Chapter 1 Temperature and Thermometers

1.1 Temperature
Lower fixed point (ice point) Temperature of pure melting ice at normal atmospheric
pressure
Upper fixed point (steam point) Temperature of steam over pure boiling water at normal
atmospheric pressure
Celsius temperature scale Divide 100 equal divisions between the lower and upper
fixed point. Each division is 1oC
1.2 Kinetic theory
(a) All matter is made up of very tiny particles.
(b) These particles are constantly in motion.
(c) Forces between particles:
(i) When particles are close together, they attract/repel each other strongly.
(ii) When particles are far apart, they hardly attract/repel each other.
Solid Liquid Gas

(1) close together (1) close together

Particle arrangement (2) arranged in (2) not in fixed (1) very far apart
regular pattern position
Move at random at
Vibrate in fixed Can move freely from
Particle motion very high speed
positions one place to another
(~500 ms-1)
1.3 Heat and Internal energy
* Heat is the energy transferred from one body to another due to a temperature difference.

heat
warmer cooler

internal energy = kinetic energy (K.E.) + potential energy (P.E.) of all particles
K.E (depends on temperature) P.E. (depends on the state of matter)
T ↑ ⇔ K .E. ↑ solid liquid gas
(particles vibrate more rapidly at higher
temperature)
P.E. of particles increases
* Temperature is a measure of average kinetic energy of the particles.

1
 Chapter 2 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity
Heat capacity (C) Specific heat capacity (c)
Definition Energy required to raise the Energy required to raise the temperature
o
temperature of a substance by 1 C of a 1 kg substance by 1oC
Formula E = C∆T E = mc∆T
o -1
Unit J C J kg-1 oC-1
C = mc

Example 1
After absorbing 1000 J of energy, the temperature of a substance increases by 4oC. If the mass of
the substance is 2 kg, find
(a) the heat capacity, and
(b) the specific heat capacity of the substance.
Solution
(a) For heat capacity, E = C∆T
1000 = C(4)
C = 250 J oC-1
(b) For specific heat capacity, E = mc∆T
1000 = (2)(c)(4)
c = 125 J kg-1 oC-1

Power = rate of energy transferred

E
P= or E = Pt
t

Example 2
2 kg of water is heated by a heater of power 1500 W. Find the time it takes for the temperature of
water to increase from 20oC to 98oC.
Given: the specific heat capacity of the water = 4200 J kg-1 oC-1
Solution
∵ E = Pt and E = mc∆T
∴ Pt = mc∆T
1500t = (2)(4200)(98 – 20)
t = 436.8 s

2
Example 3
The figure below shows the variation of temperature of an object with time.
Temperature / oC

60

20
0 5 time / minute
If the power of the heater is 800 W, find the heat capacity of the object.
Solution
∵ E = Pt and E = C∆T
∴ Pt = C∆Τ
(800)(5 × 60) = C(60 – 20) [5 minutes = 5 × 60 s]
t = 6000 J oC-1

Example 4
A piece of 0.1 kg hot copper is put into a pond of water of 2 kg. If the initial temperatures of the
copper and water are 500oC and 20oC respectively, find the final temperature of the copper.
Given: the specific heat capacity of the water = 4200 J kg-1 oC-1
the specific heat capacity of the copper = 370 J kg-1 oC-1
Solution
Copper: 500 oC → T

Water: 20 oC → T

Assume no heat loss to the surroundings

Energy lost by hot object (copper) = Energy gained by cold object (water)
(0.1)(370)(500 – T) = (2)(4200)(T – 20)
18500 – 37 T = 8400 T – 16800
T = 22.1oC

Remark
Since the specific heat capacity of water is large, water can absorb a large amount of energy with
only a small temperature rise. (∆T = 22.1 – 20 = 2.1 oC)

Uses of high specific heat capacity of water

(1) coolant
(2) body temperature regulation

3
Example 5
In an experiment to find the specific heat capacity of aluminium, the following results are obtained.

Mass of aluminium block = 1 kg

Initial joulemeter reading = 98 300 J
Final joulemeter reading = 104 900J
Initial temperature of aluminium block = 28.5 oC
Final temperature of aluminium block = 35.0 oC
(a) Find the specific heat capacity of aluminium.
(b) The standard value of the specific heat capacity of aluminium is 900 J kg-1 oC-1, find the
percentage error of the experiment.
(c) How to improve the accurate of the experiment.
Solution
(a) By E = mc∆T
104900 – 98300 = (1)(c)(35 – 28.5)
c = 1020 J kg-1 oC-1
1015.4 − 900
(b) Percentage error = × 100% = 12.8%
900
(c) (1) Wrap the aluminium block with cotton to reduce heat loss to the surroundings.
(2) Add a few drop of oil to the holes in the aluminium block to ensure a good thermal
contact between the heater, thermometer and the block.

4
 Chapter 3 Change of State
3.1 Latent heat

Heating No change in state E = mc∆T

Change in state E = ml

* E = ml, where l: specific latent heat

* Unit: J kg-1 Gas
Release latent heat (P.E.↓) Absorb latent heat (P.E.↑)
∆T = 0 (K.E. remains unchanged) ∆T = 0 (K.E. remains unchanged)

Liquid
Release latent heat (P.E.↓) Absorb latent heat (P.E.↑)
∆T = 0 (K.E. remains unchanged) ∆T = 0 (K.E. remains unchanged)

Solid

Example 1
How much energy is required to melt 2 kg of ice at 0oC and to raise the temperature to 30oC?
Given that the latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.34 × 105J kg-1, and
the specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg-1oC-1.
Solution
E = ml E = mc∆T

Ice (0oC) Water (0oC) Water (30oC)

Energy required = ml + mc∆T
= ( 2)(3.34 × 10 5 ) + ( 2)( 4200)(30 − 0)
= 9.2 × 10 5 J

Example 2
A coffee machine injects 0.03 kg of steam at 100oC into a cup of cold coffee of mass 0.17 kg at
20oC. Find the final temperature of the coffee.
Given that the latent heat of vaporization of ice = 2.26 × 106 J kg-1, and
the specific heat capacity of coffee = 5800 J kg-1oC-1.
Solution 100oC 100oC
Steam (0.03 kg): E = ml E = mc∆T
T (final temperature)
o
water water
Coffee (0.17 kg): 20 C
E = ml
T (final temperature)
coffee coffee
Energy lost by steam = Energy gained by coffee
6
(0.03)(2.26 × 10 ) + (0.03)(4200)(100 – T) = (0.17)(5800)(T – 20)
T = 90.0oC
5
3.2 Measure the specific latent heat of fusion of ice
Procedures
(1) Set up the apparatus as shown.
(2) Fill both funnels with roughly equal
amounts of crushed melting ice.
(3) Record the initial joulemeter reading (E1).
(4) Switch on the heater for a period of time.
(5) Find the mass of ice (m) melted by the
heater and record the final joulemeter
reading (E2).
(6) Calculate the specific latent heat of fusion
of ice (lf) by E2 – E1 = mlf.

Precautions
- Ice should be crushed to increase the contact area with the heater.
- Melting ice is used so that it is at 0 °C.
- Before switching on the heater, pack the crushed ice in the two funnels so that the drip rates
are steady and about the same.
- After switching off the heater, do not remove the beakers; wait until the drip rates have
become steady and about the same.
- A small piece of wire gauze or steel wool at the neck of the funnels can prevent the crushed ice
from dropping into the beakers directly.

Example 3
The following results are obtained from the above experiment:
Mass of water in experimental cup = 0.050 kg Mass of water in control cup = 0.014 kg
Initial joulemeter reading = 15 000 J Final joulemeter reading = 29 200 J
(a) Find the specific latent heat of fusion of ice.
(b) Calculate the experiment percentage error. Account for any difference of the value obtained
from the standard value, 3.34 × 105 J kg-1.
Solution
(a) By E = ml
29200 − 15000 = (0.050 − 0.014)l f
l f = 3.94 × 10 5 J kg-1
3.9444 × 10 5 − 3.34 × 10 5
(b) Percentage error = × 100% = 18.1%
3.34 × 10 5
Possible sources of error include:
(1) Water dripping down the two funnels at different rates.
(2) Energy is lost to the surroundings.
[Since energy is lost to the surroundings, less amount of ice is melted by the heater.
E
By l f = , the measured lf is greater than the standard value.]
m

6
3.3 Measure the specific latent heat of vaporization of water
Procedures
(1) Set up the apparatus as shown.
heater
(2) Take the reading from the electronic balance (m1) kilowatt-hour
meter
and the kilowatt-hour meter (E1) after the
water boils.
(3) Boil the water for a few minutes and turn off the
heater. electronic
balance
(4) Wait until the water becomes steady and take the
final reading of the balance (m2) and the kilowatt-hour meter (E2).
(5) Calculate the specific latent heat of vaporization of water by E 2 − E1 = (m1 − m 2 )l v from the
results.

Precaution
Do not switch on the heater unless the heating part is totally immersed in water.

Possible sources of error

(1) Steam condensing on the heater and drips back into the cup ⇒ Larger experimental lv
(2) Energy is lost to the surroundings ⇒ Larger experimental lv
(3) Some water ‘bubbles’ out of the cup ⇒ Smaller experimental lv

Example 4
The following results are obtained from the above experiment:
Mass of water boiled away = 0.10 kg
Energy supplied to the heater = 246 000 J
(a) Find the specific latent heat of fusion of ice.
(b) Account for any difference of the value obtained from the standard value, 2.26 × 106 J kg-1.
Solution
(a) By E = ml
246000 = 0.1l v
l f = 2.46 × 10 6 J kg-1
(b) Possible sources of error include:
(1) Steam condensing on the heater and drips back into the cup.
(2) Energy is lost to the surroundings.
[These will cause a smaller amount of water boiled away.
E
By l v = , the measured lv is greater than the standard value.]
m

7
3.4 Evaporation and Boiling
(a) Common: absorb latent heat (E = ml) to change from liquid state to gas state
(b) Difference:
Evaporation Boiling
Occurs at any temperature Occurs at a definite temperature – the boiling point
Occurs at surface Occurs with liquid
No bubbles formed Bubbles appear
(c) Evaporation and particle motion
(i) Some of the particles in a liquid have greater K.E. while the
other have smaller K.E.
(ii) Some of the particles at the liquid surface may gain enough
KE to escape into the space above the liquid and become
particles of vapour.
(iii) As fast-moving particles fly away, the average KE of the
remaining particles is lowered; so the liquid becomes colder.
(d) Ways to increase the rate of evaporation
(i) increase temperature of the liquid
(ii) increase the surface area of the liquid
(iii) decrease the humidity of air
(iv) increase the movement of air

Example 5
A person is wearing a wet shirt. There is 0.1 kg of water on the shirt in total.
(a) How much energy is required to evaporate the water?
(b) Where is the energy required taken from?
Specific latent heat of vaporization of water = 2.26 × 106 J kg–1

Solution
(a) Energy required evaporating 0.1 kg of water
E = ml
= (0.1)(2.26 × 106)
= 2.26 × 105 J

(b) The energy required is taken from the surroundings (or the skin of the person).

8
 Chapter 4 Heat Transfer
Conduction Convection Radiation
Description
Hot water Cold water
rises falls

– Particles at the hot end

vibrate faster. – Fluid (gas or liquid)
– The fast vibrating expands, rises and is
particles bump into the replaced by the The solar energy is
slower neighbouring surrounding cooler fluid. transferred to the earth by
particles and make – Such movement of fluid radiation
them vibrate more is called convection.
rapidly.
Medium Solid, liquid or gas Fluid (liquid or gas) No medium is required
required (Vacuum
)
Rate of heat Conductor – faster Dark colour – good
transfer Insulator – slower absorber and radiator
Daily A cotton jacket traps air – Air conditioners are – Most transformers
examples (air is a poor conductor) installed high on the wall are black in colour
– Heating element is fixed – Car engines are
near the bottom of an painted black.
electric kettle – Fuel storage tanks
are painted silvery.
Example 1 Solar heater
glass
(a) What is the function of the glass?
(b) The temperature of the 0.3 kg water increases to
70oC after 30 minutes. If the initial temperature of
water is 30oC, find the power of the solar heater. water
bowl
(c) Give a suggestion to improve the design of the solar container
heater in order to obtain a greater temperature rise of water. Explain your answer briefly.
Solution
(a) The glass traps warm air to reduce heat loss by convection.
(b) ∵ E = Pt and E = mc∆T
∴ Pt = mc∆T
P(30 × 60) = (0.3)(4200)(70 – 30)
P = 28 W
(c) (1) Paint the bowl black in colour since dark colour object is a good radiation absorber.
(2) Stick slivery paper (aluminium paper) onto the inner wall of the container so that more
radiation is reflected to the bowl.

9
Vacuum flask

Plastic or cork stopper

reduces heat loss by
conduction and convection.

cap
outer case

Silvery glass or stainless steel

walls reduce heat loss by
radiation.

A vacuum between the double

walls reduces heat loss by
conduction and convection.

insulated support

Vacuum cooker

Inner pot Outer pot

Inner and outer lids reduce

heat loss by conduction and Silvery steel walls reduce
convection heat loss by radiation

Outer vacuum insulated pot (the vacuum

Inner pot between the double steel walls of the
outer pot reduces heat loss by
A thin film of air between inner
conduction and convection)
pot and outer pot. Reduce heat
loss by conduction and Food is kept at a high
convection. temperature for a long time and
is cooked without a fire.

10
 Chapter 5 Gases
5.1 The gas laws
(a) Pressure
Force F
Pressure = or P=
area A
Unit: Nm-2 or Pa
Example 1
Find the pressure exerted on the 5 kg block in each of the following cases.
10 cm
(a) 10 cm (b)
5 cm
5 cm
R = mg cos 30o
R = mg

30o
Solution

(a) Force acting on the block (b) Force acting on the block

F = mg = (5)(9.81) = 49.05 N F = normal reaction = mg cos 30o

F 49.05 F (5)(9.81) cos 30°

Pressure P = = = 9810 Pa Pressure P = = = 8500 Pa
A (0.05)(0.1) A (0.05)(0.1)

[Note: 5cm = 0.05 m, 10 cm = 0.1 m ⇒ A = (0.05)(0.1) = 0.005 m2]

(b) The gas laws

Boyle’s law Pressure law Charles’ law
The pressure of a fixed mass of For a gas with a fixed mass For a gas with a fixed mass
gas is inversely proportional to and volume, its pressure is and pressure, its volume is
its volume at a constant directly proportional to its directly proportional to its
temperature. Kelvin temperature. Kelvin temperature.
Pressure p Pressure p Volume V

0 1/V (m-3) 0 Temperature T (K) 0 Temperature T (K)

1
p∝ p∝T V∝T
V
General gas law: pV = nRT, where R = 8.31 J mol-1 K-1

11
Example 2
A biscuit factory is located at sea level. Its production line is maintained at 20 °C and 100 kPa. Each
pack of biscuit contains 18 cm3 of gas to protect the biscuit from cracking during transportation.
The pack of biscuit is now transported up to a mountain where the temperature and pressure are
12 °C and 75 kPa respectively.
(Take R = 8.31 J mol–1 K–1)
(a) Find the number of moles of gas inside a pack of biscuit.
(b) What is the volume of the gas inside the pack on the mountain?
Solution
(a) By pV = nRT ,
pV (100 × 10 3 )(18 × 10 −6 )
n= = = 7.39 × 10 − 4 mol
RT (8.31)( 20 + 273)
There are 7.39 × 10-4 mol of gas inside the pack.
(b)
p1V1 p 2V2
Method 1 By pV = nRT Method 2 By =
T1 T2
nRT (7.39 × 10 −4 )(8.31)(12 + 273) (100k )(18 × 10 −6 ) (750k )V
V= = =
p 75 × 10 3 ( 20 + 273) (12 + 273)
= 2.33 × 10−5 m3
V = 2.33 × 10−5 m3
Remark (1) Always use Kelvin degree for temperature.
i.e. 20 °C = (20 + 273) K, 12 °C = (12 + 273) K
3 -2 3 3 -6 3
(2) 1 cm = (10 ) m = 10 m

5.2 The kinetic theory

(a) Ideal gas
Ideal gas Obeys the general gas law for all pressures and temperatures.
Real gas Behaves like an ideal gas at high temperature and low pressure

(b) Assumptions for ideal gas

1. All the particles are identical and have the same mass.
2. All the molecules are in constant, random motion.
3. The size of each particle is negligible compared with the separation between them.
4. The duration of a collision is negligible compared with the time between collisions.
5. The collisions of molecules with the container and between the particles are perfectly
elastic.
6. Intermolecular forces are negligible.

12
(c) A three-dimensional kinetic theory model

The ball bearings represent gas molecules.

Physical quantity Kinetic theory model

weight of the piston
Pressure
(and cardboard discs)
Temperature Voltage applied to the motor
Volume Height of the piston

(d) Explanation of the gas laws by the kinetic theory

Volume ↓
Boyle’s law
⇒ molecules hitting the
1
p∝ walls more frequently
V
⇒ pressure ↑

Temperature ↑
Pressure law ⇒ molecules moving
p∝T faster
⇒ pressure ↑

Temperature ↑
⇒ molecules moving
Charles’ law
faster
V∝T
⇒ volume ↑ to keep
the same pressure

13
Example 3

A mildly pumped up beach-ball feels hard when pressed between two wooden boards (Fig a). If the
boards are removed, the ball feels soft again (Fig b).

Fig a Fig b

Explain why the ball feels hard when pressed between the boards using
(a) one of the gas laws,
(b) the kinetic theory.
Solution
(a) When compressed, the volume of the ball decreases.
According to Boyle’s law, pressure increases when the volume decreases.
The ball therefore feels hard.
(b) When compressed, the volume of the ball decreases.
The air molecules can only move in a smaller volume.
As a result, they hit the walls of the ball more frequently and so the pressure increases.
The ball therefore feels hard.

14
(e) Pressure and molecular speed

1 3RT 3
(1) PV = Nmc r2.m.s (2) c rms = (3) KE = nRT
3 mN A 2

Example 4
On a mountain, a sealed metal bottle of volume 800 cm3 contains air at a pressure of 72 kPa and a
temperature of 5 °C. Assume that air behaves like an ideal gas.
(Take R = 8.31 J mol–1 K–1, average molar mass of air = 29.0 g mol–1)
(a) Find the number of moles of air in the bottle.
(b) Find the root-mean-square speed of the air molecules in the bottle.
(c) The bottle is then brought to Hong Kong (at sea level) at 20 °C.
Find the change in the total KE of the gas molecules.
Solution

(a) By pV = nRT
pV (72 × 10 3 )(800 × 10 −6 )
n= = = 0.0249 mol [1 cm3 = 10-6 m3]
RT (8.31)(5 + 273)
29.0
(b) mNA = 29.0 g = kg = 0.029 kg
1000

3RT 3(8.31)(5 + 273)

c rms = = = 489 ms-1
mN A 0.029

3
(c) Change in total KE = nR (T2 − T1 )
2
3
= (0.0249)(8.31)( 20 − 5) = 4.66 J
2

(f) Speed of gas molecules

Xe – 132

Ar – 40

Ne – 20
He – 4

(1) cr.m.s. increases with temperature ( c r .m.s ∝ T ).

1
(2) cr.m.s. decreases with the mass of the molecule or molar mass of the gas ( c r .m. s ∝ ).
mN A

15