessing speed or resource utilization as compared to the computational capabilities of quantum computing
conventional algorithms (Table 68.3). to enhance efficiency, while also utilizing the resilience
Security enhancement measures refer to the imple- of PQC to ensure security. The aforementioned two-
mentation of strategies aimed at bolstering security, fold benefit holds significant importance in a contem-
particularly in the face of potential risks posed by porary context where the preservation and protection
quantum computing. of data integrity and security are of utmost signifi-
The concept of time complexity pertains to the cance. The incorporation of quantum computing
computer resources that are necessary for a certain models and PQA into protocol design is not merely a
algorithm. theoretical concept, but rather a pressing necessity for
Quantum robustness refers to the evaluation of the progression of network security. With the ongoing
an algorithm’s ability to withstand potential attacks advancement and increasing availability of quantum
originating from quantum computers. computing, it is imperative that the protocols we cur-
The limitations of each algorithm are identified to rently develop possess the necessary capabilities to
illustrate the challenges and drawbacks connected effectively address the cryptographic obstacles that
with them (Table 68.4). will arise in the future. This study thus presents a per-
suasive argument for researchers, technologists, and
Conclusion politicians to give utmost importance to the advance-
ment and adoption of quantum-resilient protocols, in
Our investigation culminates in the recognition that order to guarantee a future that is both secure and
the incorporation of quantum computing models into efficient in the realm of digital technology.
protocol design signifies a substantial advancement in
the domains of network security and efficiency. The
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69 Efficient IIoT framework for mitigating Ethereum attacks
in industrial applications using supervised learning with
quantum classifiers
S. B. Goyal1,a, Anand Singh Rajawat2, Ritu Shandilya3 and Varun Malik4
Faculty of Information Technology, City University, Petaling Jaya, 46100, Malaysia
1
School of Computer Science & Engineering, Sandip University, Nashik, Maharashtra, India
2
Associate Professor of Computer and Data Science, Mount Mercy University, Cedar Rapids, Iowa, USA
3
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
4
Abstract
Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) solutions have transformed industrial productivity and operations. The incorporation
of Ethereum blockchain technology into IIoT creates new weaknesses, exposing industrial systems to several cyberattacks.
An unique IIoT framework mitigates Ethereum-based attacks in industrial applications to solve these vulnerabilities. This
system uses supervised learning and quantum classifiers to detect and fix fraudulent Ethereum transaction patterns in real
time. Our methodology has lower false positive rates and higher detection accuracy than conventional methods, according
to first trials. This study shows that quantum computing and machine learning (ML) can improve the security of Ethereum-
enabled IIoT devices in industry.
Keywords: IIoT security, Ethereum attack mitigation, industrial applications, supervised learning, quantum classifiers, ef-
ficient framework
Introduction computing methods, holds the potential to bring
about many advantages to several industries, such
The integration of Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT)
as cybersecurity. Quantum classifiers, as a specific
with blockchain technology has introduced novel
category within the field of quantum ML, leverage
opportunities for enhancing efficiency, scalability, and
quantum mechanical concepts in order to enhance
safety in industrial applications. Ethereum has gained
the accuracy and efficiency of classification tasks. The
significant popularity as a blockchain platform due
convergence of the IIoT and Ethereum has the poten-
to its ability to offer a decentralized, transparent,
tial to introduce an unprecedented level of security in
and tamper-proof ecosystem for the aggregation of
various domains.
extensive data from diverse industrial origins and the
This study examines a pragmatic architecture for
facilitation of real-time decision-making processes.
mitigating threats in industrial IoT applications using
Nevertheless, similar to the introduction of any novel
Ethereum, incorporating supervised learning tech-
technology, the integration of the Industrial Internet
niques with quantum classifiers. In order to culti-
of Things (IIoT) with Ethereum has encountered intri-
vate a more safe and reliable industrial future, it is
cate attacks that jeopardize the security and effective-
imperative to thoroughly examine the existing chal-
ness of crucial industrial operations.
lenges, analyze the proposed solution’s architectural
The present moment necessitates the implemen-
framework, evaluate its advantages in comparison
tation of efficacious security measures. Although
to traditional methods, and consider its practical
traditional methods remain valuable, it has become
implications.
challenging to stay abreast of the swift advancements
in these intricate hazards. The application of machine
learning (ML), particularly in the context of super- Related work
vised learning, has demonstrated promising outcomes Xu et al. (2021) study examines the subject of device
in the identification and mitigation of these hazards. authentication and security within the framework of
The increasing demands and intricacies associated 5G-enabled IIoT for Industry 4.0. The authors pres-
with managing large-scale IIoT datasets have neces- ent a novel approach, utilizing quantum encryption,
sitated the development of advanced solutions. to enhance internet security. This establishes the foun-
The emergence of quantum computing, which dation for safeguarding IIoT devices in the era of 5G.
represents a significant departure from conventional
drsbgoyal@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 545
Table 69.1 Comparative analysis.
Methods Advantages Disadvantages Research gaps
Xu et al., 2022 Non-intrusive Utilizes common Limited discussion on Scalability of the
security estimation attributes of IIoT systems scalability method
Huang et al., 2022 Data-driven Non-intrusive approach May not cover all Comprehensive
approach for security potential security risks security coverage
Sinha et al., 2022 Promotes system- May require substantial Real-world validation Real-world validation
wide security computational power of the method of the method
Hou et al., 2019 Federated learning Cooperative framework Limited empirical Extensive empirical
with game theory for IIoT security results validation
Liao et al., 2020 Edge computing Considers edge computing May not address all Exploration of diverse
integration in IIoT security security scenarios security scenarios
Fang et al., 2022 Encourages Complexity in Evaluation of Optimal strategies in
collaboration implementing game computational game theory
among devices theory overhead
Abou El Houda et Cloud-based asset Asset management in IIoT Limited focus on Security
al., 2022 management with cloud support security aspects considerations in
cloud-based IIoT
Gandhewar et al., Utilizes cloud Efficiency in asset May not address IIoT- IIoT-specific security
2019 infrastructure management specific challenges mechanisms
Gabriel et al., 2019 Centralized asset Potential single point of Integration with IIoT Integration with IIoT
management failure ecosystem ecosystem
The focus of Huang et al. (2022) study is on the publications is provided. The tabular representation
tactics employed for representing data in the context below was constructed using the titles and citations
of process monitoring in IIoT. The proposed solution of the papers. To attain a comprehensive understand-
addresses the challenge of integrating the handling of ing of the subject matter, it is important to engage
both stationary and nonstationary data. The meth- in a thorough examination of all pertinent articles
odologies proposed in this study have the potential (Table 69.1).
to enhance manufacturing practices in the context of
IIoT. Proposed methodology
Sinha et al.’s (2022) article presents the concept
of “iThing,” which emphasizes the significance of Using supervised learning with quantum classi-
incorporating self-monitoring capabilities for battery fiers: An effective IIoT framework for protecting
health into the design of Internet of Things devices. against Ethereum attacks in high-stakes industrial
This endeavor contributes to our objective of guaran- environments.
teeing the longevity and reliability of IIoT devices, a
critical factor for their sustained sustainability. Data collection
The paper by Yang et al. (2019) introduces a novel The data collected includes information from vari-
framework called “IIoT-MEC” that leverages mobile ous sensors, network activity, and system logs that are
edge computing (MEC) to support 5G-enabled IIoT created by a diverse array of industrial applications
applications. Due to its capability of offering edge operating in real-time (Li et al., 2022).
processing with little latency, MEC is highly suitable Create a comprehensive repository of Ethereum
for the real-time processing and control of IIoT data. attack data encompassing instances of both success-
The paper by Liao et al. (2020) presents a compre- ful and unsuccessful attacks, various attack channels
hensive analysis of a demand response paradigm that employed, and discernible patterns.
incorporates computational intelligence in the context The study titled “Efficient IIoT framework for
of interaction networks between IIoT and MEC sys- mitigating Ethereum attacks in industrial applica-
tems. In order to optimize the efficacy of IIoT applica- tions using supervised (Yang and Shami, 2023) learn-
tions inside MEC environments, a key focus is placed ing with quantum classifiers” requires the creation
on efficiently allocating computing resources. of a dataset table. This table should encompass the
A tabular representation of the merits, flaws, oppor- properties, descriptions, and types of data repre-
tunities, and threats of the three aforementioned sented within the dataset. Table 69.2 derived from
546 Efficient IIoT framework for mitigating Ethereum attacks in industrial applications
Table 69.2 An illustrative dataset for a robust IIoT architecture.
Attribute name Description Data type
Timestamp Date and time of data collection DateTime
Device ID Unique identifier for IoT devices String/Integer
Sensor 1 reading Measurement from sensor 1 Numeric (float)
Sensor 2 reading Measurement from sensor 2 Numeric (float)
Sensor 3 reading Measurement from sensor 3 Numeric (float)
Sensor 4 reading Measurement from sensor 4 Numeric (float)
Ethereum transactions Count of Ethereum transaction Integer
Network traffic (In) Incoming network traffic in bytes Numeric (float)
Network traffic (Out) Outgoing network traffic in bytes Numeric (float)
Attack type Type of Ethereum attack (if applicable) Categorical
Quantum classifier Prediction by quantum classifier Categorical
Anomaly detected Binary indicator for anomaly detection Binary (0/1)
Provides a distinct identity for each IoT device
(Sklyar and Kharchenko, 2019).
The device exhibits a numerical depiction of the
measurements obtained from its four sensors.
In this context, we maintain a record of the number
of Ethereum transactions executed by this particular
device which determines the extent of data transmis-
sion occurring between the user’s device and the net-
work (Abuhasel and Khan, 2020).
This document will provide a comprehensive analy-
sis of potential attacks, such as distributed denial of
service (DDoS) and smart contract vulnerabilities,
against the Ethereum network, should any such inci-
dents transpire.
The quantum classifier would return the expected
categorization at this point.
The supervised learning model provides a binary
output (0/1) that signifies the existence or non-exis-
tence of an anomaly or assault.
The adequacy of the sample table provided above in
representing the full spectrum of potential data quality
and types may vary depending on the particularities of
your research and the actual dataset. Revise the text to
align more effectively with the requirements and objec-
tives of your data and research endeavors. In order to
conduct this study, it will be necessary to gather and
preprocess the data in order to establish the dataset.
Figure 69.1 Proposed model This paper presents a formal representation of an
efficient IIoT system (Dixit et al., 2022) that utilizes
supervised learning techniques with quantum classi-
a representative data set which is as follows (Figure fiers. The proposed system is designed to be deployed
69.1): in industrial environments to mitigate Ethereum-
Within this spreadsheet, we possess: based attacks.
A timestamp serves as a reference point indicat-
ing the specific time and date at which the data was Efficiency = f(Accuracy, Detection Rate, Response
gathered. Time, Resource Usage)
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 547
where: preprocessing the acquired data, thereby eliminating
any potential sources of noise, inconsistencies, and
• The term “Efficiency” refers to the degree to missing information.
which the architecture of Ethereum effectively Normalization and standardization techniques are
safeguards against potential attacks. employed to ensure data uniformity and suitability
• The metric used to measure the effectiveness of for ML algorithms.
attack detection is commonly referred to as ac- The development of a robust IIoT framework for
curacy. safeguarding industrial applications against Ethereum
• The metric known as attack detection rate quan- attacks entails the consideration of several intricate
tifies the speed at which potential security con- components (Ma et al., 2022). One such component
cerns are identified and acknowledged. is the utilization of supervised learning techniques,
• The measurement of the time required to respond specifically employing quantum classifiers. This sec-
to an assault is commonly referred to as response tion provides a pseudocode overview of a potential
time. architectural design for the aforementioned system.
• The term “Resource Usage” is used to denote the
amount of resources consumed by the framework. # Import necessary libraries and modules
import IIoT
The function f exhibits characteristics of context import Ethereum
specificity, context dependency, and context complex- import SupervisedLearning
ity. Nevertheless, the previously indicated equation import QuantumClassifiers
offers a comprehensive framework for evaluating
the effectiveness of IIoT architecture in safeguarding # Define IIoT data collection and preprocessing
Ethereum against potential risks. def collect_and_preprocess_data():
The equation is accompanied by a detailed descrip- IIoT_data = IIoT.collect_data()
tion of each variable: preprocessed_data = IIoT.
preprocess_data(IIoT_data)
Accuracy: In order to assess the effectiveness of the return preprocessed_data
framework, it is crucial to consider this particular
indicator as a primary factor. When the framework # Train a supervised learning model
exhibits a high level of accuracy, it is capable of cor- def train_supervised_model(data):
rectly identifying a significant proportion of attacks. model = SupervisedLearning.train_model(data)
Detection rate: The rate of detection of an assault return model
by the framework. The efficacy of the framework in
swiftly detecting and mitigating attacks prior to caus- # Implement quantum classifiers for attack
ing harm is contingent upon its detection rate. detection
Response time: The prompt discusses the necessity of def quantum_attack_detection(model, data):
responding to an identified attack in a timely manner. quantum_classifier = QuantumClassifiers.build_
The rapid response time of the framework enables classifier()
effective mitigation of the assault (Maharani et al., predictions = quantum_classifier.predict(model,
2020; Brar et al., 2022). data)
return predictions
Resource usage: The framework consumes a signifi-
# Main function
cant portion of the available resources. The frame-
def main():
work’s efficient resource usage demonstrates its
IIoT_data = collect_and_preprocess_data()
effectiveness in achieving desired outcomes with mini-
supervised_model = train_supervised_model
mal resource allocation. The values assigned to these
(IIoT_data)
variables will exhibit uniqueness in relation to every
individual occurrence of the framework. Nevertheless,
while True:
the aforementioned equation offers a comprehensive
IIoT_data_real_time = IIoT.
framework for evaluating the effectiveness of IIoT
collect_real_time_data()
(Zhang et al., 2022) architecture in safeguarding the
if IIoT_data_real_time is not None:
Ethereum platform against potential risks.
attack_probabilities = quantum_attack_detec-
tion (supervised_model, IIoT_data_real_time)
Data pre-processing
In order to ensure data quality, it is imperative
# Threshold for attack detection
to undertake the necessary steps of cleaning and
548 Efficient IIoT framework for mitigating Ethereum attacks in industrial applications
if any(attack_probabilities > threshold): Performance evaluation and validation
IIoT.notify_security_team() This analysis aims to evaluate the efficacy of IIoT
framework (Liu et al., 2019) in detecting assaults, the
IIoT.wait_for_data_update() frequency of false positives it generates, and the addi-
if __name__ == “__main__”: tional labor it necessitates.
main() In order to ascertain the durability and efficacy of
the framework, it is imperative to subject it to thor-
The application of this strategy in practice may ough testing and validation in simulated as well as
result in a simplification that omits crucial features real-world IIoT scenarios.
and complexities. In fact, it is imperative to allocate
greater attention to various practical aspects, such as Deployment and maintenance
data pre-treatment, model hyperparameter tuning, The objective is to seamlessly incorporate the frame-
the implementation of a quantum classifier, and the work of IIoT into manufacturing environments, while
development of Ethereum-specific attack detection ensuring compatibility with existing networks and
methods. Moreover, the specific execution would be safety protocols.
contingent upon the specific technologies and librar- Develop a systematic plan for regularly upgrading
ies available along the course of the development and enhancing the framework in response to emerg-
process. ing threat signatures and advancements in quantum
computing.
Feature engineering
Extract relevant elements from the processed data Result analysis
that effectively capture the distinctions between
The development of a simulation parameter table
benign and harmful IIoT activities.
for a specialized subject necessitates careful delib-
The identification of the most useful features for
eration of the numerous factors involved. A generic
attack detection can be achieved through the utili-
parameter (Table 69.3) is presented below, in accor-
zation of domain knowledge and feature selection
dance with the specified title. The following table
approaches.
presents the simulation parameters utilized in the
development of an efficient IoT framework that is
Quantum classifier development
safeguarded from potential attacks on the Ethereum
Supervised learning models can be constructed using
platform.
quantum classifiers such as quantum support vector
The inclusion of additional variables and param-
machines (QSVM) and quantum neural networks
eters may be necessary depending on the specific
(QNN).
characteristics and requirements of the study or sim-
Leverage the enhanced computational speed and
ulation. Kindly inform me if there are more criteria
accuracy offered by quantum computing to enhance
or specific facts that I should take into account for
the categorization capabilities of the model.
inclusion.
A hypothetical tabular representation labeled
Model training and evaluation
“Results analysis” is provided herein, illustrating
The cleaned data should be divided into separate
an exemplary examination of the simulation out-
training and testing sets in order to facilitate the train-
comes (Table 69.4). Table 69.4 is an examination
ing and evaluation of the quantum classifier model.
of the results pertaining to a proficient Industrial
The model’s proficiency in detecting Ethereum risks
Internet of Things (IIoT) framework fortified
may be assessed by employing evaluation metrics such
against Ethereum-based attacks within commercial
as accuracy, precision, recall, and F1-score.
environments.
The numerical values and outcomes presented in
IIoT framework integration
Table 69.4 are hypothetical instances intended to
The integration of the quantum classifier model into
stimulate critical thinking. The numerical values and
IIoT architecture enables real-time detection and miti-
resulting consequences would need to be derived
gation of attacks.
from the findings of the simulation. The parameters
Developing a structured framework for the recep-
employed in the simulation can be succinctly summa-
tion and processing of feedback is crucial to improve
rized and subjected to analysis through the utilization
the performance of the model, particularly in response
of Table 69.4.
to evolving attack patterns and the complexities of
IIoT ecosystems.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 549
Table 69.3 A generic parameters.
Parameter Description Default/expected value
IIoT network parameters
Number of IIoT devices Total IIoT devices in the simulation 1000
Data transmission rate Rate at which data is transmitted between devices 1 Mbps
Connectivity range Maximum distance for devices to communicate 100 m
Ethereum network parameters
Number of Ethereum nodes Total Ethereum nodes in the simulation 50
Block time Time taken to confirm a block in Ethereum 15 seconds
Attack parameters
Attack type Specific type of Ethereum attack (e.g., 51% attack, double Specify attack type
spending)
Attack frequency How often the attack occurs Once every 24 hours
Supervised learning parameters
Training dataset size Number of data samples used for training the classifier 10,000 samples
Testing dataset size Number of data samples used for testing the classifier 2,000 samples
Learning rate Rate at which the supervised model learns 0.01
Epochs Number of iterations over the entire dataset for training 100
Quantum classifier parameters
Quantum bits (qubits) Number of qubits used in the quantum classifier e.g., 5 qubits
Quantum gate operations Specific quantum operations used Specify gate types
Quantum measurement Method used to measure qubit states after computation e.g., standard basis
technique
Table 69.4 An examination of the results pertaining to a proficient IIoT framework.
Parameter Simulated value Outcome/analysis
IIoT network performance
Average data transmission rate 950 Kbps Slight decrease from expected due to interference from Ethereum
nodes and potential attack traffic
Percentage of successful 98% High connectivity among IIoT devices, ensuring robust
connections communication in the network
Ethereum network behavior
Average block time 16 seconds Slightly increased block time, possibly due to added security
checks against attacks
Attack detection and mitigation
Number of detected attacks 10 The system successfully identified all simulated attacks within the
24 hour periods
Attack mitigation success rate 90% Out of detected attacks, 90% were successfully mitigated
Supervised learning
performance
Classifier training accuracy 95% The model demonstrated high accuracy on the training dataset
Classifier testing accuracy 93% Slight decrease in accuracy on unseen data, but still a strong
performance
Quantum classifier behavior
Quantum computation time 200 milliseconds Quantum classifier demonstrated faster computation times than
classical counterparts
Quantum classifier accuracy 94.5% Quantum classifier showed a promising performance, with
accuracy slightly above the classical model
550 Efficient IIoT framework for mitigating Ethereum attacks in industrial applications
Conclusion Sinha, A., Das, D., Udutalapally, V., and Mohanty, S. P.
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70 Quantum computing in the era of IoT: Revolutionizing
data processing and security in connected devices
S. B. Goyal1,a, Sardar M. N. Islam2, Anand Singh Rajawat3 and Jaiteg Singh4
1
City University, Petaling Jaya, 46100, Malaysia
2
ISILC, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia
3
School of Computer Science & Engineering, Sandip University, Nashik, Maharashtra, India
4
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
Abstract
The incorporation of quantum computing within the framework of the Internet of Things (IoT) signifies a fundamental
transformation in the realm of data processing and security pertaining to interconnected devices. This study examines the
profound influence of quantum computing on IoT, with a specific emphasis on its capacity to fundamentally alter data
management practices and bolster security protocols. Quantum computing, renowned for its remarkable capacity to execute
intricate computations at unparalleled velocities, presents notable strides in computational capability and effectiveness. The
significance of this matter is particularly pronounced within IoT environment, because a multitude of devices collect and
exchange substantial volumes of data. This study explores the utilization of quantum algorithms for the efficient processing,
analysis, and security of data, specifically focusing on the challenges faced by classical computing in managing the vast scale
and intricate nature of IoT networks. Furthermore, this paper examines the distinctive features of quantum cryptography,
which offer resilient security measures against growing cyber threats. This is a crucial factor within the context of IoT envi-
ronment. This study also investigates the obstacles and possible remedies involved in the integration of quantum computing
with IoT devices, encompassing constraints related to hardware and scalability. This detailed analysis elucidates the potential
for quantum computing to bring about transformation in the realm of IoT networks, hence augmenting their capabilities
and security. Consequently, this development paves the way for the emergence of more advanced, efficient, and secures linked
devices across diverse sectors. To proposed the algorithm with the combination of adiabatic quantum computing (AQC) and
quantum key distribution (QKD).
Keywords: Quantum computing, Internet of Things (IoT), data processing, quantum cryptography, IoT security, scalability
Introduction with the imperative for instantaneous processing and
resilient security protocols, have stretched the capaci-
The advent of the Internet of Things (IoT) has
ties of conventional computing to its farthest thresh-
brought about a significant transformation in the
olds. Quantum computing offers a promising avenue
collection, processing, and use of data, owing to the
for tackling these difficulties, owing to its inherent
widespread presence of interconnected devices. The
capacity to execute computations at an exponentially
proliferation of networked devices, encompassing a
accelerated pace compared to classical computers.
wide range from basic sensors to intricate systems,
In contrast to classical computers that operate on
produces substantial volumes of data, hence offer-
binary bits (0s and 1s), quantum computers employ
ing potential advantages as well as posing data pro-
quantum bits, or qubits. Qubits has the ability to
cessing and security-related difficulties. The field of
concurrently represent many states by virtue of the
quantum computing has emerged as a disruptive and
principles of superposition and entanglement. This
transformative force in the current landscape, pro-
unique characteristic empowers quantum computers
viding innovative answers to the intricate challenges
to execute intricate computations with enhanced effi-
presented by IoT. The fundamental principle under-
ciency. Within the realm of IoT, quantum computing
lying the IoT (Jang et al., 2023; Singh et al., 2023)
possesses the capacity to fundamentally transform
is the seamless integration of physical things with
the process of data processing. This transformation
digital networks, facilitating a continuous exchange
is achieved by a substantial reduction in the tem-
of data and interaction. The integration of this tech-
poral demands of data analysis, hence enabling the
nology has resulted in significant advancements in
realization of real-time processing capabilities, even
diverse industries such as healthcare, agriculture,
when dealing with extensive datasets. The capacity
smart cities, and industrial automation. Nevertheless,
to make immediate decisions based on ongoing data
the escalating intricacy and magnitude of data, along
drsbgoyal@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 553
streams is of utmost importance for applications that integration. Due to quantum computing technolo-
necessitate such functionality, including autonomous gies that challenge cryptography, it stresses the
vehicles and real-time environmental monitoring. necessity for strong security solutions. To secure
Moreover, quantum computing represents a funda- cyber systems, the research proposes hybrid tech-
mental transformation in the realm of data security, niques using classical and quantum-resistant
which is a matter of utmost importance in the con- algorithms.
text of IoT networks (Ahmad et al., 2021). The emer- A quantum tunneling physically unclonable func-
gence of quantum algorithms presents sophisticated tion (PUF) introduced as a new hardware security
cryptography methodologies, hence guaranteeing method in a research done by Chuang et al. (2021).
the establishment of safe communication protocols It suggests using quantum tunneling to create unique,
across various gadgets. The significance of this com- unclonable fingerprints for semiconductor chips to
ponent is growing in importance as IoT ecosystem prevent counterfeiting and tampering.
is frequently targeted by cyberattacks, mostly due The research by Al-Mohammed and Yaacoub
to its extensive range of uses and ease of access. In (2021) examines how quantum communication tech-
summary, the incorporation of quantum computing nologies can safeguard IoT devices in the 6G future.
within the domain of IoT holds the potential to effec- It addresses how quantum key distribution and
tively tackle the concurrent issues of data process- other quantum-based technologies can safeguard
ing and security. Through the utilization of quantum the growing IoT infrastructure against advanced
mechanics, there exists the potential to augment the cyberattacks.
efficacy, velocity, and safeguarding of data processing Shim (2021) in his survey examines post-quantum
in interconnected devices, thereby assuming a crucial public-key signature techniques for secure vehicle
function in the progression of IoT domain. In light of communications. It evaluates quantum-resistant
the current technological advancements, it is crucial cryptography methods for intelligent transportation
to thoroughly investigate and exploit the capabilities systems.
of quantum computing in order to effectively achieve Each of these works advances quantum technolo-
the potential of IoT era. gies and their applications in communication, secu-
“Explore integration of Adiabatic Quantum rity, and IoT, shedding light on the difficulties and
Computing and Quantum Key Distribution in IoT for solutions of a quickly changing quantum-influenced
enhanced data security.” technological landscape.
“Develop algorithms combining AQC and QKD to
revolutionize IoT device communication and encryp- Purposed methodology
tion protocols.”
“Investigate synergies between AQC and QKD The incorporation of quantum computing (QC)
to significantly improve IoT network security and (Sandilya and Sharma, 2021) inside the framework
efficiency.” of IoT represents a significant advancement in the
This paper is organized as to represent the related realms of data processing and security. The IoT is
work, proposed methodology, results analysis, and distinguished by its extensive network of intercon-
finally conclusion and future work. nected devices, which results in the generation of
substantial amounts of data. Consequently, the pro-
cessing of this data requires advanced computational
Related work
skills, as well as the implementation of solid security
The related works you mentioned cover a range of measures. Quantum computing presents a promis-
topics in the fields of quantum communication, cyber- ing avenue for addressing these difficulties, given its
security in the quantum era, and applications of quan- remarkable computational capabilities and promise
tum technologies in various domains. The following is for unmatched levels of security.
a summary of each work:
The study by Sandilya and Sharma (2021) explores Quantum computing: A paradigm shift
the quantum internet and its potential to transform Quantum computing utilizes the fundamental prin-
global communications. We examine the technologi- ciples of quantum mechanics, employing qubits that
cal advances and obstacles of building a quantum have the ability to exist in superposition, allowing
internet infrastructure. They focus on how entangle- for simultaneous occupation of multiple states. This
ment and quantum key distribution might create enables quantum computers to execute intricate cal-
unprecedented security and efficiency in quantum culations at velocities that cannot be achieved by con-
communication. ventional computers. In the realm of IoT, quantum
The paper by Yavuz et al. (2022) examines post- computing possesses the capability to efficiently han-
quantum distributed cyber-infrastructures and AI dle substantial datasets, hence enabling the possibility
554 Quantum computing in the era of IoT
of conducting real-time data analysis for a multitude Proposed algorithm 1
of interconnected devices. Adiabatic quantum computing (AQC)
Initialize the Quantum System
Enhanced data processing – Define the initial Hamiltonian (H_initial)
Within the context of IoT ecosystems, devices engage that is easy to prepare.
in a constant process of data collection, necessitating – Prepare the quantum system in the ground
prompt processing in order to achieve optimal effec- state of H_initial.
tiveness. Quantum computers (Yavuz et al., 2022) Define the Problem Hamiltonian
provide the capability to swiftly analyze this data, – Construct the final Hamiltonian (H_final)
thereby deriving useful insights with enhanced effi- that encodes the solution to the problem.
ciency compared to previous methods. The ability to – Ensure that the ground state of H_final
analyze data in real-time is of utmost importance in represents the solution.
various applications, such as smart cities, since it has Gradually Evolve the System
the potential to greatly improve urban management – Set a total evolution time (T) sufficiently
and services. long to satisfy the adiabatic condition.
– Define a time-dependent Hamiltonian H(t)
Revolutionizing security that smoothly interpolates between H_ini-
The security of IoT is a matter of utmost importance, tial and H_final.
as the devices within this network frequently exhibit For each time t, H(t) = f(t) * H_initial +
susceptibility to cyber-attacks. Quantum comput- [1 - f(t)] * H_final, where 0 ≤ t ≤ T and f(t) is a
ing presents sophisticated cryptography approaches, smoothly varying function.
such as quantum key distribution (QKD), that pos- Maintain Adiabatic Evolution
sess theoretical resistance against conventional – Gradually evolve the quantum system un-
hacking methodologies. The implementation of der H(t).
quantum-enhanced security measures plays a crucial – Ensure the evolution is slow enough to
role in safeguarding the confidentiality and integrity keep the system in its instantaneous ground
of sensitive information that is transferred across IoT state.
networks. Measure the Final State
The current epoch of IoT is distinguished by an – At the end of the evolution (t = T), measure
expanding network of interconnected devices, which the state of the quantum system.
produce substantial volumes of data and pose intri- – The measurement outcome corresponds to
cate dilemmas in the realms of data processing and the ground state of H_final, providing the
security. Adiabatic quantum computing (AQC) has solution to the problem.
emerged as a groundbreaking methodology (Chuang Error and Decoherence Consideration
et al., 2021) within this domain, presenting novel – Due to the adiabatic theorem, the system
opportunities for addressing these obstacles with is inherently robust against certain types of
unparalleled efficacy and robustness. errors and decoherence.
– If necessary, incorporate error correction
Introduction to adiabatic quantum computing (AQC) techniques to handle non-adiabatic transi-
The AQC paradigm is based on the principles of tions and other errors.
quantum physics. It involves the slow evolution of End of Pseudo Code
a system, starting from an initial state and progress-
ing to a final state. During this process, the solu- AQC in IoT data processing
tion to a given issue is encoded inside the system. In The IoT ecosystem produces substantial quantities
contrast to conventional quantum computing meth- of intricate and multidimensional data that necessi-
odologies that employ quantum gate operations, tate swift processing and analysis. The utilization of
AQC (Al-Mohammed and Yaacoub, 2021) relies on the quantum approximate optimization algorithm
the principles outlined in the adiabatic theorem of (QAOA) (Nikiema et al., 2023) has proven to be
quantum mechanics (Shim, 2021). The aforemen- effective in addressing optimization problems that
tioned theorem guarantees the preservation of the are prevalent in the field of IoT data analytics. This
ground state of a quantum system over a gradual approach involves the mapping of these optimization
evolution (Alkhulaifi and El-Alfy, 2020), hence pre- problems onto the energy landscape of a quantum
senting an alternative computational framework system (Lee et al., 2022), enabling efficient solutions
that possesses intrinsic resilience against specific to be obtained. As the system undergoes evolution,
forms of errors and decoherence (Althobaiti and it inherently converges towards the state of lowest
Dohler, 2020).
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 555
energy, which corresponds to the most optimal solu- to the improvement of security algorithms. For
tion. This functionality is especially advantageous example, the rapid problem-solving capabilities of
for activities such as pattern identification, anomaly this technology can be leveraged to enhance encryp-
detection, and prognostic maintenance in IoT devices tion algorithms, hence enhancing their resistance to
(Malina et al., 2021). both classical and quantum attacks. This holds special
significance within the framework of devising quan-
Proposed Algorithm 2 tum-resistant encryption techniques for IoT devices
Algorithm: AQC_IoT_Data_Processing (Aminanto et al., 2017; Xin et al., 2020).
Inputs:
IoT_Data: Multidimensional data from IoT Proposed algorithm 3
devices Algorithm: Enhance_IoT_Security_with_AQC
Optimization_Problem: The specific optimiza- Input: IoT_Device_Data, Classical_Encryption_
tion problem to be solved Parameters
Output: Output: Quantum_Safe_Encrypted_Data
Optimal_Solution: The best solution found for Procedure Enhance_IoT_Security_with_AQC:
the given problem // Step 1: Initialize IoT device data and encryp-
Begin tion parameters
// Initialize the quantum system device_data <- IoT_Device_Data
Quantum_System classical_parameters <- Classical_Encryption_
<- Initialize_Quantum_System() Parameters
// Map the optimization problem onto the quan- // Step 2: Define AQC optimization problem for
tum system’s energy landscape encryption
Energy_Landscape <- Map_Problem_To_Energy_ Define AQC_Optimization_Problem:
Landscape(IoT_Data, Optimization_Problem) Objective: Minimize the potential of the system
// Set the initial and final Hamiltonians Constraints: Adhere to quantum mechanics
Initial_Hamiltonian <- Define_Initial_ principles
Hamiltonian (Energy_Landscape) // Step 3: Encode the encryption problem into
Final_Hamiltonian <- Define_Final_Hamiltonian AQC
(Energy_Landscape) aqc_problem <- Encode_Encryption_Problem
// Set the total evolution time (device_data, classical_parameters)
Total_Time <- Define_Total_Evolution_Time() // Step 4: Solve the optimization problem using
// Apply adiabatic evolution AQC
For t from 0 to Total_Time do optimized_solution <- Solve_AQC_Optimization
Current_Hamiltonian <- Adiabatic_Evolution _Problem(aqc_problem)
(Initial_Hamiltonian, Final_Hamiltonian, t, // Step 5: Extract quantum-safe encryption
Total_Time) parameters
quantum_safe_parameters <- Extract_Parameters
Update_Quantum_System_State(Quantum_ (optimized_solution)
System, Current_Hamiltonian) // Step 6: Encrypt IoT device data using quantum-
End safe parameters
// Measure the quantum system to obtain the Quantum_Safe_Encrypted_Data <-
solution Encrypt(device_data, quantum_safe_parameters)
Optimal_Solution <- Measure_Quantum_System // Step 7: Return the encrypted data
(Quantum_System) return Quantum_Safe_Encrypted_Data
End Procedure
Return Optimal_Solution
End AQC for energy-efficient IoT operations
Internet of Things (IoT) devices frequently functions
Enhancing IoT security with AQC within limitations pertaining to power consumption
The issue of security in IoT (Rahman et al., 2017) is and processing capabilities. Adiabatic quantum com-
of utmost importance, particularly due to the wide- puting (AQC) exhibits a more energy-efficient nature
spread adoption of devices and the high level of sensi- in comparison to classical computing techniques and
tivity associated with the data being transmitted and alternative quantum computing approaches, owing to
stored. Automated query construction (AQC) (Tulli et its slow and regulated generation of quantum states.
al., 2019) has the potential to significantly contribute The inclusion of this functionality is crucial in order
556 Quantum computing in the era of IoT
to implement sophisticated data processing func- Proposed algorithm 5
tionalities on IoT devices that have limited power Algorithm QuantumEnhancedIoTCommunication
resources (Kumar et al., 2023).
// Step 1: Initialize IoT devices
Proposed algorithm 4
Initialize IoT devices with quantum capabilities
Efficient IoT Operations
// Step 1: Initialization // Step 2: Establish QKD for secure key
Prepare initial quantum state |y(0)> distribution
Initialize Hamiltonian H_initial corresponding to Function EstablishQKD(IoT_Device1,
|y(0)> IoT_Device2)
Set final Hamiltonian H_final representing the Generate secure quantum keys using QKD
problem to be solved Share keys between IoT_Device1 and IoT_Device2
// Step 2: Adiabatic Evolution Ensure keys are tamper-proof using quantum
For t from 0 to T (total computation time): properties
Slowly vary the Hamiltonian from H_initial to Return shared quantum keys
H_final End Function
At each time step t, update the quantum state
|y(t)> according to the current Hamiltonian H(t) // Step 3: Secure data transmission using AQC
Ensure the change in Hamiltonian is slow enough Function SecureDataTransmission(IoT_Sender,
to maintain adiabaticity IoT_Receiver, Data)
// Step 3: Measurement and Outcome SharedKey = EstablishQKD(IoT_Sender,
Measure the final quantum state |y(T)> IoT_Receiver)
Decode the measurement to obtain the solution to EncryptedData = Encrypt(Data, SharedKey)
the problem using AQC-based encryption
// Energy-Efficient Operations for IoT Transmit EncryptedData from IoT_Sender to
For each IoT operation: IoT_Receiver
Define H_final to represent the specific data pro- DecryptedData = Decrypt(EncryptedData,
cessing or computational task SharedKey) at IoT_Receiver
Run AQC process Return DecryptedData
Utilize the solution obtained for efficient IoT End Function
operations
// Note: The efficiency of AQC in this context // Step 4: Handling IoT device communication
depends on: Function HandleIoTCommunication(IoT_
- The gradual evolution ensuring minimal energy Device1, IoT_Device2, Data)
consumption // Using AQC for solving complex optimization
- The effective formulation of the initial and final problems if needed
Hamiltonians to represent IoT tasks OptimizedData = ApplyAQCAlgorithms(Data)
- The total computation time T being sufficiently SecureData = SecureDataTransmission(IoT_
long to ensure adiabatic evolution Device1, IoT_Device2, OptimizedData)
Table 70.1 Comparative analysis between traditional IoT system and quantum-enhanced IoT system.
Dataset ID Metric Traditional IoT Quantum-enhanced Improvement Dataset ID
system IoT system
DS1 Processing speed (Ops/sec) 1000 Ops/sec 5000 Ops/sec 400% DS1
DS2 Data throughput (GB/hr) 50 GB/hr 200 GB/hr 300% DS2
DS3 Encryption strength (bit) 128-bit 256-bit (quantum Enhanced DS3
resistant)
DS4 Error rate (%) 2% 0.5% Reduced DS4
DS5 Energy efficiency (Joules/ 0.01 Joules/Op 0.005 Joules/Op 50% Saving DS5
Op)
DS6 Latency (ms) 10 ms 2 ms 80% Reduced DS6
DS7 Scalability (Max devices) 10,000 devices 50,000 devices 400% DS7
DS8 Network resilience (Score) 3/5 5/5 Improved DS8
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 557
Return SecureData • Energy efficiency is quantified by the metric of
End Function Joules per operation, which serves as an indica-
tor of the amount of energy necessary for each
// Step 5: Main execution block individual operation.
Main • Latency is quantified in milliseconds (ms), where-
Data = “IoT data payload” in smaller values denote more rapid reaction du-
SecureData = HandleIoTCommunication(IoT_ rations.
Device1, IoT_Device2, Data) • Scalability pertains to the system’s capacity to
Display “Securely transmitted data: “, SecureData efficiently accommodate a maximum number of
End Main devices.
End Algorithm • The scoring of network resilience is conducted
on a numerical scale ranging from 1 to 5, where
higher scores are indicative of a higher degree of
Result analysis resistance against disruptions or attacks.
• Table 70.1 has been constructed using fictitious
data in order to provide instructive examples. Table 70.2 provides a concise overview of the pro-
• The term “Ops/sec” is an abbreviation for op- found influence that quantum computing has on IoT
erations per second, which serves as a metric for systems, with a specific focus on the domains of data
measuring processing speed. processing and security. The aforementioned state-
• The term “GB/hr” denotes the unit of measurement ment underscores the notable advancements in veloc-
for data throughput, specifically gigabytes per hour. ity, safeguarding measures, and effectiveness, hence
• The level of encryption is often measured in bits, signifying a noteworthy progression in the function-
where larger values correspond to greater encryp- alities of IoT devices and networks.
tion strength.
Table 70.2 Results analysis between traditional IoT system and quantum-enhanced IoT system.
Aspect Traditional IoT systems Quantum-enhanced IoT Observations
systems
Data processing Limitations of classical Speedier due to quantum Quantum computing processes
speed computation superposition and parallelism data almost instantly, surpassing
regular methods
Security Quantum assaults may Quantum assaults may Quantum cryptography
measures compromise encryption compromise encryption provides impenetrable security,
even for quantum computers
Data handling Limited by classical computing Exponentially increased due to IoT devices capture massive
capacity qubits’ enhanced information volumes of data, hence quantum
capacity computing is necessary
Energy efficiency Classical computing uses more Quantum processing efficiency Although speculative, quantum
energy may reduce energy use computing could improve IoT
data processing energy efficiency
Scalability Limited computational and Compact quantum devices Quantum computing may let
energy resources limit scalability and efficient data processing IoT networks scale without
improve scalability resource limits
Response time to It uses traditional algorithms Quantum-based decryption Quantum-enhanced IoT systems
security threats and networks, making it slower and threat detection techniques detect and respond to security
provide fast reaction threats faster
Conclusion landscape. The incorporation of quantum computing
The investigation into quantum computing within into IoT devices and networks represents a significant
the context of IoT signifies a notable shift in para- advancement in processing power, the establishment
digms, with the potential to fundamentally trans- of strong security frameworks, and the development
form the methods by which data is processed and of novel approaches to intricate challenges. Quantum
safeguarded in an ever more interconnected global computing has an unparalleled level of computational
558 Quantum computing in the era of IoT
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71 A federated learning approach to classify depression using
audio dataset
Chetna Gupta and Vikas Khullara
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
Abstract
Vocal emotions are basic to expressing and understanding thoughts and the low toned vocal emotion expression is a major
deficit in individuals with depression. The primary objective of this paper is to propose a federated learning (FL)-based clas-
sification model to identify depression in individuals through audio. The current scenario of artificial intelligence (AI) focuses
on collaborative training of deep learning (DL) models without losing data privacy. So, in the methodology of this paper,
a collaborative and privacy preserved approach has been developed using FL for training deep learning models. The long-
short short-term memory (LSTM) and bidirectional- long-short term memory (B-LSTM)-based deep learning models will be
trained on a collected dataset in the federated learning ecosystem. As a result, the implemented models will be comparatively
analyzed on base DL structure as well as the FL ecosystem. The purpose of the investigation is to compare the impact of FL
architecture implementations on benchmark models. In conclusion, the most effective examined strategy will be considered
for future research objectives.
Keywords: Depression, artificial intelligence, federated learning, long-short term memory, bidirectional – long-short term
memory, audio
Introduction To achieve this goal, a federated architecture is sug-
gested to achieve privacy-preserving data via voice
In the present era, depression is one of the biggest
analysis. With the training data remaining decen-
problems the world faces, and if it fails to be treated,
tralized, this model makes an effort to use federated
it can result in both suicidal thoughts and actual
learning (FL) to enable collaborative training of an
attempts (Statista, 2021). Depression affects people
audio-based framework through many clients. The
and is an unnoticed psychological disorder that can
proposed architecture can reduce numerous systemic
strike anyone, including those who appear to be
privacy problems that are present in the conventional
doing well. Additionally, one of the most prevalent
centralized approaches because personal information
psychological conditions is depression in our society,
is preserved locally in FL.
which is characterized by a rapid reliance on tech-
nological advancement (LeMoult and Gotlib 2019;
Related work
Gupta and Khullar 2022). It is crucial to keep in mind
that this illness does not yet have a known remedy A study by Orabi et al. (2018) used a variety of deep
that can eliminate all of its effects. Determining the learning (DL) techniques to analyze Twitter data for
fundamental causes of the problem and coming up depression classification. Cai et al. (2018) tested four
with an answer is therefore imperative if we want to machine learning algorithms to identify depression
stop it from becoming more serious in the future. An via EEG signals, and the K-Nearest Neighbour model
early depression detection method could save people’s achieved substantial accuracy. Khullar et al. (2022)
lives from risk. and Brar et al. (2022) developed an ensemble ML
In this era, depression detection using audio dataset, model for anxiety detection using physiological sig-
which depends on voice analysis learning models to nals. Using a ML approach, Mousavian et al. (2021)
support the early detection of depression by patients established the identification of depression on resting-
themselves, has attracted great interest as a result of state MRI and structured MRI image data. In a recent
recent advancements in deep learning techniques. study, Adarsh et al. (2023) presented an ensemble
Existing research uses centralized training to clas- mode to solve the problem of the difference between
sify and predict depression (Ye et al., 2021). Hence, a depression and suicidal thoughts through social media.
method that preserves patient privacy while enabling TR et al. (2022) and Elbeltagi et al. (2020) demon-
individual patients with health information to pro- strated ML models for different heart diseases and
vide the construction of a reliable approach is greatly climate changes. Sadilek et al. (2021) have summa-
desired (Cui et al., 2022; Suruliraj and Orji, 2022). rized many instances in which FL could be utilized to
[Link]@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 561
improve various health research. Pranto and Al Asad the audio waves are then split across four clients for
(2021) introduced the application of FL in medical IID settings. A vocal descriptor that is frequently
studies by comparing centralized and FL approaches used to identify depression is Mel Frequency Cepstral
across multiple mental diseases. Khullar and Singh Coefficients (MFCC). Consequently, 162 features have
(2022) introduced FL trained algorithms for identify- been retrieved from the audio dataset using MFCC.
ing disaster areas in the internet of unmanned aerial To see the outcomes in many scenarios with the
vehicles (UAVs) that enhance data sharing. Fan et al. highest performance, DL algorithms are implemented
(2021), Uyulan et al. (2021) and Yasin et al. (2021) in the audio file after pre-processing information. In
developed diagnostic systems to detect major depres- order to classify depressed and non-depressed par-
sive disorder using various DL techniques. ticipants, DL algorithms such as LSTM, CNN, and
Bi-LSTM were implemented. Moreover, these algo-
Methodology rithms are used to develop a base model and find the
best algorithm to work with FL.
In this study, an openly available audio dataset is Table 71.1 and Figure 71.2 shows the results of
obtained which are pre-processed and analyzed using base DL model algorithms in which using CNN,
deep learning algorithms as a base, CNN, long-short LSTM, and Bi-LSTM validation results reached 85%,
short-term memory (LSTM) and bidirectional- long- 89%, and 91%, respectively. So, the Bi-LSTM algo-
short term memory (B-LSTM). Following that, the rithm outperformed other algorithms with 91% high-
privacy-preserved FL algorithm is applied to IID est validation accuracy.
users to train a centralized model on the client site The FL method and Bi-LSTM method are combined
and develop an aggregated model on the server site. to analyze the IID data for the purpose of diagnosing
The audio files contain 52 individuals’ data from depressed patients while maintaining their privacy.
Chinese people (23 depressed and 29 healthy par- For the 4 clients, the training and validation sets are
ticipants) obtained from Lanzhou University’s Second divided as IID data. Further, all client data is tested
Affiliated Hospital (Cai et al., 2020). Each individual at the server site to aggregate all the client models.
has 29 clips in this dataset, which are categorized as Finally, the server developed model is updated at all
positive, neutral, or negative emotional stimuli. The clients’ sites.
voice data is collected using high-quality equipment.
Participants in both the healthy and depressed groups
range in age from 18 to 55 years. Table 71.1 Training and validation results of DL models
FL clients simply share the outcomes of calculated for depression detection
weights to form an aggregated analysis model. To Parameters Bi LSTM CNN LSTM
protect data privacy, no data is transferred between
nodes. FL supports N clients (C1, C2, ... CN) with Accuracy 99.08333 99.66667 99.33333
datasets (D1, D2, ... DN). So, FL trains each client’s Validation 91 85 89
data independently to establish a decentralized deep accuracy
learning model (Figure 71.1). Precision 99.08333 99.66667 99.33333
Validation 91 85 89
(1) precision
Recall 99.08333 99.66667 99.33333
Results and discussion Validation 91 85 89
recall
The DL architecture is applied as a base in this research Loss 0.032376 0.012926 0.015737
to evaluate audio recordings from depressed and nor-
Validation loss 0.349078 0.439554 0.347897
mal individuals. Using the privacy protected FL system
Figure 71.1 Federated learning model for depression detection using audio data
562 A federated learning approach to classify depression using audio dataset
Figure 71.2 Training and validation accuracy and loss results for depression detection using Bi-LSTM, CNN and LSTM
algorithms
According to Table 71.2 and Figure 71.3–71.5, Table 71.2 Training and validation results of FL models
privacy protected FL model achieved 94.25% for depression detection using IID data
accuracy for training IID data over the client site.
Parameters Client IID Client IID Server IID
Further, validation accuracy for IID data at the cli- training validation validation
ent site is slightly lower at 85.66% and validation
accuracy for IID data is 86.66% at the server site. Accuracy 94.25 85.66667 86.66667
Although the FL model has a little less accuracy Precision 94.25 85.66667 86.66667
than the DL model for privacy protected systems Recall 94.25 85.66667 86.66667
it’s really needed. Because hospital’s data is pri-
Loss 0.160396 0.356732 0.32788
vate and many patients don’t want to disclose their
Figure 71.3 Client training results for depression detection using IID data
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 563
Figure 71.4 Client validation results for depression detection using IID data
Figure 71.5 Server validation results for depression detection using IID data
information so, FL is the best way to train a secure After that, an automated privacy-protected FL-based
diagnosis system. depression detection framework is proposed using an
audio dataset. Therefore, the suggested FL framework
Conclusion obtained accuracy for IID data of 94.25% during
training 85.66% during validation on the client site,
In this article, we introduce a system for identifying and 86.66% validation accuracy on the server site.
and categorizing depressed and healthy individu- Thus, in the future, this method could be applied to
als from audio data. The creation of an automated diverse datasets to check its reliability and robustness.
diagnostic system will aid clinicians in providing a
fast diagnosis of depression. So, firstly we developed
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72 Securing IOT CCTV: Advanced video encryption
algorithm for enhanced data protection
Kawalpreet Kaur1,2,a, Amanpreet Kaur3, Vidhyotma Gandhi4 and
Bhupendra Singh5
1,3
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
2
Goswami Ganesh Dutta Sanatan Dharma College, Sector 32, Chandigarh, India
4
Gyancity Research Labs, Gurugram, Haryana, India
5
Defence Research and Development Organization, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
Abstract
Ensuring the security of multimedia content and its applications has evolved into a pivotal responsibility within IoT com-
munication technology. Cryptography stands out as a fundamental technique that offers security and confidentiality, thereby
thwarting unauthorized data access. Choosing an appropriate design for an encryption system becomes imperative to guar-
antee comprehensive security and the preservation of data privacy. This study focuses on IoT-centric CCTV (CCTV) sys-
tems, illuminating potential security weaknesses during data transmission and storage. Through experimental assessments,
we evaluate these algorithms’ performance and security characteristics, considering factors such as encryption time, and
computational efficiency. By providing insights into the strengths and weaknesses of various video encryption methods, this
research aids in the implementation of robust security measures for IoT-driven surveillance applications. In this paper, an
optimized video encryption algorithm (OVEA) is proposed. In order to validate the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm,
a comprehensive set of experiments is conducted. A comparative analysis is carried out against existing encryption methods
to do the relative assessment The proposed OVEA algorithm demonstrates reduced encryption time of 0.00356s compared
to various existing public key algorithms when applied to video data.
Keywords: IoT, CCTV, encryption, privacy, and security
Introduction a user’s sensitive multimedia data can effectively miti-
gate data tampering and unauthorized access vulnera-
The Internet of Things (IoT) has reshaped our
bilities. Nevertheless, traditional single-key encryption
approach to security and surveillance in an era
methods like Advanced Encryption Standard and
defined by the convergence of physical and digital
Data Encryption Standard often generate substan-
realms. Among the multitude of IoT applications,
tial amounts of cipher text during the encryption
IoT Closed-Circuit Television (CCTV) cameras have
process (Hamza and Kumar, 2020). Conversely, it is
taken center stage as powerful tools for remote moni-
equally vital to minimize the computational burden
toring and video surveillance (Rani et al., 2020; Lee
on the device during the encryption process (Yun
and Park, 2021). While these smart cameras offer
and Kim, 2020). This is particularly significant in
unprecedented convenience and accessibility, they
today’s landscape where devices with constrained
also introduce significant security concerns, primar-
resources, such as mobile phones, connected cameras,
ily centered around protecting sensitive video data.
and IoT devices, are frequently employed as endpoint
To address these concerns, encryption algorithms
devices for capturing and transmitting data to cloud
have emerged as crucial components of IoT CCTV
storage servers. Therefore, it becomes imperative to
camera systems, offering the promise of safeguarding
develop video encryption algorithms that are mind-
video streams from unauthorized access and tamper-
ful of these resource limitations (Ghimire and Lee,
ing (Kaur and Gandhi, 2022).
2020). For practical, real-world applications, a video
This introduction sets the stage for a comprehen-
encryption algorithm must consider a multitude of
sive examination of IoT CCTV camera encryption
factors, including security, encryption efficiency, com-
algorithms and their effectiveness in enhancing secu-
pression efficiency, and more. Furthermore, existing
rity. It underscores the critical role that encryption
algorithms often suffer from extended retrieval times
plays in securing the video data generated by these
for video files since they give higher encryption time,
devices, emphasizing the importance of striking a bal-
thus increasing the overall computational overhead
ance between accessibility and protection. Encrypting
(Kumar et al., 2021; Gbashi et al., 2022). Ultimately,
a
kaur.kawalpreet17@[Link]
566 Securing IOT CCTV: Advanced video encryption algorithm for enhanced data protection
this study aims to provide insights into the critical balanced according to the level of risks involved. That
role of encryption algorithms in the security of IoT simply means it is difficult to recognize the face if the
CCTV cameras, shedding light on their effectiveness degree of masking is higher, thus enabling the stron-
in safeguarding sensitive video data and proposing an ger protection of data. According to Kim et al. (2020)
optimized video encryption algorithm (OVEA) that spoofing, sniffing, and inside attacks can be avoided
will optimize the encryption time and provide an opti- with this.
mal solution for the security of IoT CCTV devices. In an IoT surveillance system, a lot of video data is
generated that contains a large amount of insignifi-
Related work cant data. Therefore, to secure the useful data, Priya
et al. (2021) use a video summarization technique
In this segment, various relevant studies concern- that is used to extract meaningful frames from large
ing video encryption are explored and elucidated. video data to detect abnormal events. To detect the
These works delve into the examination and explana- abnormal image, feature extraction is done using the
tion of the security performance of video encryption Blob analysis method. After feature extraction, clas-
approaches in various research studies. Block cipher sification is performed to compare databases with the
encryption algorithms such as AES (Heron, 2009) detected objects using the K-NN algorithm. In the last,
which is appropriate for encrypting text data cannot encryption is done using the AES algorithm and then
be applied to the encryption of video streams due to an encrypted image is sent to the user using Gmail.
the low power processor. The problems of block cipher In IoT based home monitoring systems, surveillance
based encryption are solved using a permutation-based systems are used but to ensure privacy, lightweight
encryption algorithm that is proposed by Liu and security algorithms are used. To ensure security, data
Koenig (2005) and Gera et al. (2021). The video frame encryption is done using the keccak-chaotic sequence
here is encrypted by changing the order of one specific by Ravikumar and Kavita (2020).
part with another one in the frame. This algorithm is Hameed Obaida et al. (n.d.) reviewed video encryp-
suitable for video data encryption as it generates lower tion techniques for content protection, highlighting
processing overhead than AES. But because the same their vulnerabilities to cryptanalysis attacks. Fully
permutation list is being used for every frame, it is encryption techniques offer high security but are com-
unsafe for plain text attacks and as encryption is done putationally expensive and not suitable for real-time
after compression, hackers can still recover parts of use. Selective encryption algorithms are faster but
the original frame. Therefore, Sultana and Shubhangi provide lower video security.
(2017) proposed an encryption algorithm that encrypts Al-Husainy and Al-Shargabi (n.d.) discussed that a
video streams before compression and that is based on lightweight encryption model is required to combat
the faro shuffle algorithm. But still, plaintext attack the limited resources such as process and memory of
problems exist in this algorithm, as it uses the same IoT devices. Therefore, this model also ensures high-
permutation list of every frame, and since the complex- level security by using a large size key that is difficult
ity of the faro shuffle algorithm is low, it is unsafe from to crack, and that key is further changed after a cer-
brute force attacks. Therefore, Yun and Kim (2020) tain period (Table 72.1).
proposed an algorithm to avoid plain text attacks by
updating the permutation list for each frame. However,
Methodology
this algorithm increases the encryption time.
CCTV becomes the essential requirement to iden- Prominent issues associated with CCTV camera secu-
tify an individual based on their facial characteris- rity would be studied, to propose a cryptography
tics. But despite using deep learning, it is difficult to algorithm for the optimization of the time of CCTV
recognize faces correctly due to low resolution, acute footage of IoT devices. The performance of the pro-
weather, or various facial expressions. Therefore, Kim posed algorithm would be examined as per estab-
et al. (2020) proposed an access control technique lished parameters. The algorithm for the proposed
that is based on video surveillance. This technique is OVEA is given below:
used to incorporate CCTV machine learning in facial
recognition systems with radio frequency identifica- Capture the original video from CCTV camera.
tion (RFID) features that enable multichannel authen- Compress the original video using a video codec (e.g.,
tication on the mobile of the user. H.264, H.265, VP9) to reduce its file size.
If somehow these RFID authentication tags are Decompose the compressed video into individual
breached or in case of poor video quality, this dual frames for further processing.
channel authentication approach will be able to pro- Generate encryption keys for securing the video data.
tect the privacy of the user. Differential face image This involves symmetric encryption keys for the
masking is implemented in this approach that can be video frames.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 567
Table 72.1 Key findings in the literature
Reference Technique used Applications Limitations
Heron, 2009 Block cipher encryption Text encryption Not applied in videos
Liu and Koenig, 2005 Permutation based encryption Suitable for video Vulnerable to plain text
encryption attacks
Sultana and Shubhangi, Faro shuffle algorithm Suitable for video Vulnerable to plain text and
2017 encryption brute force attacks
Yun and Kim, 2020 Permutation based encryption Safe from plain text attacks Encryption time increased
Kim et al., 2020 Access control technique and Prevent spoofing, sniffing Difficult to recognize the
differential face image masking and inside attacks face if the degree of masking
is higher
Priya et al., 2021 Video summarization technique Extract meaningful frames Not applied in real time
from large video data to
detect abnormal events
Hameed Obaida, n.d. Keccak-chaotic sequence Lightweight security Not used for different
algorithm formats of data
Al-Husainy and Lightweight encryption model Overcome the problem of -
Al-Shargabi, n.d. limited resources of IoT
Table 72.2 A comparison results of encryption speed time (in frame/seconds) for different videos without compression
CCTV Video size Video Frame rate/ Frame Encryption time per frame in Decryption time per frame in
video in KB length sec count sec of proposed algorithm sec of proposed algorithm
CCTV1 2528 KB 29 sec 25 731 0.00356 0.00305
CCTV2 6028 KB 30 sec 25 756 0.00523 0.00446
CCTV3 4942KB 24 sec 25 604 0.00534 0.00474
CCTV4 2429 KB 23 sec 15 357 0.00290 0.00207
CCTV5 2538 KB 24 sec 15 363 0.00292 0.00233
Encrypt each video frame using the generated encryp- without compressing CCTV footage are being com-
tion keys. This step ensures the data remains puted and results are shown in Table 72.2. Here,
confidential and secure. encryption is applied directly to the CCTV footage
Combine the encrypted frames to form an encrypted and encryption and decryption time is being calcu-
video sequence. lated. The proposed OVEA algorithm is giving dif-
Depending on the application, you can either display ferent encryption and decryption times according to
the encrypted video or transmit it securely to the video length, size of the video and frame count,
cloud storage via the internet for remote access. but giving optimal results as shown in Table 72.3 as
Retrieve the encrypted video from storage or recep- the video is first being compressed and then encrypted
tion over the internet. and video is uncompressed and decryption process
Decrypt each frame of the encrypted video using the is carried out. Figures 72.1 and 72.2 illustrate that
same encryption keys used for encryption. employing the proposed OVEA for encryption yields
optimal outcomes, thereby strengthening security
Results and discussion measures.
After conducting a comprehensive evaluation of
For the encryption process to be carried out, five dif- various encryption algorithms, it is evident that our
ferent CCTV videos from different cameras with vari- algorithm has emerged as the most efficient in terms
able size and frame count are being considered. The of encryption time as displayed in Table 72.4. The
encryption and decryption time of different videos encryption process, when executed using OVEA
568 Securing IOT CCTV: Advanced video encryption algorithm for enhanced data protection
Table 72.3 A comparison results of encryption speed time (in frame/seconds) for different videos with compression
S. No. CCTV video Compressed Encryption time per frame in sec of Decryption time per frame in sec of
video proposed algorithm proposed algorithm
1 CCTV1 242 KB 0.00291 0.00242
2 CCTV2 2337 KB 0.00539 0.00484
3 CCTV3 1807 KB 0.00579 0.00511
4 CCTV4 1433 KB 0.00307 0.00254
5 CCTV5 1436 KB 0.00275 0.00214
Table 72.4 Comparison of time taken by different
encryption algorithms
Encryption Encryption time in Key length
algorithm sec per frame
AES 0.412 256 bit key
Hybrid 0.2635 256 bit key
Proposed method 0.00356 256 bit key
Figure 72.1 Time taken to perform encryption and de-
cryption without compression
Figure 72.3 Time taken to perform encryption
its suitability for diverse real-world use cases, from
IoT devices to high-performance data centers.
From Figure 72.3, it has been noted that the encryp-
tion time for video data using the proposed OVEA is
shorter in comparison to several established public
key algorithms.
Figure 72.2 Time taken to perform encryption and de- Conclusion
cryption with compression using proposed OVEA
In the rapidly evolving landscape of IoT CCTV secu-
rity, the introduction of an advanced video encryption
algorithm has shown promising potential to address
algorithm, consistently outpaces other contenders, critical vulnerabilities. By offering enhanced encryp-
delivering the fastest encryption times across a range tion times without compromising data security, the
of scenarios and data sizes. This outcome holds sig- proposed OVEA algorithm represents a significant
nificant implications for applications where real-time stride towards fortifying the protection of sensitive
encryption is essential, as OVEA algorithm ensures the video data. In a world where the convergence of phys-
quickest protection of sensitive data. In essence, our ical and digital security is paramount, this innovation
algorithm’s optimization for encryption time has not offers a robust solution for safeguarding IoT CCTV
only surpassed industry standards but also reaffirms systems, ensuring that real-time, high-quality video
surveillance remains accessible while upholding the
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 569
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73 A comprehensive review of federated learning: Methods,
applications, and challenges in privacy-preserving
collaborative model training
Meenakshi Aggarwal1, Vikas Khullar2,a and Nitin Goyal3
1,2
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, School of Engineering and Technology, Central University of
3
Haryana, Mahendragarh, Haryana, India
Abstract
Federated learning (FL) represents an advanced approach to tackling the issues linked with training machine learning (ML)
models using distributed data while upholding privacy and security. It functions by enabling collaborative model training
across a network of edge devices or servers, all without the need to transfer raw data. In place of sending data to a central
server, which could potentially compromise privacy, federated learning empowers individual devices to conduct local train-
ing on their respective data. These updates are subsequently combined to develop an enhanced global model over multiple
iteration. Additionally, as artificial intelligence (AI) becomes pervasive in novel application areas, concerns about the privacy
of data and users are on the rise. This article offers an in-depth analysis of the advancements in FL, covering a wide array of
topics including methodologies, applications, and challenges. By sidestepping the need to transfer raw data and instead fo-
cusing on sharing model updates or gradients, FL ensures the preservation of privacy and the efficient utilization of resources.
Additionally, we investigate the diverse spectrum of application domains where FL holds significance. Instances encompass
healthcare, finance, agriculture, education, Internet of Things (IoT), and industrial processes, all benefiting from the capacity
of federated learning to harness data from decentralized sources without compromising data security. This article addresses
complications such as model diversity, Non-IID (independent and identically distributed) data distribution, communication
complexities, and security vulnerabilities. Furthermore, we discuss considerations related to regulatory compliance and eth-
ics within the context of federated learning, particularly as data privacy regulations intensify.
Keywords: Federated learning, data privacy, security, computational resources, IID (independent and identically distributed)
Introduction task-specific ML models. However, the introduction
of privacy and data-sharing regulations like global
The IoT’s rapid growth is driven by the incorporation
data protection regulations (GDPR) imposed limita-
of billions of interconnected, low-capacity IoT devices
tions on central data usage (Pouriyeh et al., 2022).
like robots, drones, and smartphones. Presently,
Consequently, the conventional approach of sending
there are approximately 7 billion IoT devices con-
data to the server faced increasing difficulties.
nected globally, as well as 3 billion smartphones in
To tackle these challenges, it is essential to create an
use worldwide (Lim et al., 2020). The surge in edge-
innovative method that facilitates the learning process
generated data is expanding, but due to bandwidth
without requiring the exchange of raw data between
limitations and privacy issues, transmitting all locally
client devices. This is vital for addressing privacy and
collected data to a central server is impractical. In the
bandwidth constraints while still supporting collabor-
conventional cloud-centric approach, data collected
ative machine learning (ML) and data-driven applica-
by mobile devices, including IoT devices and smart-
tions. FL is an approach that fulfills this requirement.
phones, is sent to and processed on a central server or
FL is a decentralized and collaborative technique that
cloud-based data center. This data includes measure-
eliminates the necessity of sharing local data. Initially
ments, photos, videos, and location information and is
pioneered by Google researchers in 2017, this method
subsequently used for generating insights or creating
involved training datasets using a centralized server
efficient inference models (Li et al., 2017). These con-
(Aggarwal et al., 2022). In the FL architecture, as
ventional cloud-centric approaches include latency
shown in Figure 73.1, each client acquires data from
issues, potential privacy breaches, and scalability chal-
different sources, conducts local ML model train-
lenges due to centralized data processing and storage.
ing while retaining its data, and subsequently shares
In the past, to employ ML models, data had to be
the trained model with the server. Further, the server
sent to a central server for storage and the creation of
consolidates all local data, forms an updated model,
[Link]@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 571
It categorizes federated learning research into over-
arching sections, including design architectures,
challenges, and application domains.
It performs an all-encompassing survey across various
application domains, encompassing fields like
healthcare, agriculture, education, and finance,
among others.
Related work
Federated learning is a prominent research area that
has garnered significant attention from researchers
in recent years. This focus is driven by its various
advantages, including enhanced data privacy and
reduced communication costs. In this section, we
delve into some relevant work related to federated
learning. Jawadur Rahman et al. (2021) examined
the distinctions between FL and conventional dis-
tributed machine learning. It also delved into FL’s
distinct features and challenges while also explor-
Figure 73.1 Federated learning framework
ing its present techniques and future possibilities.
The manuscript did not narrow its focus to a par-
updates all local models, and distributes this global ticular field; instead, it covered methods for address-
model for various operations by all clients. In general, ing four fundamental challenges: issues related to
traditional centralized ML approaches face challenges privacy and security. In the same manner, (Aledhari
related to computational power, training duration, et al., 2020) also presents an in-depth overview of
and, notably, security and privacy (Elbeltagi et al., related protocols and platforms, outline the chal-
2020; Ramesh et al., 2022). FL offers an operative lenges involved, and highlight real-world use cases to
solution to address data privacy and security, ensur- provide a complete understanding of FL technology.
ing that all FL participants can enjoy the benefits of AI Yang et al. (2019) present a secure approach for FL,
(Gill and Singh, 2020; Pouriyeh et al., 2022). While a encompassing horizontal FL, vertical FL, and feder-
central server concept still exists in FL, the model is ated transfer learning. This framework is designed to
trained primarily takes place locally on these devices, facilitate the exchange of data among organizations
enhancing security and privacy by minimizing data while employing FL techniques. Du et al. (2020) con-
transfer requirements. ducted a concise review of prior research regarding
As FL occurs in a distributed setting, it necessitates FL and its application within wireless Internet of
a consistent and dependable network connection Things (IoT) contexts. Following this, they delved
among end devices for continuous update sharing. into the importance and technical hurdles associated
This can be challenging because end-device network with implementing FL in vehicular IoT scenarios,
connections often have significantly lower speeds and they identified prospective avenues for future
than those found in data centers. Such communi- research in this domain. Lo et al. (2022) introduce a
cation limitations in FL can lead to potential cost set of architectural patterns aimed at addressing the
implications during the training process (Khullar and design complexities inherent in federated learning
Singh, 2022; Vimalajeewa et al., 2022). Consequently, systems. These architectural patterns offer reusable
research efforts have been dedicated to enhancing the solutions to frequently encountered issues that arise
efficiency of communication in FL environments. in the context of software architecture design. Liu
In recent years, significant research efforts have been et al. (2020) explore the challenges, methodologies,
dedicated to the field of FL, resulting in several sur- and future prospects of FL in the context of 6G com-
vey papers that have condensed insights from diverse munications. It provides a comprehensive analysis of
domains and research areas within FL. In our study, both the strengths and weaknesses associated with
we began by examining existing surveys encompass- traditional ML in the context of 6G, as well as the
ing a wide spectrum of FL research domains and focal potential for FL to enhance the feasibility of 6G com-
points. The major contributions are as follows: munications. We categorize the FL framework into
three primary domains: FL architectures, challenges
It conducts a comprehensive examination and in- inherent to FL, and application areas, as depicted in
depth analysis of recent FL survey papers. the accompanying Figure 73.2.
572 A comprehensive review of federated learning
Federated learning architectures pre-trained model and subsequently fine-tuning it
using their local data. This approach proves advan-
FL is an innovative ML technique that tackles privacy
tageous when clients possess related yet separate
and data decentralization issues by enabling multiple
datasets and can capitalize on an existing pre-trained
devices or organizations to work together in training
model (Liu et al., 2020).
machine learning models while avoiding the need to
share their raw data (Khullar and Singh, 2023). Decentralized federated learning (DFL): In DFL, the
requirement for a central server is removed. Clients
Horizontal federated learning (HFL): In this architec- establish direct communication with one another to
ture, data is divided horizontally among clients, each conduct model training, which leads to improvements
possessing a subset of the data with identical features. in both privacy and scalability (Li et al., 2021).
It’s suitable for scenarios where privacy is a concern, Cross-silo federated learning (CFL): It comes into
and clients aim to collaborate on a shared machine action when data is spread across various organiza-
learning task without exposing their entire datasets tions or isolated environments. It facilitates collabor-
(Bonawitz et al., 2019). ative efforts while ensuring data remains segregated,
Vertical federated learning (VFL): This architecture is making it an apt choice for scenarios where privacy is
utilized when datasets possess complementary attri- a paramount concern (Durrant et al., 2022).
butes. In this approach, clients retain distinct features Edge federated learning (EFL): Edge FL involves train-
and work together to collectively train a model. It ing models on edge devices such as smartphones and
proves valuable in scenarios where amalgamating fea- IoT devices instead of relying on central servers. This
tures from various origins is required, all while safe- approach minimizes the need for data transfer and
guarding the confidentiality of individual data points reduces latency, making it well-suited for real-time
(Yang et al., 2019). applications and resource-constrained environments
Federated transfer learning (FTL): FL is merged with (Lim et al., 2020).
transfer learning. Clients collaborate by sharing a Hybrid federated learning (Hybrid FFL): This archi-
tecture blends elements from both horizontal and ver-
tical FL. It offers adaptability in collaborative settings
by accommodating diverse data distribution patterns
(Hao et al., 2020).
Table 73.1 summarizes the FL architecture with
benefits, limitations, and focused areas. These FL
architectures offer diverse solutions to privacy, data
distribution, and collaboration challenges, making it
a versatile approach with applications in healthcare,
Figure 73.2 Federated learning taxonomy education, finance, IoT, and more.
Table 73.1 Types of FL architectures with applications
Architecture type Benefits Limitations Applications
HFL Independent, data privacy Limited to identical feature sets Collaborative prediction,
mobile apps
VFL Accommodates complementary Requires data alignment Healthcare, finance, feature
features between clients sharing
FTL Leverages pre-trained models Complexity in model Natural language processing,
coordination image recognition
DFL Enhances privacy and reduces More challenging to manage Edge computing, privacy-
centralization critical applications
CFL Ensures data ownership and Complex data sharing Cross-organizational data
control agreements analysis
EFL Reduces data transfer and Limited computational Real-time IoT, mobile AI
latency on edge devices resources on edges
Hybrid FL Flexibility in handling various Complexity in hybrid model Versatile data collaboration
data distribution creation scenarios
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 573
Federated learning challenges vi. Byzantine attacks: The presence of malicious
or faulty clients can pose significant threats to
FL is a ML technique enabling multiple entities to
federated learning systems. Detecting and miti-
jointly train a model while maintaining decentralized
gating the influence of these Byzantine clients is
and private data, presents several benefits but also
crucial for maintaining the integrity and security
poses inherent difficulties. The key challenges associ-
of the training process.
ated with federated learning are as follows:
Addressing these challenges requires a combina-
i. Privacy and security concerns: One of the fore- tion of advanced techniques in cryptography, ML,
most challenges in federated learning is safe- and system design. Many researchers and practitio-
guarding the privacy and security of sensitive ners are actively working on solutions to enhance
data. As data remains on local devices or servers, the security, efficiency, and practicality of federated
it’s essential to employ robust encryption and learning across various applications while preserving
privacy-preserving techniques to prevent unau- privacy and data protection standards. The strategies
thorized access or data breaches. and techniques that many researchers have chosen to
ii. Heterogeneity across devices: Federated learning employ in order to address these challenges are sum-
often involves a diverse set of devices or parties marized in Table 73.2.
with varying hardware capabilities, operating
systems, and network conditions. Ensuring that
Federated learning applications
the federated learning process can accommodate
this heterogeneity while still maintaining mod- Healthcare: FL in healthcare enables collaborative
el accuracy is a complex problem (Dun et al., model training across decentralized data sources,
2022). ensuring patient data privacy. It proves beneficial for
iii. Communication efficiency: Transmitting model identifying brain tumor disease from MRI images
updates over potentially unreliable and band- (Islam et al., 2022), early detection of breast cancer
width-limited network connections can introduce using image datasets (Jiménez-Sánchez et al., 2023),
significant communication overhead. Finding effi- and predicting patient mortality rates from electronic
cient ways to minimize the exchange of data while medical records across multiple hospitals while pre-
preserving model quality is a critical challenge. serving data (Huang et al., 2020). Despite encoun-
iv. Handling non-IID data: FL assumes that data on tering privacy and regulatory challenges, federated
each participating device is independently and learning holds significant promise for enhancing
identically distributed. However, in real-world healthcare outcomes.
scenarios, this assumption often does not hold, Agriculture: Federated learning in agriculture involves
making it challenging to train a globally accurate harnessing data from various decentralized sources,
model (Zhu et al., 2021). such as farms and sensors, to train machine learning
v. Aggregation strategies: Federated averaging models. This approach facilitates precision agriculture,
is a common method used to aggregate model improving crop yields, resource allocation, and sus-
updates from different clients. Nonetheless, the tainability while maintaining data privacy. Researchers
choice of aggregation strategy can impact the such as Aggarwal et al. (2022) and Antico et al. (2023)
convergence speed and final model quality, and employed federated learning to classify diseases in
selecting the appropriate method remains a chal- maize and rice crops while ensuring that disease data
lenge (Vimalajeewa et al., 2022). remains securely stored at the farmers’ locations.
Table 73.2 Strategies to handle challenges
Reference Challenges Strategies Contributions
Han, et al., 2016 Cost Compression The network was pruned, the weights were
quantified, and Huffman coding was applied
Yang et al., 2021 Heterogeneity Participation of client, FL simulation platform designed for researchers
related to client numbers
Anelli et al., 2019 Heterogeneity Participation of client, Enhanced aggregation through the assessment
related to data interacted by of individual device contributions using multiple
clients criteria
Hitaj et al., 2017 Threats GAN attacks Inferring class representative
Pyrgelis et al., 2018 Threats ML classifier Membership inference
574 A comprehensive review of federated learning
Education: FL in education enhances student privacy, giving ideas to upcoming researchers on how to make
enables personalized learning experiences, and aids in progress in the field of FL and related areas. This is
resource allocation and teacher training, ultimately crucial for helping future scholars figure out what they
improving the quality and effectiveness of education. can explore in the constantly changing world of feder-
Fachola et al. (2023), delve into the practical imple- ated learning. So, this document becomes a very use-
mentation of federated learning techniques within the ful tool for researchers, people who use these ideas in
context of learning analytics, specifically focusing on practice, and those who make the rules, all of whom
the crucial challenge of student dropout prediction. want to use FL to make better decisions with data
By applying federated learning to this problem, the while keeping that data safe and private.
study aims to harness the collective intelligence of
distributed data sources, such as multiple educational References
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74 Review of techniques for diagnosis of Meibomian gland
dysfunction using IR images
Deepika Sood, Anshu Singlaa and Sushil Narang
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
Abstract
The main factor in the health of ocular surface is the secretion of lipids by the meibomian glands into tears, where they form
a polar lipid layer that prevents aqueous evaporation. Nowadays, the increase in usage of digital screens in human life is one
of the leading causes of dysfunctioning of meibomian glands. This results in dry eye disease (DED). Since the prevalence of
Meibomian gland dysfunction (MGD) is increasing rapidly, it becomes imperative to find effective techniques to diagnose
MGD with minimal human intervention. Early detection of MGD will be helpful to provide medication in right time to
the patient. In this paper, different techniques applied to diagnose MGD have been surveyed thoroughly. This study will
provide the current status of research that has been carried out till date to diagnose MGD. We conclude with a literature
review, acknowledging the important contributions made to our present understanding of the MGs and MGD by a number
of researches.
Keywords: meibography, Meibomian gland, Meibomian gland dysfunction, IR images, morphological features
Introduction detailed view of MG in upper lid and lower lid of MG
is shown in Figures 74.2(a) and (b).
While dealing with eye diseases and disorders in
They are the determinants of ocular surface health
human beings, one of the most frequently encoun-
as they secrete lipids into tears, creating a polar lipid
tered ophthalmic conditions in the clinical setting is
layer which prevents aqueous evaporation. MGs are
Meibomian gland dysfunction (MGD). It often causes
responsible to produce oil layer for proper function-
dry eye disease (DED), which commonly causes
ing of eyes. One of the main causes of DED is MGD;
gritty, unpleasant, painful eyes and poor vision.
therefore, it becomes imperative to understand the
Generally, prevalence of DED range lies from 5%
literary use of DED. MGD is a widespread eye disor-
to 35%, depending on the population investigated.
der, yet many people are unaware they suffer from it.
Additionally, its prevalence increases with age, rang-
It occurs when few of the several dozen tiny glands
ing up to 70% in case of elderly patients with age
in your eyelids begins to malfunction. MGD is repre-
greater than 60 years as per one study conducted in
sented in Figure 74.3.
Japan (Lam et al., 2020).
Abnormal secretion of oil called meibum by MG’s
According to Hassanzadeh et al. (2021) differ-
may result in instability of tear film increased evap-
ent studies, the prevalence rate of MGD in different
oration which leads to Meibomian gland dysfunc-
ethnicities analyzed and the estimated prevalence of
tion (MGD). In order to protect eyes from DED, it is
MGD varied from 21.2% to 29.5% among Africans
very important to monitor meibomian glands regu-
(two studies) and Caucasians (six studies) to 71.0%
larly. The prevalence of MGD has rapidly increased
among Arabs and 67.5% among Hispanics as stated
recently with the rise in technological items, seriously
in Table 74.1.
impacting people’s ability to lead regular lives. The
The data available in Table 74.1 is pictorially repre-
significant impact that the COVID-19 epidemic has
sented in Figure 74.1. So, this issue needs to be addressed
brought about in our life is one of the causes that has
rigorously. As depicted in Figure 74.1, the prevalence of
contributed to this rise (Mahajan and Kaushal, 2020).
the disease is considerably high. This gives us the moti-
The medical industry may undergo a radical transi-
vation to do further research in this domain.
tion as a result of deep learning’s quick progress. The
Meibomian glands (MGs), observed as big seba-
majority of disorders in the field of ophthalmology
ceous glands placed in the eyelid, produce lipid into
are diagnosed rely on the recognition of many images
the tear film. As a result, these glands are connected to
and this is a common deep learning (DL) applica-
conditions like blepharitis or disorders of the tear film
tion. As a result, DL has excelled at diagnosing ocular
that affect the eyelid. MGs are placed in the upper and
conditions. Many authors have worked on machine
lower eyelids with orifices at the margins of eyelid. A
learning and deep learning techniques to compute and
[Link]@[Link]..in
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 577
Table 74.1 Ethnicity-based prevalence of MGD (Hassanzadeh et al., 2021)
Ethnicity-based prevalence of MGD African Arabic Caucasian East Asian Hispanic South Asian
21.2 71 29.5 51.2 67.5 27.7
assess MGs of meibography (Ramesh et al., 2022).
DL based approaches have been proposed in recent
studies to analyze the morphology of the MGs using
meibography images and some of these techniques
have proven to be more accurate than trained human
observers. Therefore, instead of assessing the mor-
phology of individual glands, such approaches can
only assess the overall morphology of meibomian
glands. Therefore, many doctors are currently inter-
ested in employing deep learning algorithms to image
segmentation to divide specific MG regions from mei-
Figure 74.1 Graph for prevalence of MGD based on bography images, quantify gland properties and iden-
ethnicity tify the existence of ghost glands. The literature has a
variety of segmentation techniques to address these
issues (Setu et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2021). Image
segmentation is a technique for identifying boundar-
ies or objects in an image, which separates foreground
and background pixels based on a variety of traits.
Setu et al. (2021) describes a vital condition for
MGD-related DED diagnosis based on automatic
imaging is accurate MG segmentation. However,
because of image artifacts, automatic segmentation of
meibomian gland in infrared meibography is a diffi-
cult step. A DL-based MG segmentation method has
Figure 74.2 (a) Detailed view of MG’s in upper lid been suggested that is used to directly learn MG char-
acteristics from the training dataset of images without
performing any image preprocessing. Seven hundred
and twenty-eight clinical meibography images that
have been anonymised are used for testing as well as
training of the model. The assessment of gland num-
ber, length, breadth, and tortuosity as well as auto-
matic MG morphometric characteristics was also
suggested. This is the first time that MG segmentation
Figure 74.2 (b) Detailed view of MG’s in lower lid and assessment for the lower and upper eyelids have
been done using a validated deep learning-based tech-
nique. The most recent state of the investigation into
MGD diagnosis will be provided through this study.
The sections in this paper are – Discusses the mei-
bography and its techniques used. Followed by the
literature review and outlines discussion and finally
concludes with a conclusion.
Meibography and techniques
Meibography is defined as the imaging of the MGs
and play prominent role in MGD detection. To study
and analyze the eyelid; a well-known non-contact
optical imaging approach called infrared (IR) mei-
Figure 74.3 Malfunction of MG’s bography employs IR illumination to visualize MG
578 Review of techniques for diagnosis of Meibomian gland dysfunction using IR images
morphology. Clinically, during dry-eye examination it spite well-intentioned advancements like the
is usually recommended to image and quantify MG oblique T-shaped probe (Wise et al., 2012).
(Modi et al., 2021; Setu et al., 2021). Meibography is b. Non-contact meibography
simple and non-invasive method to capture detailed The newest meibographic approach, non-con-
morphometric information of MG of the eye. tact meibography was presented by Arita et al.
Meibography has advantages such as measuring the (2008). A digitally everted eyelid is imaged us-
progression of the disease, monitoring it and assessing ing video camera that uses an IR charge-coupled
the effectiveness and potential of treatments device and a slit-lamp biomicroscope with an IR
Infrared meibography uses infrared light to create filter. Non-contact meibography differs from the
a detailed image of the MGs, which can be used by a contact method in that a light probe is not re-
healthcare provider to diagnose and treat conditions quired. This method solves the problems of lid
that affect the glands and the tear film. Infrared light is manipulation and discomfort of patient that are
used in infrared meibography because it can penetrate frequently experienced with contact meibogra-
through the eyelid and other tissues, allowing health- phy by doing away with the necessity for a light
care providers to see the meibomian glands without probe. In contrast of this, non-contact meibog-
the need for invasive procedures. Infrared light has a raphy asserts to be patient-centered, rapid and
longer wavelength than visible light, which makes it user-friendly than contact approaches. Non-con-
less likely to be scattered or absorbed by the tissues tact meibography also has the benefit of view-
of the eye, allowing for a clearer and more detailed ing a larger portion of the everted eyelid, which
image of the meibomian glands. Additionally, infrared requires fewer photos and take lesser time to
light is safe for use in the eye, as it does not produce combine into a wide view of the lid for analysis.
any harmful effects. The progress in techniques of meibography was
described who invented the mobile pen-shaped
Meibography techniques meibography system.
This system is an example of non-contact
There are three types of meibography techniques: con- meibography that makes use of an infrared LED
tact, non-contact meibography and lipid layer thick- that is linked to a pen-shaped camera that can be
ness measurement test which are discussed as below: held in the hand and that is proficient in taking
high-quality pictures or videos of the meibomian
a. Contact meibography glands. Consequently, the slit-lamp biomicroscope
It is a conventional procedure that was created that is traditionally used in non-contact meibogra-
in the late 1970s and involves directly applying phy is effectively unnecessary with the mobile pen-
a light probe to the skin to illuminate the eyelid shaped meibography device (Wise et al., 2012).
and evert it, then imaging the results with a spe- c. Lipid layer thickness measurement
cialized camera. These systems have achieved re- Lipid layer thickness measurement is a diagnostic
markable success throughout the years; however, technique that is used to evaluate the thickness of
there are some drawbacks as well. the lipid (or oily) layer of the tear film on the sur-
• The one drawback is the requirement of an face of eye. This layer is formed by the MGs in the
expert operator who can use the equipment eyelid and it helps to keep the surface of the eye
efficiently and get high-quality images. moist and healthy. A thin or insufficient lipid layer
• Eyelids have distinct features that are rare- can cause dry eye symptoms and other problems
ly susceptible to manipulate with the light with the tear film. LLT measurement is typically
probe. A typical and time-consuming prob- performed using specialized equipment such as an
lem is partial lid eversion that requires nu- interferometer or an optical coherence tomogra-
merous photos to be captured and fused for pher, which can measure the thickness of the lipid
generating a wide image of the eyelid. layer with high accuracy. This information can be
• The probe’s heat, pressure, brightness, and used by a healthcare provider to detect and treat
sharpness could make patients feel uncom- conditions that affect the meibomian glands and
fortable. the tear film (Özcura et al., 2007).
• A recently developed “oblique T-shaped
probe” that helps to enhance image qual-
Literature review and major findings
ity and lid manipulation while decreasing
patient pain was made public in year 2007 MGD is a widespread eye disorder. In literature, sev-
in order to avoid these issues. The growth eral researchers have published a number of tech-
of non-contact meibography has consider- niques for diagnosing Meibomian gland dysfunction
ably dominated contact meibography, de- in the literature as can be seen in Table 74.2.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 579
Table 74.2 Different techniques for diagnosis of Meibomian gland dysfunction
S. No. Authors Dataset used Techniques used Outputs
1 Yu et al., 2022 1878 meibography Mask R-CNN • 21 times faster method than clini-
images cians
• Grade the MGs more accurately
• Efficiency increased but various
structural anomalies and structural
defects remains to be further re-
fined
2 Zhang et al., 2022 1620 upper eyelids Mask R-CNN • Sensitivity - 88%
and 2386 lower • Specificity - 81%
eyelids images
3 Dai et al., 2021 120 meibography A CNN with • Although precision of MGD diag-
images in a enhanced mini U-Net nosis increases but data set is very
prospective trial MGs extraction
approach small
• Reduce analysis time to help oph-
thalmologists with minimal clinical
experience
4 Khan et al., 2021 706 meibography Pearson correlation, • Improves the quantification of IR
images grading, Meiboscoring irregularities
and Bland-Altman
analysis • Locating and analyzing the MGD
dropout area.
• MGD score based quantitative
evaluation is required
5 Wang et al., 2021 1443 meibography Support vector • Mean intersection over union –
images machine classifier 63%
(SVM)
• Sensitivity – 84.4%
• Specificity – 71.7%
6 Setu et al., 2021 728 meibography U-net • Average precision – 83%
images • Recall – 81%
• F1 score – 84%, respectively
7 Prabhu et al., 2020 400 prototype CNN • Length – 47.88
images and 400 • Number of glands – 14.40
oculus images
• Gland-drop – 0.56
• Tortuosity – 1.31
• Width – 4.20
8 Xiao et al., 2021 15 meibography Image contrast • Similarity index = 0.94±0.02
images enhancement and ROI • False-negative rate = 6.43±1.98%
segmentation
• False-positive rate = 6.02±2.41%
• Technique is applicable to upper lid
MGs only
9 Celik et al., 2013 131 meibography Support vector • Accuracy of MGD – 88%
images machine classifier • Focus on classification only
(SVM)
• MGD score based quantitative
evaluation is required
A detailed literature study regarding the diagno- • DED is more common in different parts of the
sis of Meibomian gland dysfunction and DED in IR world with a range of 3.9–21.8%; it has been
images has resulted in the following findings which noted that females are more prone than males
are yet to be addressed: to have the condition and older people are more
580 Review of techniques for diagnosis of Meibomian gland dysfunction using IR images
prone to develop it than younger people. Diag- required. The major drawback of this work is the
nosis is more challenging because there is no absence of analysis from the lower lid. It takes
connection between the symptoms and signs of into consideration only the upper lid analysis.
dry eye disease. This is supported by the finding Meibography images of the lower lid are usually
that 22% of individuals with MGD, the major distorted and only partially display the meibo-
cause of DED, are unaware that they have the mian glands because averting the lower eyelid is
condition. When wearing contact lenses, the co- harder than averting the upper eyelid, which has a
existence of DED presents a significant challenge larger tarsal plate. As a result, it is still difficult to
(Markoulli, 2017). The primary reason of evapo- automatically segment the region of interest and
rative dry eye disease is MGD. Managing MGD MGs in the lower lid. Therefore, measuring mei-
is a crucial component of managing the challenge bomian glands in the human eye requires image
of CLD because dryness is one of the main causes segmentation technique. Therefore, since exam-
of contact lens dropout. ining both lids simultaneously improves clinical
• There are no or only a few segmentation tech- diagnostic performance, lower lid meibography
niques available on IR images. Those present are image analysis will be the focus of future study
not effective enough to provide accurate detec- (Zhang et al., 2022).
tion of MGD. However, finding a single test that • The author Prabhu et al. (2020) introduced an
is repeatable, reliable, and widely acknowledged approach rely on DL for automatically segment-
can be utilized in general practice is still difficult. ing meibomian glands. This study was analyzed
This demand has prompted numerous academics using five significant metrics and it was discov-
and firms to create a variety of complex diagnos- ered that they accurately reflect the MGD-related
tic tools that can be modified for MGD screening alterations. The results of comparing the images
(Markoulli, 2017). As a result, it’s significant to captured by the Bosch hand-held imager with
offer exact and reliable evaluation tests to iden- those taken by the Oculus Keratograph reveal
tify the disease as soon as possible so that the that the particular images are equivalent for the
patient can receive the best possible management evaluating MGD and that the algorithm created
and treatment plan (Markoulli, 2017). by Bosch is a useful and accurate method for the
• Several authors have worked on techniques for MGD analysis. Deep learning and automatically
segmentation on infrared images for their effec- segmenting glands can simplify MGD manage-
tiveness and improved performance. A grading ment. The future of medical diagnostics is the use
system for detecting MG area in non-contact of AI and neural networks (Prabhu et al., 2020).
meibography images of the lower and upper A related study quantifies MG abnormalities like
eyelids is described in a related work. Despite as light reflection, inappropriate light focus and
efforts, the requirement for manual interven- placement and eyelid eversion. It’s quite difficult
tion cannot be totally removed from the images, to eliminate these unexpected flaws by enhanc-
manual rectification was required after the auto- ing the system that automatically detects these
matic MG recognition that was used in images reflections. In a study by Khan et al. (2021), pro-
with high meibomian gland loss and reflected posed an adversarial learning-based automatic
light. method for the precise segmentation, detection
and analysis of MGs. This technique is free from
As a result, this system is not entirely automated. the constraint of previous assessment techniques
To make this system fully automatic, more changes It makes it possible for clinics to determine the
are required. MG dropout area in a more precise manner. It
The diversity of results in particularly the terminal supports only the characterization of MG and
portion of glands also requires more investigation minimizes the associated time with the MG anal-
(Arita et al., 2014) ysis (Kanika, 2019; Khan et al., 2021). Still, an
approach is required to predict MGD score for
• The study (Xiao et al., 2021) includes additional an eye that will lead to quantitative analysis and
morphological and functional characteristics for more accurate detection of MGD.
the investigation of meibomian glands, and the
early findings indicate its potential for detection Discussion and conclusion
of the subtle variations present in meibomian
glands. To fully characterize the relationships be- The study emerging out from the literature survey
tween the quantitative measures and the clinical states that there are several limitations to the use of
expression of MGs in various pathological phases infrared meibography in the diagnosis of MGD. Some
of disease; however, large-scale clinical research is of these limitations include:
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 581
i. The test requires specialized equipment and Arita, R., Itoh, K., Inoue, K., and Amano, S. (2008). Non-
trained personnel to perform, which can make it contact infrared meibography to document age-re-
difficult to access in some settings. lated changes of the Meibomian glands in a normal
ii. The test can be uncomfortable for some patients, population. Ophthalmol., 115(5), 911–915. https://
[Link]/10.1016/[Link].2007.06.031.
as it involves the use of a bright light and close
Özcura, F., Aydin, S., and Helvaci, M. R. (2007). Ocular
proximity to the eye. surface disease index for the diagnosis of dry eye
iii. The test can only provide a snapshot of the Mei- syndrome. Ocul. Immunol. Inflam., 15(5), 389–393.
bomian glands at a single point in time, so it may [Link]
not be able to detect changes in gland function Yu, Y., Zhou, Y., Tian, M., Zhou, Y., Tan, Y., Wu, L., Zheng,
over time. H., and Yang, Y. (2022). Automatic identification of
iv. The test may not be able to detect early stages meibomian gland dysfunction with meibography imag-
of Meibomian gland dysfunction, as the glands es using deep learning. Int. Ophthalmol., 2022, 1–16.
may not show significant changes until the con- Zhang, Zuhui, Xiaolei Lin, Xinxin Yu, Yana Fu, Xiaoyu
Chen, Weihua Yang, and Qi Dai. (2022). Meibomian
dition has progressed.
gland density: An effective evaluation index of meibo-
mian gland dysfunction based on deep learning and
In nutshell, researchers have provided the summary transfer learning. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 11(9):
of techniques which have been utilized to diagnose 2396. [Link]
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art techniques, still there is room to do further work Z., et al. (2021). A novel meibomian gland morphol-
in this field that may help to yield effective techniques ogy analytic system based on a convolutional neural
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75 The impact of unstable symmetries on software engineering
Lalit Sharma1, Surbhi Bhati2, Mudita Uppal3 and Deepali Gupta4,a
1
Jaipuria Institute of Business, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
2
Assistant Manager, Radio city 91.1 FM
3,4
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
Abstract
The examination of Markov models is a fundamental issue, and given the present state of widespread configurations, pro-
fessionals in cyber informatics have a prudent inclination towards evaluating telephony, which involves the practical prin-
ciples of machine learning (ML). The primary objective of this study does not pertain to the recursive enumerability of the
foundational ubiquitous algorithm utilized in the enhancement of simulated annealing. Instead, the focus lies in presenting
a comprehensive framework for voice-over-IP. The primary research contribution of this study is to empirically validate
three hypotheses pertaining to the characteristics of scheme’s signal-to-noise ratio, ROM throughput, and flash memory
performance. The authors express gratitude for the utilization of wide-area networks, as they contribute to the optimiza-
tion of complexity. However, they overlook the measurement of effective reaction time and instead place emphasis on the
significance of optical drive speed. This paper elucidates the process of packet deployment at the network level, as well as
the accompanying network modifications and software implementation. Additionally, it provides a comprehensive analysis
of the hardware and software configurations involved in this process. The validation of implementation efforts is conducted
by the execution of innovative experiments that investigate factors such as energy efficiency, block size, and sampling rate.
Keywords: unstable symmetries, Markov models, software engineering, pervasive configurations, voice-over-IP
Introduction algorithm proposed by Thompson et al. for analyz-
ing 802.11b (Robinson and ErdÖS et al., 2001). The
The utilization of lambda calculus is a significant
authors confirm that this algorithm operates with
inquiry. After an extensive period of research focused
a time complexity of O(n). To address this enigma,
on massively multiplayer online role-playing games,
the authors pivot their attention towards elucidat-
the authors provide findings that challenge the explo-
ing the significant incongruity between randomised
ration of erasure coding, a technique that encapsu-
algorithms and consistent hashing, offering insights
lates the inherent principles of machine learning. In
to overcome the impact of unstable symmetries on
a similar vein, the concept that system administra-
software engineering.
tors engage in collaboration with the partition table
is generally well-accepted. To what extent can red-
black trees be optimized to achieve this objective? Related work
In order to investigate this inquiry, the writers direct The application development procedure involved the
their attention towards validating the optimality of integration of contemporary research and informa-
the well acknowledged efficient technique put out tion from several disciplines by the writers. Thompson
by Venkatakrishnan et al., for imitating distributed initially asserted the need of imitating superblocks as
hash tables. Moreover, to illustrate this point, numer- a strategy to enable more comprehensive exploration
ous methodologies strive to replicate the enhance- of the memory bus (Iverson et al., 2004). The initial
ments achieved by remote procedure calls (RPCs). approach utilized to tackle this challenge encoun-
The present study investigates the progression of tered significant opposition; yet, it did not completely
kernels. This approach possesses two distinguishing achieve the desired objective. The experiment employs
qualities. Firstly, it does not rely on the construction five distinct network scenarios, each featuring varying
of Bolye for the enhancement of DNS. Secondly, the hosts, switches, and data packets. The examination of
algorithm adheres to a distribution pattern similar to distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) assaults encom-
Zipf’s law. The authors proceed in the following man- passes various elements, such as the duration it takes
ner. Initially, the authors provide a rationale for the to notice the attack, the time it takes for packets to go
necessity of vacuum tubes. In addition, the authors back and forth between the attacker and the target,
of this study investigate a self-learning tool, known the amount of packets lost during the attack, and the
as Bolye, to address this issue. They utilize this tool specific sort of attack being employed (Badotra and
to test the efficiency of the well-known relational
[Link]@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 583
Panda, 2021). Data mining is a commonly employed of sensor networks. However, their work did not
technique in order to derive conclusions from data extensively address the implications of web browsers
and facilitate the process of decision-making. This at the same time period (Johnson, 2005). In a subse-
paper provides a comprehensive evaluation of several quent study, Antony et al. (Hartmanis and Watanabe,
data mining and machine learning methods, encom- 1992) and Van Jacobson (Tarjan and Davis, 1994;
passing an examination of their respective algorithms, Minsky, 2000; Darwin, 2004) provided the initial
benefits, and limitations. The system aids users in the impetus for the introduction of random algorithms
selection of optimal tools for enhancing decision-mak- (Cook et al., 2003; Darwin, 2004; Singh et al., 2020).
ing, in accordance with their specified requirements Clearly, despite substantial endeavors in this field,
(Verma et al., 2019; Uppal et al., 2022). The imple- the aforementioned methodology is unquestionably
mentation of novel technologies in software engi- the favored algorithm among physicists (Darwin,
neering expedites the development process, resulting 2004; Sato et al., 2003). This technique demonstrates
in time and cost savings, as well as enhanced quality. greater robustness in comparison to our own.
This research investigates the potential of technology
to enhance the efficiency of software engineering pro-
Psychoacoustic configurations and
cesses by addressing challenges associated with dif-
implementation
ferent phases. The document includes dedicated parts
that provide an exposition on the subjects of Software The research conforms to a prescribed set of principles.
Engineering and Artificial Intelligence, examine The approach being examined by the authors entails
developing technologies, discuss the role of Artificial the aggregation of a set of n 802.11 mesh networks.
Intelligence within Software Engineering, and con- The accuracy of this assertion is uncertain in real-
clude the discussion with references to sources (Uppal world situations. Expanding on this line of argumen-
and Gupta, 2020; Uppal et al., 2022). However, they tation, the Bolye model incorporates four discrete and
faced administrative challenges that hindered their independent components, specifically event-driven
ability to share their findings until now. All of these epistemologies, Byzantine fault tolerance, homog-
strategies question the fundamental assumption that enous epistemologies, and the partition table. Instead
the use of simulated annealing and “fuzzy” informa- of formulating psychoacoustic data, Bolye chooses to
tion is characterized by a lack of clarity and confusion. incorporate lossless information. In contrast to the
predominant viewpoints held by scholars, it is impera-
Telephony tive for the algorithm to depend on this specific prop-
This approach pertains to the investigation of auton- erty in order to demonstrate precise functionality. The
omous methodologies, electronic methodologies, and initial methodology devised by Robin Milner shares
object-oriented languages. The selection of subject certain resemblances with the model currently under
matter experts in the study referenced as (Hartmanis examination; nonetheless, it successfully accomplishes
and Watanabe, 1992) diverges from our approach in the desired goal. This remark seems to be applicable
that the authors solely focus on the development of in most cases. The heuristic utilized in this study con-
confirmed archetypes within the application, as stated sists of four separate elements, specifically multi-pro-
in reference Ramasubramanian (1990). Boyle is cessors, evolutionary programming, digital-to-analog
closely linked to the study undertaken by Zhou et al. converters, and wide-area networks. While it is not
in the field of electrical engineering (Lampson et al., typical for electrical engineers to produce precise cal-
2003). Nevertheless, the authors adopt a unique per- culations in the other direction, this heuristic depends
spective in addressing this topic, placing emphasis on on this attribute to demonstrate accurate behavior.
the notion of trainable symmetries (Singh et al., 2019; To conduct a comprehensive examination of the
Corbato et al., 2002; Inder et al., 2020). In this study, location-identity split phenomena, it is crucial to
the writers have thoroughly examined and discussed verify the soundness of the decentralized algorithm
the various challenges and limitations that were pres- put out by H. Jackson in addressing the producer-
ent in the prior research. The authors intend to incor- consumer problem (Johnson, 2005). This verification
porate numerous concepts from the aforementioned process should ascertain the algorithm’s possession
previous study into future iterations of Bolye. of Turing completeness. This condition is equally
applicable to Boyle. The accuracy of this assertion
Multicast systems is uncertain in real-world scenarios. Furthermore,
This approach pertains to the study of verifiable epis- rather than imposing control on expandable modali-
temologies, the complex integration of RPCs and ties, the system chooses to explore event-driven tech-
electronic commerce, and the utilization of Lamport niques (Ullman and Sharma, 1999). Therefore, the
clocks. Robinson and Williams (Yao and Codd, 2004) methodology utilized in this study is firmly grounded
introduced a theoretical framework for the analysis in empirical facts.
584 The impact of unstable symmetries on software engineering
The authors present the latest iteration of Bolye, of efficient response time. The authors want to elu-
denoted as version 4.2.5, which has undergone a cidate the significance of enhancing the operational
thorough design process. The equitable assignment efficiency of atomic information’s optical drive speed
of permissions to both the centralized logging facility in relation to performance analysis.
and the server daemon is of paramount significance.
The construction of the hand-optimized compiler was Hardware and software configuration
rather uncomplicated when contrasted with the inher- Figure 75.2 illustrates the correlation between the
ent impracticality of the framework. In addition, the median energy of Bolye and the hit ratio. To fully
hand-optimized compiler includes about 69 instances grasp the causes of the consequences, it is crucial
of semi-colons in Perl. The decision to place a limita- to possess a thorough comprehension of the net-
tion on the block size employed by Boyle to 98 bytes work configuration. The researchers performed a
was deemed to be of utmost importance. The need packet-level implementation on the PlanetLab clus-
to impose a restriction on the usage of e-commerce ter to question the assumption that knowledge-based
by Bolye was acknowledged, resulting in the adoption archetypes possess intrinsic resilience against exter-
of a maximum limit of 9792 connections per second. nal effects. The authors had challenges in obtain-
The visual representation of the newly created opti- ing the necessary RISC processors. At the outset,
mum models is illustrated in Figure 75.1. the researchers made the decision to exclude some
central processing units (CPUs) from the metamor-
Results and discussion phic cluster. Furthermore, the researchers integrated
a Wi-Fi throughput of 200 MB/s into the system to
The evaluation is now being discussed by the authors. enhance their understanding of the network in a more
The primary objective of the overall evaluation is to
substantiate three hypotheses: (1) the basic dissimilar-
ity in the behavior of flash memory speed on the sys-
tem, (2) the fundamental dissimilarity in the behavior
of ROM throughput on the system; and lastly, (3) the
observed duplication of the signal-to-noise ratio over
time in the context of scheme. The authors express
their gratitude for the availability of replicated wide-
area networks, as these networks are essential for
their ability to optimize for complexity while adher-
ing to complexity restrictions. In contrast to their
counterparts, the authors have made the deliber-
ate choice to exclude the measurement of effective
response time. In contrast to their counterparts, the
authors have deliberately omitted the examination Figure 75.1 Illustration of the new optimal models
Figure 75.2 Relationship between the median energy of Bolye and the hit ratio
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 585
Figure 75.3 Relationship between the average block size of Bolye and the popularity of reinforcement learning
Figure 75.4 Median sampling rate comparison of Bolye with other approaches
thorough manner. In addition, the researchers were and the degree of prominence observed within the
able to effectively reduce the bandwidth of mobile domain of reinforcement learning.
telecommunication devices. In a similar manner, the The establishment of a suitable software environ-
researchers improved the speed of the USB key device ment necessitated a significant investment of effort;
with the purpose of examining the desktop worksta- nonetheless, the ultimate result proved to be highly
tions at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. advantageous. The authors developed the write-ahead
The configuration of this phase was found to be a logging server using PHP, incorporating jointly sto-
labor-intensive undertaking; yet, the resultant out- chastic extensions. The software was developed using
come was considered to be of significant worth. In a manual process utilizing a traditional toolchain,
order to test the speed of random access memory with the inclusion of B. Varun’s libraries. Its primary
(RAM) in the retired Motorola bag telephones from objective was to conduct computational analysis
UC Berkeley, the researchers decided to integrate on interconnected 5.25” floppy disks. Similarly, the
Non-Volatile Random-Access Memory (NV-RAM) authors have ensured that all of the software is acces-
into the system. Had the authors opted to deploy sible under the Old Plan 9 License.
the autonomous cluster in an uncontrolled environ-
ment as opposed to a controlled one, they would have Dogfooding KamMone
noticed diminished outcomes. Figure 75.3 depicts the The authors offer a justification for the substan-
relationship between the average block size of Bolye tial endeavors they dedicated to the process of
586 The impact of unstable symmetries on software engineering
Figure 75.5 (a) Relationship between interrupt rate growth and decreasing popularity of link-level acknowledgments
Figure 75.5 (b) Average energy of the approach in relation to instruction rate
implementation. Nevertheless, this claim remains discontinuities shown in the graphs indicates a reduced
valid just within the context of theoretical discourse. level of effective popularity for operating systems that
Utilizing this advantageous configuration, the team are introduced alongside hardware modifications.
executed four pioneering experiments. The research- Moreover, it is important to acknowledge that infor-
ers ran a series of tests utilizing 96 distributed nodes mation retrieval systems demonstrate more uniform
inside the Internet-2 network to execute symmet- consumption patterns of hard disk space in com-
ric multiprocessing tasks. They then proceeded to parison to exokernelized public-private key pairs.
assess the performance of these distributed execu- The findings presented in this study regarding block
tions against locally operating neural networks. The size exhibit disparities when compared to the results
researchers strategically distributed 29 UNIVACs over reported in prior studies, as shown by the influential
the Internet-2 network and subsequently performed investigation conducted by Scott Shenker on massively
kernel testing. The researchers distributed a total of multiplayer online role-playing games and the seeming
40 Nintendo Gameboys around a vast network and ubiquity of sensor networks (Lampson et al., 2003).
conducted experiments on the corresponding Web The researchers have noted a specific behavior in
services. The researchers conducted a quantitative Figure 75.5 (a), while the other tests demonstrate
analysis to determine the correlation between tape divergent results. Figure 75.5 (a) depicts the observed
drive capacity and floppy disk data transfer rate on a and unforeseen fluctuations in the speed of the effec-
Macintosh SE computer. tive RAM. Moreover, the data depicted in Figure 75.5
The authors commence their investigation by con- (b) offers persuasive substantiation that the project,
ducting a thorough analysis of all four research, as which included a period of four years, failed to yield
depicted in Figure 75.4. The existence of several the intended results, hence deeming the endeavors
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 587
invested in it as unfruitful. The authors have con- Cook, S., Davis, V., Takahashi, K., and Johnson, M. (2003).
strained anticipations regarding the degree of preci- Synthesis of evolutionary programming. Proc. PODS.
sion attained in this specific phase of the evaluation 8, 58–62.
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ing telephony and digital-to-analog converters. Proc.
and verifiable information.
Workshop Event-Driven Encryp. Theor.
The authors proceed to discuss the experiments
Darwin, C. (2004). Deconstructing the UNIVAC computer
denoted as (3) and (4) in the previously indicated with Besee. Proc. USENIX Tech. Conf. 12, 122–133.
enumeration. The cumulative distribution function Hartmanis, J. and Watanabe, F. (1992). Simulating replica-
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tail, which suggests the existence of duplicated band- Inder, S., Aggarwal, A., Gupta, S., Gupta, S., and Rastogi,
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76 Integrating quantum computing models for enhanced
efficiency in 5G networking systems
Anand Singh Rajawat1, S. B. Goyal2,a, Jaiteg Singh3 and Xiao Shixiao4
1
School of Computer Science & Engineering, Sandip University, Nashik, Maharashtra, India
2
City University, Petaling Jaya, 46100, Malaysia
3
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
4
Chengyi College, Jimei University, Xiamen, 3611021, China
Abstract
The emergence of 5G networking systems is a notable advancement in communication technology, offering unparalleled
data speeds and connectivity. Nevertheless, the growing complexity of these systems poses a significant challenge in terms of
ensuring both efficiency and security. This study investigates the incorporation of quantum computing models as a means
to improve the effectiveness and robustness of 5G networking systems. Quantum computing presents a promising solution
for addressing the various obstacles encountered by 5G networks, owing to its capacity to execute intricate computations
swiftly and safely. Through the utilization of quantum algorithms and the application of fundamental concepts such as su-
perposition and entanglement, the objective of this integration is to optimize the management of network traffic, strengthen
the encryption of data, and improve the overall efficiency of the system. This paper presents a thorough examination of the
potential applications of quantum computing models in many domains of 5G networking, encompassing data transmission,
network architecture, and security protocols. Additionally, the paper addresses the various obstacles and constraints associ-
ated with the process of integrating these elements. The results indicate that quantum computing models have the potential
to improve the efficiency of 5G networks and contribute to the development of more resilient and secure communication
systems in the future.
Keywords: Quantum computing, 5G networks, network efficiency, quantum algorithms, data encryption, communication
technology
Introduction paradigm shift in the processing, storage, and trans-
mission of data. The implementation of this technol-
The emergence of 5G networking technologies repre-
ogy has the potential to improve the effectiveness of
sents a notable advancement in the field of telecom-
data routing, load balancing, and network optimiza-
munications technology, providing unparalleled data
tion, resulting in the development of more resilient
transmission rates, decreased latency, and improved
and agile networks. Moreover, the use of quantum
connectivity. Nevertheless, as global dependence on
computing has the potential to greatly enhance the
these networks continues to grow, many issues per-
integrity of network security by introducing a novel
taining to effectiveness, safeguarding, and capability
kind of encryption that is theoretically impervious to
emerge. In order to tackle these issues, the incorpora-
tion of quantum computing models into 5G network- conventional hacking techniques. This study inves-
ing systems offers a new and encouraging strategy. tigates the potential of quantum computing models
Quantum computing (He et al., 2023) by harnessing in enhancing 5G networks. This study explores the
the fundamental principles of quantum mechanics, utilization of quantum-enhanced algorithms for the
presents a range of capabilities that beyond those of optimization of network operations, the potential
classical computing. The system functions by utilizing application of quantum cryptography in ensuring
quantum bits, also known as qubits, which possess secure data transmissions, and the broader implica-
the unique ability to exist in several states simulta- tions for network efficiency and reliability (Wang and
neously (superposition) and can be interconnected Rahman, 2022). The incorporation of these sophis-
through the phenomenon of entanglement, in con- ticated computational models into 5G infrastruc-
trast to classical bits. Quantum computers possess the tures presents various issues, including as scalability,
capability to efficiently handle enormous quantities of technological preparedness, and integration with
data at velocities that are beyond the reach of classi- pre-existing systems. It is imperative to tackle these
cal computers. The incorporation of quantum models difficulties in order to fully harness the capabilities of
into 5G networks has the potential to bring about a quantum-enhanced 5G networks.
drsbgoyal@[Link]
a
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 589
The paper is organized as in the following man- to improve the effectiveness and safeguard the integ-
ner – the related work, proposed methodology, results rity of computational resources inside power service
analysis and finally conclusion and future work. systems. By delegating computing activities to edge
devices, this methodology effectively reduces latency
Related work and optimizes resource allocation, offering a feasible
resolution for managing computational requirements
The literature review conducted on the progressions in power services within the context of 5G technol-
in network security and data protection within the ogy. Each of the aforementioned research makes
framework of 5G and 6G networks uncovers a wide valuable contributions to the continuously develop-
array of inventive methodologies. The study conducted ing domain of network security and data protection,
by Mirtskhulava et al. (2021) highlights the signifi- by focusing on distinct difficulties that have emerged
cance of ensuring the security of medical data within with the introduction of 5G and 6G technologies. The
the context of 5G and 6G networks. The researchers aforementioned statements jointly emphasize the sig-
propose the utilization of multichain blockchain tech- nificance of pioneering approaches in safeguarding
nology, complemented by post-quantum signatures, data and communications amidst the emergence of
as a means to enhance the security measures in place. new technologies and potential risks (Table 76.1).
The proposed model put out by the authors suggests
the utilization of blockchain technology as a decen-
Methodology
tralized and tamper-resistant platform for the storage
of medical data. Additionally, the model incorporates Quantum computing models integration with 5G net-
post-quantum signatures to provide long-term secu- working systems is a novel technique to improve the
rity against potential attacks from quantum com- overall performance, security, and efficiency of com-
puters. This strategy effectively acknowledges the munication networks. Through this integration, com-
pressing requirement for strong data security mea- plicated problems can be solved more quickly than
sures inside healthcare systems, specifically in light with traditional computing techniques by utilizing the
of the evolving realm of 5G and 6G technologies. special powers of quantum computing, such as quan-
In a study titled “Concealed quantum tele computa- tum entanglement and superposition. domain of 5G
tion for anonymous 6G URLLC networks” published networking systems, the incorporation of quantum
in 2023, Zaman et al., investigate the potential of computing paradigms offers a revolutionary strat-
concealed quantum tele computation as a means to egy that has the potential to greatly augment both
augment anonymity in Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency efficiency and performance. This overview examines
Communication (URLLC) networks within the the possible implications of quantum computing
context of 6G technology. This novel methodology on 5G networks (Kakaraparty et al., 2021) explor-
employs principles of quantum computing to provide ing how this advanced technology might be utilized
safe and anonymous communication, a crucial aspect to overcome current constraints and enable novel
in important domains such as military operations or functionalities.
confidential corporate communications. This paper
offers a forward-looking viewpoint on the potential The emergence of 5G networks
integration of quantum technologies into forthcom- The advent of 5G technology represents a notable
ing network topologies to bolster security measures. advancement over its predecessors, since it provides
In a recent publication by Sahoo and Samantaray enhanced data transfer rates, reduced communication
(2020) undertake a comprehensive examination of delays, and increased network capacity. This techno-
non-linear photonic-based network devices, with a logical development plays a vital role in facilitating
specific emphasis on addressing the issues associated the increasing number of interconnected devices and
with big data. The study emphasizes the potential the data-intensive applications of the contemporary
of these devices in enhancing data management and digital age, including the Internet of Things (IoT),
processing capacities within network infrastructures, smart cities, and augmented reality.
a critical aspect in the context of the big data era.
This study contributes to the comprehension of the Challenges in current 5G network
integration of optical technologies into current and Despite the significant technological developments in
prospective networks for the purpose of enhancing 5G, there exist certain issues pertaining to network
the management of extensive data volumes with more management, security, and data processing capacities.
efficiency. In their recent study, Yu et al. (2022) pres- The increasing volume and intricacy of data traffic
ent a novel solution that focuses on secure compute provide challenges for traditional computing models,
offload for power services, utilizing the capabilities of resulting in difficulties in maintaining pace, which in
5G edge computing. The objective of this approach is turn give rise to bottlenecks and security concerns.
590 Integrating quantum computing models for enhanced efficiency in 5G networking systems
Table 76.1 Literature review on quantum computing and network security
Citation Methods Advantages Disadvantages Research gap
Xuan et al., 2021 Quantum computing Delays are greatly Available quantum Need for more
reduces network function reduced, improving computing resources accessible quantum
visualizations latency network efficiency are scarce and computing resources
expensive for wider use
Debbabi et al., Overview of B5G and 6G Explains AI’s role in Training AI Develop lightweight
2022 network slicing resource sophisticated network algorithms requires AI models for
management AI techniques resource management vast datasets and network resource
computing management
Sabaawi et al., Creating a restricted Improves network Current network Quantum algorithm
2022 quantum optimization performance by infrastructure integration with
technique for MIMO allocating electricity installation issues MIMO systems
power allocation more efficiently
Xu et al., 2022 Securing 5G access with Improves 5G security Real-world Simplification and
semi-random coding with quantum implementation of use of quantum-based
and quantum amplitude methods quantum amplitude security
amplification amplification is
difficult
Takalkar and Quantum cryptography Quantum The theoretical study Connecting quantum
Shiragapur, 2023 security analysis and cryptography may not address cryptography theory
mathematical modeling security is thoroughly real-world application and practice
examined issues
Quantum computing: A game changer Quantum AI in 5G networks
Quantum computing is predicated upon the funda- The integration of quantum computing and artifi-
mental principles of quantum mechanics (Sharma cial intelligence (AI) has the potential to enhance
et al., 2022) wherein qubits are employed to har- the capabilities of 5G networks. By utilizing quan-
ness the ability to exist in a superposition of several tum AI algorithms, network data can be analyzed
states concurrently. Quantum computers possess with greater accuracy (ML et al., 2022) and speed,
the capability to do intricate computations at resulting in more intelligent and responsive network
velocities that are beyond the reach of traditional management. In the paper titled “Integrating quan-
computers. Within the realm of 5G networks, quan- tum computing models for enhanced efficiency in
tum computing has the potential to provide unsur- 5G networking systems,” the concept of integrating
passed levels of efficiency in both data processing quantum AI in 5G networks can be represented sym-
and security. bolically through an equation.
Let’s denote:
Enhance network efficiency with quantum models
Quantum computing models have the potential to • AI refers to the utilization of algorithms within
augment the efficiency of 5G technology through the context of 5G networks with the purpose of
many means: achieving intelligent behavior and decision-mak-
ing capabilities.
Data processing: Quantum algorithms have the • Quantum computing (QC) serves as the frame-
potential to enhance the efficiency of processing mas- work for several kinds of computation.
sive amounts of data, hence enhancing the speed and • N refers to the conventional 5G networking sys-
reliability of 5G networks (Xu et al., 2022). tems.
Network optimization: Quantum models have the • QAI refers to quantum AI algorithms.
potential to optimize the allocation of network
resources, resulting in reduced latency and improved The incorporation of quantum AI within 5G net-
user experience. works can be mathematically expressed as follows:
Security: Quantum models have the potential to opti-
mize the allocation of network resources, resulting in Enhanced = Nenhanced = N + (AI × QC) ® QAI
reduced latency and improved user experience.
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 591
The term “enhancedNenhanced” refers to a 5G net- necessary number of qubits and implementing the
working system that has been improved to include appropriate quantum gates.
quantum AI technology. The equation presented Data encoding: The encoding of network data is
signifies the integration of conventional networking achieved by mapping it onto quantum states (Guo et
systems (Mehic et al., 2023) with the amalgamation al., 2022), which can subsequently be manipulated by
of AI algorithms and quantum computing models, the quantum circuit.
resulting in the emergence of quantum AI algorithms
Quantum processing: The manipulation of data
within the upgraded 5G network. The algorithms
within a quantum circuit involves the utilization
known as QAI has the ability to analyze network data
of quantum gates and entanglement, enabling the
with enhanced efficiency and accuracy, hence leading
extraction of significant insights that may elude clas-
to network management that is more intelligent and
sical algorithms.
responsive.
Classical conversion: The results obtained from the
quantum circuit are transformed into a classical rep-
Algorithm: QuantumAI_5GEnhancement resentation that is intelligible and compatible with the
Inputs: AI model.
quantum_data: Data from 5G network encoded in
AI analysis: The AI model utilizes quantum-enhanced
quantum states
data processing techniques to employ machine learn-
classical_data: Classical data from 5G network
ing (Singh et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2021) algorithms
infrastructure
for the purpose of analyzing network performance
QAI_model: Pre-trained Quantum AI model for
and detecting potential areas of enhancement.
network analysis
Procedure: Management actions: The study conducted by the
1. Initialize Quantum Processing Unit (QPU) AI yields actionable insights and recommendations
2. Encode classical_data into quantum states: aimed at improving the efficiency and security of the
For each data_point in classical_data: 5G network (Xin et al., 2020).
Convert data_point to quantum state (qubit
representation) Results analysis
Add the qubit to quantum_data
3. Apply Quantum AI Model: Data throughput optimization: This gauges the speed
Load QAI_model into QPU at which information is sent. About 10 Gbps was the
For each quantum_datapoint in quantum_data: throughput rate attained by classical AI; quantum AI
Process quantum_datapoint using QAI_model increased this rate to 15 Gbps, a 50% increase.
Measure the output state to get network insights Network latency reduction: With quantum AI,
4. Quantum-Classical Hybrid Analysis: latency the amount of time before a data transfer
Combine insights from QAI_model with classical starts was lowered by 40% from 10 milliseconds (ms)
AI algorithms with classical AI to 6 ms.
Analyze combined data for enhanced network Error rate in data transmission: The percentage of
understanding data transmission failures was evaluated in this case.
5. Network Optimization Decisions: The mistake rate for classical AI was 2%; quantum AI
Based on analyzed data, make decisions for net- dramatically decreased this to 0.5% – a 75% reduction.
work optimization Resource allocation efficiency: This measure
Adjust network parameters for improved effi- assesses how well resources are being used. The usage
ciency and performance rate of classical AI was 70% with quantum AI, this
6. Feedback Loop: was increased to 90%, a 28.6% increase.
Continuously feed network performance data Traffic prediction accuracy: With quantum AI, the
back into QAI_model accuracy of predicting network traffic increased by
Retrain or adjust QAI_model based on ongoing 11.8%, from 85% with classical AI to 95%.
performance metrics Network security threat detection: The network’s
Output: security threat detection rate was evaluated in this
Optimized network parameters and configura- case study. The detection rate rose by 8.9–98% with
tions for enhanced 5G efficiency quantum AI as opposed to 90% with classical AI
End Algorithm (Table 76.2).
Analysis summary
Quantum circuit initialization: This stage entails The amalgamation of quantum computing and
configuring the quantum circuit by allocating the AI within 5G networks demonstrates a significant
592 Integrating quantum computing models for enhanced efficiency in 5G networking systems
Table 76.2 Test scenario
Test scenario Metric Classical AI results Quantum AI results Improvement
Data throughput Throughput rate 10 Gbps 15 Gbps 50% Increase
optimization (Gbps)
Network latency reduction Latency (ms) 10 ms 6 ms 40% reduction
Error rate in data Error rate (%) 2% 0.5% 75% reduction
transmission
Resource allocation Utilization rate (%) 70% 90% 28.6% increase
efficiency
Traffic prediction accuracy Accuracy (%) 85% 95% 11.8% increase
Network security threat Detection rate (%) 90% 98% 8.9% increase
detection
Table 76.3 Results analysis for quantum AI in 5G networks
Parameter Traditional AI in 5G Quantum AI in 5G Observations Implications
Data analysis Fast Significantly faster Quantum AI systems Quantum AI handles
speed analyzed data much faster 5G networks’ huge
than regular AI data volumes more
efficiently, speeding
decision-making
Accuracy in High Extremely high Quantum AI detected and Better threat detection
threat detection predicted network risks and improves 5G
anomalies better network security and
dependability
Network Effective Highly optimized Quantum AI algorithms Improved 5G network
optimization optimized network routing efficiency and user
and resource allocation experience
Scalability Moderate High Quantum AI performed Shows Quantum AI
well as network data and can meet expanding
devices increased network demands
without sacrificing
performance
Energy efficiency Good Excellent Large dataset processing Energy conservation
was more energy-efficient aids 5G network
with quantum AI sustainability
Latency Low Ultra-low Quantum AI significantly 5G applications like
lowered data processing driverless vehicles and
and network response IoT require real-time
latency capabilities
Cost-effectiveness Cost-effective More initial Quantum technology has For long-term 5G
investment but cost- higher starting prices but network benefits,
effective in the long lowers expenses over time quantum technology
run due to efficiency increases investment is needed
User experience Satisfactory Enhanced Users received faster and Direct effect on 5G
more stable network customer happiness and
services with Quantum AI service quality
enhancement across many parameters in contrast and strengthened detection of security threats. The
to conventional AI systems. The primary areas of findings of this study suggest that the integration of
improvement encompass heightened data transmis- quantum AI algorithms has the potential to greatly
sion capacity, diminished time delay, decreased occur- enhance the functionalities of 5G networks, result-
rence of errors, enhanced allocation of resources, ing in improved network management characterized
improved accuracy in predicting traffic patterns, by increased intelligence and responsiveness. The
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 593
enhancements observed are not solely gradual, but increasingly imperative, particularly in light of the
rather possess revolutionary qualities. These advance- potential of quantum computing to undermine exist-
ments indicate a potential shift in the prevailing para- ing cryptographic standards. Notwithstanding these
digm regarding the optimization and security of 5G hurdles, the potential advantages of incorporating
networks. This shift is attributed to the incorporation quantum computing and AI into 5G networks are
of quantum computing models (Xin et al., 2020). of considerable magnitude and should not be dis-
Table 76.3 presents the analysis of results obtained regarded. The integration being discussed not only
from the implementation of quantum AI in 5G net- holds the potential for improved efficiency and per-
works. The objective of this analysis is to evaluate formance, but also serves as a foundation for future
the performance and effectiveness of quantum AI advancements in network technology. With the ongo-
in enhancing the capabilities of 5G networks. The ing progress in research and development within this
results are categorized into several metrics, including domain, it is foreseeable that a forthcoming epoch
network speed, latency, security, and energy of networking systems will emerge, characterized by
enhanced speed, efficiency, intelligence, and security.
Conclusion In summary, the incorporation of quantum com-
puting models and AI into 5G networking systems
As we approach the apex of our investigation into signifies a substantial advancement in our pursuit
the fusion of quantum computing with 5G net- of more sophisticated, effective, and secure telecom-
works, it becomes apparent that this merger signi- munications networks. This innovative methodology,
fies a significant advancement in telecommunications although in its early developmental phase, has the
technology. The integration of quantum computing, potential to fundamentally transform our under-
renowned for its exceptional computational prowess, standing and engagement with network technologies,
with the adaptive and intelligent nature of AI, engen- thereby paving the way for a dynamic future in the
ders a synergistic phenomenon that substantially field of digital communications.
amplifies the functionalities of 5G networks. The
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77 Micro-expressions spotting: Unveiling hidden emotions
and thoughts
Parul Malik and Jaiteg Singha
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab-140401, India
Abstract
Micro-expressions (MEs), brief and uncontrollable facial movements that last only a fraction of a second, are windows
into the innermost thoughts and emotions of others. In the past decade, MEs analysis techniques have evolved gradually
from psychological-based to computer vision-based due to the ongoing advancement of computer technology. An essential
component of MEs analysis called MEs spotting has drawn increasing attention. Recently, a few review articles on MEs
have been released, however the majority of them lacked a thorough examination of MEs spotting and instead concentrated
mostly on MEs recognition. Therefore, this review article aims to conduct an analysis of the methods, uses, and constraints of
MEs spotting, a key aspect of non-verbal communication analysis. The review starts out by exploring the psychological and
physiological bases of MEs and explaining their evolutionary significance as well as their applicability in various social cir-
cumstances. MEs spotting are used in psychology to evaluate emotional states, spot dishonesty, and guide psychotherapeutic
therapies. MEs spotting improve empathy and general awareness of emotional cues in interpersonal interactions. The article,
however, is not afraid to confront the major issues facing the discipline, such as the cultural and contextual heterogeneity of
MEs, ethical issues, and the requirement for ongoing training to maintain spotting accuracy. In summary, this review article
functions as an all-encompassing reference for individuals in the fields of research, practical application, and education who
have an interest in the diverse area of identifying malicious entities. It underscores the interdisciplinary nature of this field
and its potential to revolutionize human interaction analysis, decision-making processes, and emotional well-being across a
spectrum of applications.
Keywords: Micro-expressions spotting, non-verbal communication, spot dishonesty, decision making, contextual heterogeneity
Introduction identify MEs presence in a particular video and pin-
point the specific instant it appears. Whereas, detected
Facial expressions, which serve as outward manifesta-
MEs are then categorized by recognition into several
tions of inner emotions, allow us to quickly determine
emotional states, such as joy, sorrow, rage, fear, sur-
a person’s psychological state. Only 7% of human
prise, disgust, or contempt. Despite the fact that both
interactions are vocal, and the remaining 38% are spo-
spotting and identification are crucial, spotting is typ-
ken, with facial emotions accounting for up to 55%
ically the more difficult part of MEs analysis and has
of communication (Mehrabian, 1968). Accordingly,
gotten relatively less attention in recent researches.
the facial expressions can be broadly categorized
Thus, the period of time at which MEs are detected
as macro-expressions and micro-expressions (MEs)
from the video sequence is known as MEs spotting
(Xie, et al. 2022). The macro-expressions, can appear
and finding the highest intensity frames (the apex) in
in any circumstance and last anywhere between 0.5
brief MEs videos is the primary goal of MEs spotting.
and 4 seconds. Due to the obvious facial muscle
The commencement and conclusion of each video
movements, they are relatively simple to spot. MEs,
correlate to the onset and offset duration of each ME,
on the other hand, are quick and involuntary facial
respectively. Here, the onset, apex and offset frames
movements, usually exhibits only for less than half a
represent the muscle movements begin to grow, peak
second (Yan et al. 2013; Mandal and Awasthi, 2015).
of facial expression and muscles revert to a neutral
The significance of MEs comes from their potential
appearance, respectively (Valstar and Pantic, 2012).
to reveal hidden emotions that are beneficial for
There have been a few recent reports available (Li et
finding information related to law enforcement and
al., 2018; Oh et al., 2018; Takalkar et al., 2018; Goh
security (O’Sullivan et al., 2009), healthcare (Endres
et al., 2020; Xie et al., 2020; Pan et al., 2021; Zhou
and Laidlaw, 2009), and deciphering the intentions
et al., 2021; Ben et al., 2022; Esmaeili et al., 2022;
of business counterparts in negotiations (Chun et al.,
Gong et al., 2022; Li et al., 2022; Verma et al., 2023)
2015; Suen et al., 2019).
on MEs analysis, as given in Table 77.1. According
Two crucial processes are involved in the analysis
to the Table 77.1, almost in all publications, authors
of MEs: spotting and recognizing. Spotting seeks to
evaluated the methods of MEs recognition and just
a
[Link]@[Link]
596 Micro-expressions spotting: Unveiling hidden emotions and thoughts
Table 77.1 Few of the available published research reports on MEs analysis of recent years
Published paper Year of MEs apex MEs interval MEs
[Reference No.] publication detection detection recognition
Takalkar et al., 2018 2018 Ö
Li et al., 2018 2018 Ö
Oh et al., 2018 2018 Ö Ö Ö
Goh et al., 2020 2020 Ö Ö
Xie et al., 2020 2020 Ö Ö Ö
Zhou et al., 2021 2021 Ö
Gong et al., 2022 2021 Ö
Ben et al., 2022 2021 Ö Ö
Pan et al., 2021 2021 Ö Ö
Verma et al., 2023 2022 Ö
Gong et al., 2022 2022 Ö Ö
Esmaeili et al., 2022 2022 Ö Ö Ö
Table 77.2 Spotting techniques employed in facial MEs for pre-processing
Year of publication /citation Facial landmark Facial landmark Face registration Masking Face regions
detection tracking
2009 / Polikovsky et al., 2009) Manual - - - 12 ROIs
2009 / Shreve et al., 2009 - - - - 3 ROIs
2011 / Wu et al., 2011) Face++ - - - Whole face
2011 / Shreve et al., 2011 - - Face alignment Eyes, nose 8 ROIs
and mouth
2013 / Polikovsky et al., 2013 Manual APF - - 12 ROIs
2014 / Moilanen et al., 2014 Manual KLT Face alignment - 6×6 blocks
2015 / Davison et al., 2015 Face++ - Affine transform - 5×5 blocks
2015 / Patel et al., 2015 DRMF OF - - 49 ROIs
2016 / Xia et al., 2016 ASM - Procrutes analysis - Whole face
2017 / Li et al., 2018 Manual KLT - - 6×6 block
2018 / Duque et al., 2018 AAM KLT 5 ROIs
2019 / Li et al., 2019 Genfacetracker - - 12 ROIs
2021 / Yap et al., 2022 - - Face alignment - Whole face
OpenFace 2.0
2022 / Yuhong He et al., 2022 Face alignment 14 ROIs
a few presented a study on MEs interval and apex applying masking to the face, and retrieving the facial
detection. In the identification of facial malicious enti- region. The details of each process are mentioned
ties, typical pre-processing steps involve tasks such as below. Table 77.2 summarizes the present pre-pro-
detecting and tracking facial landmarks, registering cessing approaches used in facial MEs spotting.
and masking the face, and retrieving the facial region.
Facial landmark detection and tracking
Pre-processing The primary and pivotal stage in the spotting frame-
The typical pre-processing procedures in the identi- work for locating facial points in facial images is facial
fication of facial malicious entities involve detect- landmark detection, as indicated by Polikovsky et al.,
ing and tracking facial landmarks, registering and (2009). Additionally, a tracking algorithm is utilized
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 597
to track the facial points initially identified manu- two types of methods currently used to detect facial
ally in the first frame, as outlined by Polikovsky et al. micro-movements and may convey the person’s real
(2013). Later on, different automatic facial landmark emotions. Few of the existing techniques used for
detection methods have been used for facial MEs spotting a facial ME in recent years are summarized in
spotting (Cristinacce and Cootes, 2006; Saragih et al., Table 77.3.
2009; Asthana et al., 2013; Milborrow and Nicolls,
2014; Davison et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2017; Mo et Challenges and future directions
al., 2020).
Challenges in availability of MEs dataset
Face registration The rationale for the scarcity of datasets includes
Throughout the facial MEs spotting workflow, spontaneous MEs (Takalkar et al., 2018; Zhou et al.,
area and feature-based registration methods were 2021).
used on faces to remove the excess head transla- Because of the distinctive properties of MEs, they are
tions and spins (Davison et al., 2018). Area-based difficult to identify with the naked eye. Furthermore,
and feature-based approaches are the two different eliciting MEs by emotional cues in controlled labora-
kinds of registration approaches to determine the tory settings is relatively infrequent. Moreover, label-
consistency and paired connection between both the ing MEs datasets is time-consuming and is prone
sensed and referenced images (Shreve et al., 2011; to biases from diverse annotators. This can lead to
Li et al., 2018). Another, procrustes analysis is used inaccurate labels within the dataset, which hampers
to arrange detected landmark points and establish a machine learning model training. Additionally, MEs
linear transformation among sensed and reference spotting are a very esoteric field in computer vision,
images (Xia et al., 2016). garnering less attention than prominent issues such as
object identification, categorization, face recognition,
Masking and macro-expression recognition.
In the task of spotting malicious entities in facial
expressions, the application of masking to face images Challenges in feature extraction
aims to remove noise generated by undesired facial The duration of MEs and macro-expressions is a
movements, which could impact the performance frequent criterion for identifying them. If an expres-
of the spotting task. Previously, a “T-shaped” static sion lasts longer than 0.5 seconds, it is classified as a
mask was employed to eliminate the central part of macro-expression, while shorter durations are classi-
the image consisting of eyes, nose, and mouth. This fied as MEs. For example, if a movie is taken at 30
part is not considered due to eye cascades and blink- frames per second and contains a MEs clip, there
ing, rigidness of nose and undesired large motion of will be fewer than 15 frames capturing those MEs.
mouth (Shreve et al., 2011). A binary mask is also Algorithms face a considerable issue in detecting the
employed to attain twenty FACS-based facial regions exact starting and finishing points of such transient
which are beneficial for spotting task (Davison et al., expressions in a lengthy video with a large number of
2018). frames (Oh et al., 2018).
Face region retrieval Robust MEs spotting approach
According to existing research, facial ME analysis Existing deep learning-based approaches for detect-
should be performed individually on the upper and ing MEs do not meet the expectations of real-world
bottom portions of the face rather than on the entire applications because they consistently misclassify
face and initially face image was segmented into non-MEs as positive examples. Achieving a balance
three regions (Porter and ten Brinke, 2008; Shreve between a low false-positive rate and a high detec-
et al., 2009). Subsequently, in modern methods the tion rate is critical. To achieve this balance, it is criti-
images of face are partitioned into region-of interests cal to create resilient and efficient neural network
(ROIs) correspond to desired FACS action units (AUs) architecture. Such a network can aid in the extraction
(Davison et al., 2018; Liong et al., 2015; Li et al., of relevant semantic features from MEs, resulting in
2018). improved performance (Naz et al., 2020; Shourie et
al., 2023).
Micro-expression spotting
MEs spotting under complex situation
Facial MEs spotting attributes the movement or time Current datasets for ME analysis are mostly made up
interval of the MEs in a video sequence by auto- of samples collected in controlled laboratory condi-
matically detecting the time of moment of occur- tions with well-defined and uncluttered backdrops
rence of MEs. “Apex and interval” detections are the (Zhang et al., 2023).
598
Table 77.3 Few of the existing techniques employed for spotting a facial MEs
Micro-expressions spotting: Unveiling hidden emotions and thoughts
Year of Purpose Features used Movement Spotting Dataset used Conclusion Challenges and future scope
publication/ (M) / apex technique
reference (A)
2009/ To identify facial malicious 3D gradient K-mean Polikovsky The method can This method cannot directly
Polikovsky entities by using high-speed histogram cluster be recognized as action units measure the durations of
et al., 2009 camera and a 3D-gradient to analyze with good precision. expressions.
descriptor New dataset (Polikovsky) of
facial MEs was presented
2009/Porter To segment temporal Optical strain M Threshold USF, BU This method automatically MEs spotting in USF dataset
and ten expressions from face videos technique spots macro- and ME and were observed low. Eye
Brinke, 2008 comprises of continuous and achieved 100% accuracy in tracking algorithm may be
changing expression using spotting micro- and macro applicable to precise the
strain patterns expressions in USF and BU segment of the facial region.
dataset Computation time can also
be decreased in addition to
increased robustness
2011/Shreve To automatically spotting Optical strain Threshold USF-HD A maximum of 85% spotting
et al., 2011 facial expression in long technique accuracy was observed for
videos comprising of micro- macro-expressions and 74% of
and macro-expression using all MEs
temporal segmentation
recognize MEs by analyzing
the videos frame by frame
2013/Wang To detect and characterize 3D gradient K-mean Polikovsky This method provides finer This method was exclusively
et al., 2017 facial MEs in high-speed histogram cluster description of the timing used for evaluating staged
videos using FACS characteristics of ME facial malicious entities in
videos, and the experiment
was conducted as a
classification task, which is
not applicable for real-time
detection
2014/ Automatically detecting LBP M Threshold CASME-A This method spotted Image registration using
Polikovsky swift facial movements in technique CASME-B spontaneous MEs by affine transformation could
et al., 2013 videos through the analysis SMIC-VIS-E thresholding Chi-squared be used for pose correction
of appearance-based feature distance of LBP of center also to improve robustness in
differences frame and average of first as longer videos more adaptive
well as last frames. It also gives threshold calculation is needed
details of the spatial locations
of the movements in the facial
region
Year of Purpose Features used Movement Spotting Dataset used Conclusion Challenges and future scope
publication/ (M) / apex technique
reference (A)
2015/ Identifying subtle facial HOG M Threshold in-house In this scheme, the higher To analyze alterations
Davison et movements by employing technique dataset recall of 0.8429 and in features within both
al., 2015 Histogram of oriented F1-measure of 0.7672 were the spatial and temporal
gradients (HOG) as a achieved dimensions of a video, in
feature descriptor to addition to Chi-squared
characterize the video difference distance metrics,
sequences Earth Mover’s distance could
be effective when employed
with normalized histograms.
Furthermore, this approach
could be suitable for various
feature descriptors and
additional datasets
2015/Patel To analyze and identify the Spatio- M Threshold SMIC-VIS-E This approach attained a 95% To find AU and reduce false
et al., 2015 onset and offset frames for temporal technique area under the curve (AUC). positive rate, an approach
detected malicious entities, integration of The recorded mean onset error combining recognition and
a predetermined algorithm OF vectors was reported as 1.14 with a detection
was utilized, along with standard deviation of 3.68, could be used
determining the peak while the mean offset error
was determined to be -0.55,
accompanied by a standard
deviation of 3.52
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 599
2016/Xia et To spotting spontaneous Geometrical M Random CASME, The feature used in the
al., 2016 MEs via geometric motion, walk SMIC framework could be
deformation modeling deformation model improved by using landmarks
localization method
2017/Li et To analyze the spontaneous HOOF, LBP Threshold CASME II ME spotting method based To detect the peak time point
al., 2018 MEs spotting and technique SMIC-E-HS on feature difference contrast onset and offset frames for
recognition methods SMIC-E-VIS and peak detection along with each ME could be used.
SMIC-E-NIR automatic ME analysis system Further, By combining
(MESR) was developed AU detection with FD
process, spotting of non-ME
movements will be helpful
2018/ To detect micro-movement 3DHOG, LBP, Threshold SAMM, An AUC of 0.7512 and 0.7261 Improvement in the speed of
Davison et using 3D histogram of OF technique CASME II were obtained followed by feature extraction and pre-
al., 2018 oriented gradients (3D this method with SAMM and processing is needed and real-
HOG) temporal difference CASME II, respectively time analysis also required
method
600
Year of Purpose Features used Movement Spotting Dataset used Conclusion Challenges and future scope
Micro-expressions spotting: Unveiling hidden emotions and thoughts
publication/ (M) / apex technique
reference (A)
2019/Li et To spot MEs in long LBP-c2 Threshold SAMM, F1-score of LTP-ML resulted Emphasize simply on the
al., 2019 video sequence using local technique CASME II for SAMM and CAS (ME)2 enhancement of the potential
temporal pattern (LTP) and were found 0.0316 and of distinguishing MEs among
local binary pattern (LBP) 0.0179, respectively with this additional facial movements to
method reduce facial points with the
functioning of deep learning
2020/Ying Employed the main MDMD SAMM. The F1-scores 0.1196 and The number of false positives
He et al., directional maximal CAS(ME)2 0.0082 were obtained for (FPs) for macro and MEs in
2020 difference analysis (MDMD) macro and MEs, respectively, CAS(ME)2 is very high, and
to spot the macro- and MEs on CAS(ME)2. Whereas, the therefore the FPs needs to be
intervals within long video values of the F1-scores were reduced
sequence found 0.0629 and 0.0364 for
macro- and MEs, respectively,
for SAMM long videos
2021/Yap et To spot macro-and MEs in SOFTNet SAMM, The study provides a new For the spotting of both
al., 2022 long videos using shallow CAS(ME)2 regression-based strategy macro and MEs an innovative
optical flow three stream which achieved overall F1 modeling is required for the
CNN score 0.2022 and 0.1881 on localized facial transitions and
CAS(ME)2 and SAMM dataset, robust peak detection
respectively
2021/Gupta, For spotting multi-scale MESNet SAMM, Both MESNet CPN and
2023 spontaneous ME interval CAS(ME)2 MESNet CRN achieved the
in long videos using highest F1-score of 0.028,
novel network based 0.036 and 0.077, 0.088,
convolutional neural respectively on CAS(ME)2 and
network (CNN) SAMM dataset, also find the
most MEs
2022/Yap et To spot the macro- and MEs Local contrast SAMM-LV, This technique yielded The advancement includes
al., 2022 within long video sequences normalization CAS(ME)2 an F1-score of 0.105 a sink of facial landmark
using 3D-CNN with (LCN) when applied to a dataset detection algorithm. Further, to
temporal oriented frame comprising high frame-rate allocate more computational
skips (200 fps) lengthy video resources for real time MEs
sequences (SAMM-LV) analysis, simplified spotting
and was acknowledged as algorithm required to be
competitive when compared allocated
to a low frame-rate (30 fps)
dataset, CAS(ME)2
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 601
Conclusions 81(28), 40089–400134. [Link]
s11042-022-13133-2.
As the precision of detecting MEs intervals is critical Goh, K. M., Ng, C. H., Lim, L. L., and Sheikh, U. U. (2020).
to subsequent MEs detection, studying MEs spotting Micro-expression recognition: An updated review of cur-
is important. This study examined new research find- rent trends, challenges and solutions. Vis. Comp., 36(3),
ings linked to MEs spotting and firstly discussed dif- 445–468. [Link]
ferent pre-processing techniques in depth. Following Gong, W., An, Z., and Elfiky, N. M. (2022). Deep learn-
that, the techniques used for spotting MEs along with ing-based micro expression recognition: A survey.
the benefits and future scope of each method has been Neu. Comput. Appl., 34(12), 9537–9560. [Link]
org/10.1007/s00521-022-07157-w.
introduced. In the end, the difficulties that present
Gupta, P. (2023). PERSIST: Improving micro-expression
with spotting methods are also discussed. We believe
spotting using better feature encodings and multi-
that this study will assist readers better comprehend scale gaussian TCN. Appl. Intel. 53(2), 2235–2249.
the evolution of MEs spotting and encourage addi- [Link]
tional scholars to join in related research. Naz, H. and Sachin, A. (2020). Latest trends in emotion rec-
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78 Artificial intelligence and machine vision-based assessment
of rice seed quality
Ridhi Jindal1,a and S. K. Mittal2
Optimo Shell Global Pvt. Ltd
1
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
2
Abstract
For any country, the backbone of its economy depends on the percentage of people involved in agriculture. However, many
major agricultural regions are termed underdeveloped because of many factors, like lack or no use of modernized technolo-
gies. Seed classification is still done with the farmers’ basic knowledge, which is proven to have no mechanical validations
and hence is considered inefficient. The present research presents a mechanism for assessing the quality of rice seed that can
help provide better crop production. Machine learning (ML), a subset of artificial intelligence (AI), is used for learning the
data that is used for making predictions, recognizing patterns, making simulations in the real world, and classifying the input
data. Rice is the major source of food for a total of 80% of the population of the world. Rice is grown in different variet-
ies; hence, detecting faulty seeds and distinguishing among the varieties is another important farming aspect. This research
elaborates on a method that can be used efficiently for extracting the features of rice seeds by their identification and classifi-
cation using digital imaging. The process involved is filtering, segmentation, and edge detection as pre-processing techniques.
Keywords: Artificial intelligence, machine vision, GDP growth, resource efficiency, seed quality assessment, ANN classifier
Introduction is to give efficient control of quality and analyze rice
quality with reduced time, cost, and effort. Rice, the
Every year, people from farming communities world- main crop of any developing country, also needs more
wide decide the type of crop to plant in their fields to and more development in terms of its quality check
produce a higher yield. The crop seeds chosen are the and seed assessment.
biggest factor for the farmers, and everyone is linked The advancing technologies of digital image pro-
to the global food chain system, followed by factors cessing applications show how to analyze food mate-
like food security and livelihood. Some varieties of rial quality. An automatic machine used for extracting
seeds show the potential to produce higher outputs, rice quality information using the software is more
but some aspects of risks are subject to change as per accurate, speedy, harmless, convenient, and non-
different situations. destructive, producing more precise results. Even with
There also are some varieties of seed that are more so many advances in integrated farming and tech-
stable but result in low yields. Using the features of nologies, a wide information gap still exists between
artificial intelligence (AI) like machine learning (ML), the existing practices and research. To take complete
researchers have been able to predict both the out- advantage of the humidity, moisture, soil type, and
put and associated risks when using various seeds on climatic conditions, the farmers must know the type
a specific farm and selecting mixed varieties of seeds of seeds that should be used.
for producing an optimum trade-off. In the early era All of the farming regions of the world vary in envi-
of the 20th century, technology was integrated with ronmental factors; however, the quality of seeds can
farming practices with the invention of machines still be constant globally. Such variable factors also
like tractors, which are used for numerous farming help produce a large database of farming and yields
activities till today. Further development of systems of the crops. This gradually increasing data size also
for managing crops, chemicals, pesticides, and plant helps form more automated methods for analyzing the
heredity has helped the industry become a data- quality of seeds and grains (Ji et al., 2007). Artificial
rich and technology-enabled world (Stubbs, 2016). intelligence has numerous subsets that involve several
Machine vision helps in analyzing the seed of rice most components of processing called the nodes or neu-
efficiently. Researchers in the fieldwork on a straight rons, which are interconnected using links names as
face that the object’s shape is important as opposed to connections for performing PDP operations (Parallel
the appearance features like color, specifically in the Distributed Processing) for solving the discussed
case of seeds, grains, or pulses (Avudaiappan et al., problem. It also forms a hierarchy of layers: (a) Input
2019). The prime objective of the present technique layer: Lowest layer, (b) Output layer: Highest layer,
a
ridhijindal136 @[Link]
604 Artificial intelligence and machine vision-based assessment of rice seed quality
(c) Hidden layers: Additional layers (Al-Shayea and utilizing machine and computer vision, deep learning
Bahia, 2010). (DL), and ML approaches. The system, tested with a
dataset of 9692 rice images from different varieties
Literature review grown in Punjab, achieved 93% accuracy using the
KNN classifier (Komal et al., 2022). Paddy produc-
Using computer vision for plant phenotyping is gain- tion is vital in India, with a 33% increase in GDP
ing importance, aiding in identifying plant changes. export rate in 2021.
Advances in image analysis and ML, including con- Diseases like brown spot, rice blast, sheath rot,
volutional neural networks (CNNs), have expanded sheath blight, and false smut can severely affect
its use for high-throughput phenotyping. Combining crop yield. Early detection is essential, and computer
multiple sensors allows noninvasive data acquisition, vision, specifically convolutional neural networks
enhancing our understanding of plant development (CNNs), has been employed to predict disease symp-
and responses. Automated phenotyping platforms toms. Among the four classifiers tested, Inception-V3
assist in understanding gene functions in controlled acquired the highest accuracy of 95.3% (Vignesh
conditions. For extensive field phenotyping in agricul- and Elakya, 2022). A comprehensive survey on com-
ture, remote sensing technology with image-collecting puter vision-based food grain classification methods
platforms, including unmanned vehicles, is develop- is presented, analyzing various approaches for differ-
ing. This technology will aid in predicting and pre- ent grain varieties. The review examines the process-
dicting plant traits based on phenotype/genotype ing stages in the classification pipeline, image types
relationships (Mochida et al., 2019). considered, and ground truth data generation meth-
Assessing the quality of rice is vital due to its global ods. Future challenges and needs are also discussed
consumption. Traditional manual inspection methods (Hidayat et al., 2023). Staple foods like pulses and
are labor-intensive, time-consuming, and prone to grains face issues such as adulteration and quality
errors. A real-time image processing system is intro- maintenance. Traditional methods and non-destruc-
duced to classify rice grains on the basis of their com- tive techniques are analyzed for rice starch content,
mercial value. This system automatically segments physico-chemical properties, and biochemical prop-
rice grains from the background, extracts geometri- erties identification. Spectroscopic non-destructive
cal features, and employs a support vector machine methods show promise in assessing adulteration, fun-
(SVM) for classification. It also grades grains based gal infection, and quality (Natarajan and Ponnusamy,
on milling defects, providing comprehensive quality 2023). Computer vision is crucial in seed testing,
assessment (Mittal et al., 2019). In India, where rice particularly for seed and seedling classification. This
is a staple for 70% of the population, food quality review explores the challenges in seed identification,
is a crucial concern. This paper addresses the issue the limitations of current techniques, and the poten-
of rice quality and proposes using image analysis to tial of deep learning. It recommends optimizing image
ensure accurate rice size and, therefore, protein con- acquisition, dataset construction, and model develop-
tent. Feature extraction techniques and ML models ment for seed identification (Zhao et al., 2022).
are used to assess rice quality (Panigrahi, 2020). A Rice quality assessment benefits from modern high-
study evaluates machine vision techniques for classi- precision instruments and agricultural AI. The detec-
fying six Asian rice varieties. tion of rice appearance quality with high-precision
Digital images captured in open field conditions are instruments has gained traction in agriculture (He et
processed, and various features are extracted. These al., 2023). Nutrient deficiency affects crop production
features are used to discriminate rice varieties, achiev- significantly. Computer vision and ML technologies
ing high classification accuracies with different classi- are employed to detect nutrient deficiencies in crops.
fiers (Qadri et al., 2021). Micronutrient malnutrition This overview explores recent research in crop nutri-
affects billions of people worldwide. Enhancing min- ent content identification and its challenges (Sudhakar,
eral concentrations in crops through biofortifica- M., and R. M. Priya, 2023).
tion is a sustainable solution. Quality assessment of Machine vision plays a vital role in plant pheno-
grains is traditionally manual, time-consuming, and typing, offering non-destructive solutions for trait
variable. This paper proposes using image process- estimation and classification. This comprehensive
ing to analyze grain quality, considering physical and survey outlines various imaging methods along with
chemical characteristics. Edge detection is employed their applications in plant phenotyping, including
to determine grain boundaries (Velavan et al., 2021). deep learning algorithms (Kolhar and Jayant, 2023).
Automated rice variety identification is a challenging Automated detection and classification of rice crop
task, requiring expertise in agriculture and advanced diseases are crucial for improving crop output. This
AI technology. To address this challenge, an automatic system uses computer vision, ML, image process-
rice variety identification system has been developed, ing, and DL to identify diseases like brown leaf spot,
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 605
bacterial leaf blight, rice blast, false smut, and sheath
rot. A deep learning-based approach achieved high
accuracy (Haridasan et al, 2023).
To enhance agricultural yield and classification of
rice varieties, this research presents a neural model-
based semantic segmentation method. It can differ-
entiate rice varieties and predict yield by analyzing
agro-morphological characteristics. This technology
aids in rapid rice classification and yield estimation
(Patel B. and Aakanksha S., 2023). Agricultural pro-
duction must expand by 70% by 2050 to meet global
food demands, according to the United Nations Food
and Agriculture Organization (FAO). In opposition,
chemicals used to prevent diseases, such as fungicides
and bactericides, negatively impact the agricultural
ecosystem (Trivedi et al., 2021; Singh et al., 2023).
Among the most significant components used for
enhancing agricultural products, scalability and waste
reduction are considered to be criteria for evaluat-
ing quality (Dhiman et al., 2022; Hasija et al., 2022;
Kadyan et al., 2023). Figure 78.1 ANN architecture
ANN-based classification
The biological nervous system, which comprises sev-
eral nodes and replicates biological neurons in the
human brain, served as the model for the ANN clas-
sification system. The nodes, or neurons, are inter-
connected and engage in communication. The nodes
receive the input data, analyze it, and then transform
it before sending it across the connection to other
neurons as an output. Each connection will have a
weight that may be changed. Every node’s output is
processed via the weight. A hidden layer is a layer that
resides between the input and the output and con-
ducts calculations on weighted inputs to generate the
net input.
The real output is subsequently created by combin-
ing the activation function with the net input. Input
and output nodes added together may equal one or
up to two hidden layers. The network randomly adds
weight while passing from the input to the output Figure 78.2 Flow chart of the process
layer, and the result is sent to the next nodes. The ulti-
mate result is compared with the objective. If the out-
put does not match the goal, it propagates backward Table 78.1 Grade of rice grains
and modifies the weights. The architecture of an ANN Grade Type
is shown in Figure 78.1. Figure 78.2 illustrates a sug-
gested automated rice grain quality evaluation system 1 Perfect small rice grains
based on ANN. 2 Perfect large rice grains
Matta and Ponni, two widely consumed rice types,
3 Rice grains with impurities
are the subjects of this research. As seen in Table 78.1,
there are four grades assigned to them. The rice is 4 Imperfect (mixed) rice grains
divided into two categories, Ponni rice, and Matta
rice, using the mean RGB values of various images.
Figure 78.3 for the Ponni variety and Figure 78.4 for grains are divided into grades 1, 2, 3, and 4 based on
the Matta type of rice show the test findings. The rice geometrical characteristics.
606 Artificial intelligence and machine vision-based assessment of rice seed quality
Figure 78.3 Test image for grade-2 Ponni rice
Figure 78.4 Test image for grade-2 Matta rice
Results
The NN-toolbox of MATLAB is used to carry out
the classification scheme for rice grains. The NN
classifier system has utilized seven data sets. The
ANN framework employed in this study is shown in
Figure 78.5. Seven characteristics have been consid-
ered inputs, while rice quality and variety have been Figure 78.5 ANN framework
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 607
considered outputs. To reach the best level of accuracy, The different rice seeds are classified on the basis
this model comprises 48 hidden layers. Figure 78.6 of their perimeter assessment. Table 78.2 details the
presents the outcomes of the NN classifier and regres- intended value of pixels depending on the particle
sion plots are discussed as shown in Figure 78.7. analysis for every rice seed in one sample image. Table
78.3, differentiates the rice seeds among small, nor-
mal, large, and broken rice granules using the object
detection method. The table also presents the values
calculated in percentage depending on the total seeds
in each sample using the machine-based system analy-
sis. Further, Table 78.4 states the values of different
rice seeds as detected by a human inspector, with the
corresponding percentage values concerning the total
number of seeds present in the sample.
Tables 78.3–78.5 presents the values of the number
of different quality rice seeds by human detection and
using the machine vision method. From the results, it
can be seen that more accurate results are produced
when a system based on machine vision is used as
compared to manual detection. An error analysis, as
presented in Table 78.5, showed a major variation
in the percentage of error when detected manually
Table 78.2 Analysis of rice seeds in a random sample
S. No. Perimeter (pixels)
1 198
2 198
3 176
4 199
5 198
6 236
Figure 78.6 Grading of rice grains according to variet-
7 227
ies using ANN classifier
8 114
9 177
10 121
11 206
12 190
13 209
14 209
15 116
16 203
17 223
18 226
19 187
20 225
21 237
22 211
23 148
24 216
25 196
26 218
Figure 78.7 Regression plots
608 Artificial intelligence and machine vision-based assessment of rice seed quality
Table 78.3 Results of a random sample regarding the size of the rice seeds with percentage values
Sample Small % Normal % Large % Broken % Total
no seed seed seed seed seeds
1 3 10.71 15 53.57 3 10.71 7 25.00 28
2 4 12.90 20 64.52 2 6.45 5 16.13 31
3 2 7.69 16 61.54 2 7.69 6 23.08 26
4 2 6.25 19 59.37 3 9.37 8 25.00 32
5 3 10.00 19 63.33 2 6.67 6 20.00 30
6 2 6.45 18 58.06 4 12.90 7 22.58 31
7 2 7.41 18 66.67 4 14.81 3 11.11 27
8 3 10.34 19 65.52 3 10.34 4 13.79 29
9 4 13.79 19 65.52 2 6.90 4 13.79 29
10 2 6.90 17 58.62 4 13.79 6 20.69 29
11 2 6.67 18 60.00 5 16.67 5 16.67 30
12 2 6.67 18 60.00 4 13.33 6 20.00 30
13 2 6.25 20 62.50 2 6.25 8 25.00 32
14 4 13.33 17 56.67 3 10.00 6 20.00 30
15 2 6.67 18 60.00 4 13.33 6 20.00 30
Average 8.80% 61.05% 10.61% 19.52%
Table 78.4 Results of a random sample in terms of the size of the rice seeds with percentage values by Human inspector
Sample Small seed % Normal seed % Large seed % Broken % Total
no seed seeds
1 4 14.28 14 50.00 4 14.28 6 21.42 28
2 5 16.12 17 54.83 3 9.67 6 19.35 31
3 3 11.53 14 53.84 3 11.53 6 23.07 26
4 4 12.50 17 53.12 4 12.50 7 21.87 32
5 4 13.33 15 50.00 4 13.33 7 23.33 30
6 3 9.67 15 48.38 5 16.12 8 25.80 31
7 4 14.81 14 51.85 5 18.51 4 14.81 27
8 4 13.79 15 51.72 4 17.24 4 17.24 29
9 6 20.68 14 48.27 4 13.79 5 17.24 29
10 5 17.24 15 51.72 5 17.24 4 13.79 29
11 4 13.33 14 46.66 6 20.00 6 20.00 30
12 3 10.00 15 50.00 5 16.66 7 23.33 30
13 3 9.37 16 50.00 4 12.50 9 28.12 32
14 5 16.66 14 46.66 4 13.33 7 23.33 30
15 3 10.00 15 50.00 5 16.66 7 23.33 30
Average 50.46% 12.21% 16.48% 21.06%
Table 78.5 Result analysis
Percentage of normal seed Error % Percentage of chalky seed Error %
Manual Image analysis 10.6% Manual Image analysis 2.26%
50.46 61.05 15.47 18.19
Applied Data Science and Smart Systems 609
compared to the error using the machine-based sys- Kolhar, S. and Jayant, J. (2023). Plant trait estimation and clas-
tem for normal and chalky seeds. sification studies in plant phenotyping using machine
vision–A review. Inform. Proc. Agricul., 10(1), 114–135.
Komal, Komal, Ganesh Kumar Sethi, and Rajesh Kumar
Conclusion Bawa. (2022). A prototype of automatic rice variety
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grains are of good quality, an AI-based system is pre- tive image processing-based system for assessment of
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