Field Methods of Psychology

●​ A secondary source is written by someone

who did not participate in the research or
RESEARCH IDEAS AND HYPOTHESES
observations being discussed.
●​ Description or summary of another
person’s work.
●​ Examples: books and textbooks; review
I.​ IDENTIFYING A TOPIC AREA
articles or meta-analyses; introductory
section of research reports; newspaper and
●​ Identifying a general topic area that is magazine articles that report on previous
interesting to you. research.
○​ Ask yourself why things happen the
way they do or what would happen
if things were different. C. LITERATURE SEARCH
●​ Explore previous research in that topic area ●​ To find a set of published research reports
to find a specific research idea or question. that define the current state of knowledge
in an area
A COMMON SOURCES OF RESEARCH ●​ To identify an unanswered question
TOPICS (research gap) that your study will attempt
to fill.
●​ Generally, the purpose of your literature
1.​ Personal Interests and Curiosities review is to provide the elements needed
2.​ Casual Observation for an introduction to your own research
3.​ Reports of Others’ Observations study.
a.​ News reports, recent research ●​ Google Scholar, Ebscohost, ScienceDirect,
results, topics in your subjects. APA PsycNet, Library, etc.
4.​ Practical Problems or Questions
a.​ Issues from your job, your family
relationships, your schoolwork. D. SCREENING ARTICLES DURING A
5.​ Behavioral Theories LITERATURE SEARCH
a.​ Theories that offer explanations for ●​ Use the title of the article as your first
behavior. basis for screening.
b.​ Try to explain why different ●​ Use the abstract of the article as your
environmental factors lead to second screening device.
different behaviors. ●​ To determine whether the article is really
relevant.
II.​ SEARCHING THE EXISTING RESEARCH ●​ Look for a full-text version of the article.
LITERATURE IN A TOPIC AREA ●​ Skim it, looking specifically at the
introductory paragraphs and the discussion
section.
●​ Read the article carefully and/or make a
A. PRIMARY SOURCES
copy for your personal use.
●​ Use the references from the articles that
●​ Is a firsthand report of observations or you have already found to expand your
research results written by the individual(s) literature search.
who actually conducted the research and ●​ Decide when to call off the search.
made the observations.
●​ Examples: empirical journal articles; thesis
E. TIPS FOR STARTING A REVIEW OF THE
and dissertations; and conference
LITERATURE (GRAVETER & FORZANO)
presentations of research results.
1.​ Do Your Homework
This involves reading books and journal
B. SECONDARY SOURCES
articles to familiarize yourself with the
topic.
Field Methods of Psychology

●​ Those who cannot give their

consent, such as children, people
ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH
with diminished abilities, and
prisoners, need special protection.

I.​ OVERVIEW 2.​ PRINCIPLE OF BENEFICENCE

●​ The researcher does not harm the
participants, minimizes risks, and
A. RESEARCH ETHICS maximizes possible benefits.

3.​ PRINCIPLE OF JUSTICE

●​ Concerns the responsibility of researchers
●​ Requires fair and non-exploitative
to be honest and respectful to all
procedures for the selection and
individuals who are affected by their
treatment of participants.
research studies or their reports of the
studies’ results.
●​ Researchers are usually governed by a set B. AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION
of ethical guidelines that assist them in ETHICS CODE
making proper decisions and choosing
proper actions. ●​ The Ethics Code is intended to provide
●​ In psychological research, the American guidance for psychologists and standards
Psychological Association (APA) maintains of professional conduct.
a set of ethical principles for research [Link]
(APA, 2002, 2010).
1.​ INFORMED CONSENT
●​ Requires the investigator to provide
B. THE BASIC CATEGORIES OF ETHICAL all available information about a
RESPONSIBILITY study so that an individual can
make a rational, informed decision
●​ Responsibility to ensure the welfare and to participate in the study.
dignity of the individuals, both human and
nonhuman, who participate in their CONSENT FORM
research studies. ●​ Contains a statement of all the
●​ Responsibility to ensure that public reports elements of informed consent and a
of their research are accurate and honest. line for the participant’s and/or
guardian’s signature.

II.​ ETHICAL ISSUES AND HUMAN

PARTICIPANTS IN RESEARCH
SECTION OF THE FORM

A. BELMONT REPORT
SECTION OF THE PURPOSE AND CONTENTS
●​ Published by the National Commission in FORM
1979.
●​ Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the 1.​ Risks and inconveniences
Protection of Human Subjects of Research. ●​ Statement of any physical and
psychological risks and an estimate of
The Belmont Report identifies three basic their likelihood.
principles: ●​ Inconveniences and demands to be
placed on the participants (e.g., how
1.​ PRINCIPLE OF RESPECT FOR PERSONS many sessions, requests to do anything,
(Autonomy) or contact at home).
●​ Individuals should consent to
participate in studies.
Field Methods of Psychology

participants with regard to information

2.​ Benefits
about a study.
●​ A statement of what the participants can
●​ There are two forms of deception: passive
reasonably hope to gain from
and active.
participation, including psychological,
physical, and monetary benefits.
A.​ PASSIVE DECEPTION (OMISSION)
●​ Is the withholding or omission of
3.​ Costs and economic considerations
information
●​ Charges to the participants (e.g., in
●​ The researcher intentionally does not tell
treatment) and payment (e.g., for
participants some information about the
participation or completing various
study.
forms).

4.​ Confidentiality B.​ ACTIVE DECEPTION (COMMISSION)

●​ Assurances that the information is ●​ Is the presenting of misinformation about
confidential and will only be seen by the study to participants.
people who need to do so for the ●​ The most common form of active
purposes of research (e.g., scoring and deception is misleading participants about
data analyses), procedures to assure the specific purpose of the study.
confidentiality (e.g., removal of names
from forms, storage of data). DECEPTION
●​ Also, caveats are included here if it is ●​ The final point is that deceived participants
possible that sensitive information (e.g., must receive a debriefing that provides a
psychiatric information, criminal activity) full description of the true purpose of the
can be subpoenaed. study.
●​ Debriefing is a post-experimental
5.​ Alternative treatments explanation of the purpose of a study that
●​ In an intervention study, alternatives is given to a participant, especially if
available to the client before or during deception was used.
participation are outlined.
3. CONFIDENTIALITY
6.​ Voluntary Participation ●​ Ensures that the information obtained from
●​ A statement that the participant is a research participant will be kept secret
willing to participate and can decline and private.
participation now or later without penalty
of any kind. 4. ANONYMITY
●​ It is the practice of ensuring that an
7.​ Questions and further information individual’s name is not directly associated
●​ A statement that the participant is with the information or measurements
encouraged to ask questions at any time obtained from that individual.
and can contact one or more individuals
(listed by name and phone number) who C. INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD (IRB)
are available for such questions.

8.​ Signature Lines ●​ The IRB is a committee that examines all

●​ A place for the participant and the proposed research with respect to its
experimenter to sign. treatment of human participants.
●​ IRB approval must be obtained before any
research is conducted with human
2. DECEPTION participants.
●​ Often, the goal of a research study is to ●​ The IRB can require that a research
examine behavior under “normal” proposal be modified to meet its criteria
circumstances. before the research is approved.
●​ It is when a researcher purposefully
withholds information or misleads
Field Methods of Psychology

●​ The IRB examines all proposed research 7.​ PRIVACY AND CONFIDENTIALITY
involving human participants with respect ●​ It is intended to protect
to seven basic criteria. participants from the risk that
information obtained during a
1.​ MINIMIZATION RISK TO PARTICIPANTS research study could be released to
●​ To ensure that research procedures outside individuals (parents,
do not unnecessarily expose teachers, employers, and peers)
participants to risk. where it might have embarrassing
●​ To ensure that every precaution has or personally damaging
been taken to minimize risk. consequences.

2.​ REASONABLE RISK IN RELATION TO

BENEFITS
III.​ ETHICAL ISSUES AND SCIENTIFIC
●​ Evaluating the potential risks to
INTEGRITY
participants as well as the benefits
that result from the research.

3.​ EQUITABLE SELECTION A. FRAUD IN SCIENCE

●​ To ensure that the participant
selection process does not ●​ It is the explicit effort of a researcher to
discriminate among individuals in falsify or misrepresent data.
the population and does not exploit ●​ If a researcher makes up (i.e., fabricates) or
vulnerable individuals. changes data to make it support the
hypothesis, this constitutes fraud.
4.​ INFORMED CONSENT
●​ Carefully reviews and critiques the Safeguards against Fraud
procedures used to obtain informed 1.​ Replication
consent, making sure that the 2.​ Peer Review
researcher provides complete 3.​ Verification of data
information about all aspects of the
research that might be of interest
or concern to a potential B. PLAGIARISM
participant.
●​ Plagiarism is the unethical representation
5.​ DOCUMENTATION OF INFORMED CONSENT of someone else’s ideas of words as one’s
●​ Determines whether it is necessary own.
to have a written consent form
signed by the participant and the
researcher.

6.​ DATA MONITORING

●​ The researcher should make
provision for monitoring the data to
determine whether any unexpected
risks or causes of harm have
developed.
●​ The researcher should monitor the
testing of each individual
participant so the procedure can be
interrupted or stopped at the first
indication of developing harm or
danger.
Field Methods of Psychology

accurately reflect the

SELECTING RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS characteristics of the population.

2.​ REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE

I.​ INTRODUCTION TO SAMPLING ○​ It is a sample with the same
characteristics as the population.
●​ One of the most critical issues in planning
3.​ BIASED SAMPLE
research is the selection of research
●​ is a sample with different
participants.
characteristics from those of the
●​ You will have to select a relatively small
population.
group of students to represent the entire
group.
4.​ SELECTION BIAS OR SAMPLING BIAS
●​ Most likely, having different participants
○​ Occurs when participants or
will show different results.
subjects are selected in a manner
●​ In general, not everyone can participate,
that increases the probability of
and the outcome of the study may depend
obtaining a biased sample.
on the way in which participants are
selected.
C. SAMPLE SIZE
A. POPULATIONS AND SAMPLES
●​ The goal is to obtain a sample that is
representative of the population.
1.​ Populations “Target Population”
●​ Researchers often begin a research study
○​ The entire set of individuals of
with a specific target for the level of
interest to a researcher.
accuracy. In most scientific studies (95%
○​ Although the entire population
CI; 0.05 or 5% margin of error)
usually does not participate in a
research study, the results from the
Slovin’s Formula:
study are generalized to the entire
Where:
population.
n = sample size
N = Population
2.​ Sample
e = Margin of error
○​ A set of individuals selected from a
population.
○​ Usually intended to represent the
Sample size calculators:
population in a research study.
1.​ Raosoft
2.​ Sample Size Calculator
3.​ Accessible Population
3.​ SurveyMonkey
●​ A portion of the target population
4.​ Qualtrics Sample Size Calculator
consists of individuals who are
accessible to be recruited as
participants in the study. D. SAMPLING BASICS
●​ Sampling is the process of selecting
B. REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES individuals to participate in a research
study.
●​ The goal of a research study is to examine
●​ Sampling methods (or sampling techniques)
a sample and then generalize the results to
fall into two basic categories: probability
the population.
sampling and nonprobability sampling.
1.​ REPRESENTATIVENESS
1.​ PROBABILITY SAMPLING
○​ Refers to the extent to which the
●​ It is when the entire population is known
characteristics of the sample
Field Methods of Psychology

●​ Each individual in the population has a

II.​ SUMMARY OF SAMPLING METHODS
specifiable probability of selection
●​ Sampling occurs by a random process
based on the probabilities.
A, PROBABILITY SAMPLING
2.​ NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
●​ The population is not completely
known. Type of Description Strengths and
●​ Individual probabilities cannot be Sampling Weaknesses
known.
●​ The sampling method is based on Simple A sample is The selection
Random obtained using a process is fair
factors such as common sense or
Sampling random process and unbiased,
ease. to select but there is no
participants from guarantee that
Characteri Probability Nonprobability a list containing the sample is
the total representative
stics Sampling Sampling
population.
Definition Every member Not all members Simple The random The selection
has a chance of have a chance of random process ensures process is fair
selection selection. sampling that each and unbiased,
individual has an but there is no
Selection Based on Non-random equal and guarantee that
Method Randomization selection (based independent the sample is
on accessibility, chance of representative
judgement, etc.) selection

Systematic A sample is An easy method

Bias Risk Low High
Sampling obtained by for obtaining an
selecting every essentially
Use of Yes No nth participant random sample
Randomiz from a list but the selection
ation containing the are not really
total population random or
Generaliza Results can be Limited after a random independent
bility generalized to generalizability start
the population
Stratified A sample is Guarantees that
Examples Simple random, Convenience, Random obtained by each subgroup
Sampling dividing the will have
systematic, purposive,
population into adequate
stratified, quota, snowball subgroup (strata) representation,
proportionate and then but the overall
stratified,cluster, randomly sample is
combined-strate selecting equal usually not
gy sampling numbers from representative of
each of the the population
Use Cases Surveys, Exploratory subgroups
experiments research, pilot
studies, Stratified Example: In a Guarantees that
Random school with 70% each subgroup
hard-to-reach
Sampling undergraduates will have
groups and 30% adequate
post-graduates, representation,
Cost & Higher Lower you might sample but the overall
Time 50 students from sample is
each group usually not
Field Methods of Psychology

representative of B. NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING

the population

Proportionate A sample is Guarantees that

Type of Description Strengths and
Stratified obtained by the
Random subdividing the compositions of Sampling Weaknesses
Sampling population into the sample (in
Proportionate strata and then terms of the Convenience A sample is The selection
randomly identified strata) Sampling obtained by process is fair
selecting from will be perfectly selecting and unbiased,
each stratum a representative of individual but there is no
number of the composition participants guarantee that
participants so of the who are easy to the sample is
that proportions population, but get. representative
in the sample some strata may
correspond to the have limited Purposive A sampling Allows focus on
proportions in the representation in (judgemental method where relevant
population the sample. ) Sampling participants are participants only.
selected based
Example : From on the
the same school researcher’s Limited
you’d sample 70% judgment and generalizability
undergraduates specific purpose
and 30% or
postgraduates characteristics.
(e.g 70 and 30 out
of 100) Quota A sample is Allows a
Sampling obtained researcher to
Cluster Instead of An easy by identifying control the
Sampling selecting method for subgroups to be composition of a
included, then convenience
individuals, a obtaining a
establishing sample, but the
sample is large, relatively quotas sample is
obtained by random for individuals to probably biased.
randomly sample, but be
selecting the selections selected through
clusters are not really convenience from
(preexisting random or each subgroup
groups) from a independent.
list of all the Snowball A sampling Effective for
Sampling method where accessing
clusters that
initial hard-to-reach or
exist within the participants hidden groups
population recruit others, Not randomized;
forming a referral therefore, results
Combined - A combination of two or more chain. Often used cannot be
Strategy sampling strategies is used to with statistically
Sampling select participants. hard-to-reach generalized
populations.
Field Methods of Psychology

Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of The research poses minimal risk and involves:
Conduct ●​ Normal educational practices.
●​ Anonymous questionnaires, naturalistic
Section 8. Research Publication observations, or archival data with
protected confidentiality.
8.01 Institutional Approval ●​ Job/organizational studies with no
●​ Psychologists must get institutional employability risk.
approval before starting research and ●​ Or if permitted by law or regulations.
follow the approved protocol.

8.02 Informed Consent Research 8.06 Offering Inducements for Research

When obtaining consent, psychologists must Participants
inform participants about: (a)​ Avoid excessive or coercive incentives.
(a)​ Purpose, duration, and procedures of (b)​ If offering professional services, clarify
the study. the nature, risks, and limitations of
(b)​ Right to decline or withdraw. those services.
(c)​ Consequences of declining or
withdrawing. 8.07 Deception in Research
(d)​ Risks, discomforts, or adverse effects. (a)​ Deception is allowed only if justified by
(e)​ Potential benefits. significant scientific value and no
(f)​ Confidentiality limits. alternatives exist.
(g)​ Incentives. (b)​ Deception must not involve expected
(h)​ Contact information for questions. physical pain or severe emotional
(i)​ Participants must be allowed to ask distress.
questions and get answers. (c)​ Participants must be informed of the
deception as early as possible, ideally
For experimental treatments, psychologists after participation or data collection,
must clarify: and allowed to withdraw their data.
1.​ That the treatment is experimental.
2.​ What services are available to control 8.08 Debriefing
groups. (a)​ Provide prompt, accurate information
3.​ How participants are assigned to about the study and correct
groups. misconceptions.
4.​ Alternatives for non-participants or (b)​ If delaying debriefing is justified, take
those who withdraw. steps to reduce harm.
5.​ Costs and compensation, including (c)​ If harm occurs, take steps to minimize
reimbursement details. it.

8.03 Informed Consent for recording

Consent is required before recording unless: 8.09 Follow all laws and professional standards for
➔​ It's a public naturalistic observation animal care and use.
with no harm or identification risk. 1.​ Qualified psychologists must supervise
➔​ Deception is used and consent is all animal procedures.
obtained during debriefing. 2.​ Ensure all personnel are trained in
animal care and research methods.
3.​ Minimize animal discomfort, illness,
8.04 Client/Patient, Student, and Subordinate and pain.
Research Participants 4.​ Use painful procedures only when
(a)​ Psychologists must protect vulnerable necessary and justified by scientific
participants from negative value.
consequences of declining or 5.​ Perform surgeries with proper
withdrawing. anesthesia and pain management.
(b)​ If participation is tied to course credit, 6.​ Euthanasia must be rapid, minimize
equitable alternatives must be offered. pain, and follow accepted procedures.

8.05 Dispensing with Informed Consent for

Research
Consent may be waived only if: