Chapter8

Socialisation

128
Definitions
129
Two Viewpoints
130
Aims and Objectives of Socialisation
Socialisation: Primary and Secondary 130
Forms of
Mechanism of Socialisation 131

(Stages of Development) 132

Process of Socialisation
Agencies of Socialisation 138

Theories of Socialisation 142

Development of Self 142

Freud's Theory (Psychoanalysis) 143

145
Cooley's Theory of the 'Looking-Glass Self
Theory of G.H. Mead (I and me) 146
Durkheim's Theory of Collective Representation 148
149
Some Important Concepts Related to Socialisation
Socialisation, Culture and Personality Development 150

Socialisation and Deviation 152

The human infant enters this world as a biological organism like all
Other animals-as a bundle of muscles, bones, vital organs and all

Other biological parts needed for life. At the time of birth, atheleastjustthe
is a

numan being. A human child cannot survive unaided for

irst four or five years of life. At this stage, the new-born human baby
 128 Socialisation

for the satisfaction

of
is helpless. Not only is it physically dependent
on older members of
biological drives such as hunger and protection
the species but it also lacks the behaviour patterns necessary
for
the infant has a lot to
living in human society. In order to survive,
learn-the skills, knowledge and accepted ways of behaving of the
in
sociological
society. It must learn a way of life. This learning,
terminology, is called socialisation. Through the process of sociali-
sation, he becomes a social being-with a set of attitudes and values,
likes and dislikes, goals and purposes. This process of learning turns
the human being into a social being.
Social phenomena are not explainable in terms of original
nature (instincts and drives) and capacity (structure of mind) of the
human animal. As an animal, man also requires food, protection and
sex association but the ways he satisfies these demands of life are
quite different from other animals. Not only this, the original nature
of human beings of different places, say India, America, Africa or
Europe etc., in all essential respects, is the same but still the people
differ widely in many respects-manners, language, religion, belief
etc. This difference is because of the facts of social learning, i.e.,
socialisation and culture.

Definitions
Broadly, socialisation is learning to participate in social roles. It refers
to the way the people learn the habits, attitudes, self-conception,
group norms and universes of discourse that enable them to interact
with other people in their society, and enact different social roles.
Gillin and Gillin (1950) wrote: "By the term socialisation, we mean
the process by which individual develops into a functioning member
of the group according to its standards, conforming to its modes,
observing its traditions and adjusting himself to the social situations."
According to Horton and Hunt (1968), "socialisation is the process
whereby one internalises the norms of his groups so that a distinct
'self emerges, unique to this individual," Alex 1Inkeles (1965) defined
it as, "socialisation is the process of learning one's culture while
growing out of infant and childhood dependency, leads to
 Socialisation 129

internalisation of society's values and goals". According to Anthony

Giddens (1977), "socialisation is the process whereby the helpless
infant gradually becomes self-aware, knowledgeable person, skilled
in the ways of the culture into which she or he is born". In brief, socia-
lisation is a process by which norms and other behavioural regulators
are transformed into personality elements. Or, in other words, the
process of socialisation has been conceptualised in three ways as
under:
1. It is a process of learning (formal and informal both).
2. It is a process of personality formation and the development of
self.
3. It is a process of internalisation of social norms (expectations),
values, moral codes and ideals of society.

Two viewpoints
It is recognised that the socialisation is not simply a one-way process
in which an individual learns how to fit into the society. He may also
redefine his roles and obligations and as a result, he affects society
The individual and society both are dependent on each other for their
existence. Thus, socialisation can be described from two points of
view-as individual learning and as a process of cultural transmission
by the community (society) as a whole.
(1) Objective view: It emphasises how society interacts and influ-
ences the individual. From this point of view, "socialisation is
that process by which society transmits its culture from one
generation to the next and adapts the individual to the accepted
and approved ways of organised social life" (Fichter,
1957).
Thus, socialisation is necessary if society is to continue and
function effectively. It develops the skills and disciplines needed
by the individual.
(2) Subjective view: How the individual responds to the society is
another view of socialisation process. This view
places emphasis
on the learning aspect of socialisation. The individual learns the
folkways, mores, laws, and other features of culture, as well as
the skills and other necessary habits, which enable him
to
 130 Socialisation

become a functioning member of the society in which he lives.

From this point of view, "socialisation is a process which goes on
in the individual while he is adapting to the people" (Fichter,
1957).

Aims and Objectives of Socialisation

The socialisation is mainly aimed at the development of self and the
formation of personality. The concept of 'self refers to the individual
as subject (as the source of action and self-reflection), whereas the
term 'personality' refers to the individual as object (the object of
external evaluation). It is the process through which an individual is
moulded into an effective participant of society. The following are the
main objectives of socialisation:
1. It inculcates basic disciplines ranging from toilet habits to the
method of science. It helps in the learning of self-control.
2. It develops skills and capacities needed to fit into the society.
3 It teaches social ,roles (responsibilities) and their supporting
attitudes.
4. It instils aspirations and satisfies needs of the individual.
5. It helps in the transmission of culture from generation to gener
ation.
6.
6. It develops a sense of identity and the capacity for independent
thought and action, for example learning of language.
7. It develops conscience which is one important characteristic
product of this process.

Forms of Socialisation: Primary and Secondary

While dealing with the functions of family, Talcott Parsons has
analysed two forms of socialisation-primary and secondary.
Originally, this distinction was made by Charles Cooley (1909).
These two forms of socialisation were defined by him partly in terms
of the particular groups or 'agencies' in which they occur. Primary
socialisation refers to socialisation during the early years of childh00d
 Socialisation 131

the family, peer groups of close friends and

takes place within
which of neighbours. it two basic processes are
n
groups
closely-knit
culture and the structuring of
lved-internalisation of society's
Culture is not simply learned,
it is "internalised as a
nersonality.
the personality.

In this connection, Parsons remarked

structure.
personality
nart of human personalities". Not
factories which produce
families "are
that
adult personalities' (marriage relations
and
'stabilisation of
only this, done in the family. Secondary socialisation
emotional security) is also
how to organise and
the last years. Jt involves learning
occurs during
and how to behave towards
oneself in formal contexts
conduct status and [Link] school
who have different degrees of
Deople socialisation, but
example of an agency of secondary
is an important
organisations (Trade Unions and professional associations
all formal included in this
members to some degree can be
etc.) influence their
category) socialisation
between primary and secondary
The distinction
socialisation. Informal
that between informal and formal
parallels It
as a part of everyday activity.
socialisation usually takes place
unconscionably and be distinguished from the formal
must
affects us

acquisition of specific
skills such as reading and writing.

Mechanism of Socialisation
socialisation
sub-processes of the process of
or
There are numerous
social learning. The principal ones are the following:
the actions of
1. Imitation: Imitation is copying by an individual of
or
another. This may be conscious or unconscious, spontaneous
factor in the
deliberate, perceptual or ideational. It is the main
As
process of socialisation which works from birth to death.
children grow, they take recourse to imitation. Through
Da Da, Ma Ma, Papa etc.
imitation, he learns to speak
learner. It is a
2. uggestion: Suggestion is a process outside the
or
process of communicating information which has no logical
self-evident basis. A person may 'take a suggestion not ony
but aiso
rom the conscious and deliberate persuasion of another
132 Socialisation

it. It plays a key role in the

without the other person knowing
it persons are made, unmade
socialisation of the individual. By
educational system moulds
and remade. Through suggestion, an
desired direction. Propaganda and
the minds of children in the
fundamental psychological
advertisements are based on this
principles of suggestion.
It
to feel with another individual.
3. Sympathy: It simply means
the sympa-
binds us more closely with our fellow men. Through
understanding of the
thetic reaction we enter into a fuller
the sight of an ailing
feelings and motives of others, for instance, or to
cause a person to weep
person or a disabled person may

perform some altruistic act of charity.

stimulative process in which two
4. Competition: Competition is a

individuals compete with one achieving

another in
or more
in social learning of
knowiedge. It is particularly important
children.

Process of Socialisation (Stages of Development)

Socialisation is not confined to childhood;
it is a lifelong process. It is
with the
no longer regarded as the exclusive preserve of childhood,
and school. It is now recognised that
primary agents being the family
life-course. It begins at birth
socialisation continues throughout the
distinct phase of life, there are
and continues until death. At each
crises to be overcome. Some earlier scholars
transitions to be made or

like S. Freud and Jean Piaget have discussed the development process
Freud has discussed a series of
only upto childhood or adolescence.
are oral, anal,
five stages through which a child develops. These
phallic, latency and genital. Piaget's stages of cognitive development
are sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years), pre-operational stage
(2 to 7
years), concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years) and formal opera-
thre
tional stage (11 to 15 years). According to Piaget, the first
adults reach the
stages of development are universal but not all
formal operational stage. Following Freud, renowned sociologist,
Talcott Parsons has also discussed only four stages beginning from
 Socialisation 133

the period of infancy (oral, anal and latency) to adolescence period.

As said above, the process of socialisation does not stop at adoles-
cence or at a certain age, but it continues till death--the termination
of personal existence.
The stages of human development seem at first sight to be
biologically determined-from infancy to death-but sociologists do
not accept this proposition. They are interested in age stages
primarily as social, not biological or chronological categories. The
studies of feral and isolated children indicated that they do not
develop from stage to stage (as contended by development theorists
Freud and Piaget) at all if they do not interact. It is through the
association with other human beings that the child develops a
consciousness of himself as being different from others. Sociologists
study the social construction of age. They believe that the stages of
human life-course' are social as well as biological. They are influ-
enced by culture and also by material environment of people in which
they live. Man's biological nature makes socialisation both possible
and necessary. Socialisation cannot occur if man did not have the
inborn capacity to learn and use language.
Earlier psychological (psychoanalytic) view of socialisation
stressed the internal stimuli, drives and instincts (innate devel
opment process), while the sociological view focuses on the way an
individual learns to fulfil the requirements of the various social roles
he is called upon to play. A person becomes human by internalising
the norms and expectations about behaviour of the people with
whom he interacts. Sociologists have placed main emphasis on the
childhood and adolescence years rather than infancy period. In
modern societies, the expectations at different stages of socialisation
are changing for men and women both.
Erik Erikson (Childhood and Society, 1963) has attempted to
integrate biological, psychological and sociological perspectives
about 'conception of the life cycle'. He charts eight stages of
psycho-social development of the individual as under
134 Socialisation

Psycho-Social Crises Significant Social Relations

Stages
First year of life Trust v/s mistrust Mother or mother substitute
1.
2. Second year Autonomy v/s doubt Parents

3. Third through fifth Initiative v/s guilt Basic family

years
Neighbourhood, school
4. Sixth year to puberty Industry v/s inferiority
5. Adolescence Identity v/s confusion Peer groups and out-groups:
models of leadership
6. Early adulthood Intimacy v/s isolation Partners in friendship; sex

competition, co-operation
Divided labour and shared
7. Middle adulthood Generativity v/s self
absorption household

8. The ageing years Integrity v/s despair "Mankind', 'my kind'

Now, we shall describe briefly four important stages of sociali-

sation from infancy to old age.

Infancy and childhood (oral, anal and latency)

This is a distinct stage of life which starts from birth to the onset of
adolescence, i.e., a period beginning from 0 to 13-14 years of age. In
traditional and preliterate societies, 'childhood' as a separate phaseof

development did The young child moved directly from a

not exits.
lengthy infancy into working roles within the community. However,
in modern societies, long period of childhood has been recognised.
Both parenting and childhood have become clearly distinct from
other stages than was true of traditional societies.
In the first year of life child's contact with the outside world,
including its mother, is channelled through the mouth and lips. The
mother isthe first parent who begins the process of socialisation. It is
from her that the earliest social stimuli to which a child is subjected
come. He/She responds to these stimuli by imitating them. At this
stage, the child makes no distinction between persons and
things-the mother's breast and the nipple of the bottle are equally
and solely means of organic satisfaction. Crying, smiling and eye
movement in response to others are forms of early social behaviour.
 Socialisation 135

The roles of the mother and the infant are merged at this stage of
development.
Near about the second year, the toilet and other training is
initiated in many societies. During this period, the child learns how to
eat their food and talk in a polite way. The child develops a sense of
control over itself and its environment, although it is still dependent
on its parents. He starts recognising the family relations. During this
stage, the child internalises two roles-his own and that of his/her
mother-now clearly separate.
The years from 3 to 5 (phallic stage) are a period of rapid
physical development and locomotion, awareness of genital sensa
tions and the appearance of Freudian Oedipus complex, in which the
boy's attachment to the mother is combined with jealous hostility
towards the mother. At this stage, the child learns to 'behave himself
in various contexts of his activity, particularly when interacting with
adults. Besides, child also internalises all the four roles of the
family,
viz., husband-father, wife-mother, son-brother and daughter-sister.
Then comes the latency stage which continues near about 5
years to 12-13 years. By about five, the child becomes a fairly auton-
omous being, no longer just a baby but almost independent in the
elementary routines of life at home. During this period the child
acquires informal aspects of culture-folkways, customs, fads and
crazes, along with secret modes of gratification and forbidden
knowledge. Sociologists have termed this stage as the 'gang stage'.
During these years the child shifts his interests more and more from
the social world of family to the group life of his/her peers. Social
consciousness develops rapidly, the chief interest is in group activities
and group loyalty becomes highly important. There is growing revolt
against adult domination.

Adolescence
With puberty the
comes beginning of adolescence. The biological
changes involved in puberty (the point at which a person becomes
capable of adult sexual activity and reproduction) are universal. It is
a most
important stage of socialisation which begins near about
14-15 years till 20-21 years. It is a transition stage from childhood to
 136 Socialisation

maturity during which new patterns of behaviour are developed to

meet the demands of both the larger and more diversified life of his
peers and of the adult society( During this period, the individual is
more attracted towards the opposite sex. He feel interested in recre
ation, films, TV, sports etc. Psychologist G. Stanly Hall wrote that
'adolescence is 'naturally' a period of psychological 'storm and stress
But sociologists believe that the emotional experience of youth varies
greatly between individuals and across cultures.
Adolescents in traditional societies have less to 'unlearn' than
adolescents in modern societies since the pace of change Is slower. In
traditional cultures, where children are already working alongside
adults, this process of 'unlearning' is normally much less severe. In
current times, the concept of 'teenager' has become much relevant.
Teenagers often try to follow adult ways but are treated in law as
children. Teenagers are in between childhood and adulthood.

Adulthoodd
Adulthood is considered to be attained when a person can support
himself or herselfentirely independently of the parental family...
Full adulthood implies the ability to form a family of one's own life
(Johnson, 1960). It is a period of great stress and strain. During this
period, one has to take many life-decisions-about the choice of
marriage partners, about the choice of occupation, etc. It is a very
critical stage of life. At this stage, the individual marries and starts
working for livelihood. As a result, the individual has to assume many
new statuses and has to learn roles according to these statuses. When
an individual marries, he/she has to face with a new series of accom-
modations in his personal conduct. The individual has to learn new
habits, ideals, customs and notions to adjust with the spouse and
his/her family. In due course of events, children may be born and the
individual is faced with the new situation and necessity of new
adjustments, i.e., those of parent. Since the two parents were
themselves brought up by different sets of parents, they will have
learned different child rearing techniques and therefore will have to
socialise each other to reach agreement about child care practices. Al
of this learning is a part of adult socialisation.
 Socialisation 137

Another type of socialisation is occupational training, which

teaches the attitudes and values associated with an occupation as
well as skills. A doctor has to acquire technical knowledge required to
practice medicine. A new employee in an office has to learn how to
conform to the expectations of the other workers and to the written
and unwritten rules. One has to learn the styles of dress, decor and
people's conduct in the company of fellow employees.
Adulthood can be bifurcated into two stages-young adulthood
and mature adulthood. Young adulthood is increasingly becoming a
specific and important stage in the process of human development.
This is a period of excitement and sexual development. In modern
societies, young adults in their twenties engage themselves in
preparing for their professional education, seeking career and finding
some job or occupation. Besides this they explore the possibilities of
sexual, political and religious affiliation in this crucial period of their
life.
The mature adults (middle aged at about the age of 40) often
experience a stress of self-evaluation during this period. At this stage,
people realise that they have not achieved basic goals and ambitions
and have little time left to do so. It is seen that women experience
fear and confusion in their middle years. During this period, adults
requires the deep internalisation of norms and attitudes that run
counter to norms already learned and assimilated.

Old age
This is the final period of transition which occurs mostly between
60-65 years. While old age has typically been regarded as beginning
at 60 or 65, but this definition of old age is not universally accepted.
At this time many people begin restricting their occupational duties
and preparing for retirement. (Norms of retirement differ from place
to place). With advancing age, the mind, as well as the body, seems
to lose its suppleness. Habits, as well as arteries, harden and refuse
the strain of new demands. Those persons, who succeeds in adjusting
to these new demands (physical-mental and social both), lead a
pleasant life even in the old age. In such individuals socialisation may
continue actively to the end of life.