Classification
COURSE: BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS
COURSE CODE: BSCBE104
COURSE COORDINATOR : DR. MOUMITA ROY CHOWDHURY, ASST. PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT : DEPARTMENT OF BASIC SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES
Introduction
Cell: The basic, fundamental unit of
life (e.g., a muscle cell or a nerve cell).
Tissue: A group of similar cells
working together to perform a specific
function (e.g., muscle tissue).
Organ: A structure composed of
different types of tissues working
together to carry out a complex task
(e.g., the stomach or the heart).
Organ System: A group of organs that
cooperate to perform major body
functions (e.g., the digestive system or
circulatory system).
Organism: The fully functional,
individual living being formed by all
the integrated organ systems working
together (e.g., a human or an animal).
Introduction to classification
Classification is the process of organizing organisms into groups and subgroups (taxa) based
on their similarities, differences, and evolutionary relationships.
Classification is based on
(a) Cellularity- Unicellular or multicellular
(b) Ultrastructure- prokaryotes or eukaryotes.
(c) Energy and Carbon utilization - Autotrophs, heterotrophs, lithotrophs
(d) Ammonia excretion – Aminotelic, uricoteliec, ureotelic
(e) Habitat- acquatic or terrestrial
(f) Molecular taxonomy and phylogentics: three major kingdoms of life. A given organism can
come under different category based on classification.
Classification based on cellularity
Classification based on ultrastructure
Feature Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells
Present (DNA is
Absent (DNA is located
enclosed within a
Nucleus in a concentrated region
membrane-bound
called the nucleoid)
nucleus)
Absent (no Present (includes
Membrane-Bound mitochondria, mitochondria,
Organelles chloroplasts, Golgi endoplasmic reticulum,
apparatus, etc.) Golgi body, etc.)
Linear and organized
Circular and free-
DNA Structure into chromosomes
floating
inside the nucleus
Typically smaller (0.1 to Typically larger (10 to
Cell Size
5.0 μm) 100 μm)
Unicellular or
Unicellular (Bacteria
Organism Type Multicellular (Animals,
and Archaea)
Plants, Fungi, Protists)
Ribosomes Smaller (70S) Larger (80S)
Cell Division Binary fission Mitosis or Meiosis
Classification based on energy and carbon utilization
Feature Autotrophs Heterotrophs Lithotrophs
May or may not (many
Make their own food? Yes ✘ No
are autotrophs)
Usually CO₂ (if
Carbon source CO₂ Organic compounds autotrophic) or organic
carbon (if heterotrophic)
Sunlight or inorganic Inorganic chemicals (e.g.,
Energy source Organic compounds
chemicals NH₃, H₂S, Fe²⁺)
Nitrosomonas,
Common examples Plants, algae Animals, fungi
Nitrobacter
Classification based on Ammonia excretion
Nitrogenous
Term Definition Waste Examples
Excreted
Animals that excrete amino acids as their
primary nitrogenous waste are called
Some marine invertebrates
aminotelic. This mode of excretion is
Aminotelic uncommon and is mainly found in some
Amino acids (e.g., certain echinoderms
and molluscs)
marine invertebrates where amino acids can
be released directly into the surrounding water.
Animals that excrete ammonia (NH₃) as their
primary nitrogenous waste are called
Most bony fishes, tadpoles,
Ammonotelic ammonotelic. Since ammonia is highly toxic Ammonia
aquatic invertebrates
and requires a large amount of water for its
removal, these animals are mostly aquatic.
Animals that convert ammonia into urea
before excretion are called ureotelic. Urea is Humans, mammals, adult
Ureotelic less toxic than ammonia and requires less
Urea
amphibians, sharks
water for excretion.
Animals that convert nitrogenous waste into
uric acid before excretion are called
Uricotelic uricotelic. Uric acid is the least toxic and Uric acid Birds, reptiles, insects
conserves water, making it suitable for animals
living in dry environments.
Classification based on Habitat
Feature Aquatic Organisms Terrestrial Organisms
Habitat Live in water Live on land
Availability of water Water is abundant Water may be limited
Usually through gills or body
Respiration Usually through lungs or tracheae
surface
Body support Water provides buoyancy Strong skeletal support is required
Water conservation Less important Very important
Walking, running, crawling, or
Locomotion Swimming
flying
Often urea or uric acid
Common nitrogenous waste Often ammonia (ammonotelic)
(ureotelic/uricotelic)
Humans, cows, lizards, birds,
Examples Fish, jellyfish, octopus, algae
insects
Taxonomy
Taxonomy is the branch of biology that
deals with the identification, naming
(nomenclature), classification, and
description of living organisms based on
their similarities, differences, and
evolutionary relationships. It provides a
universal system for organizing
biodiversity and facilitates scientific
communication worldwide.
History of Classification
Classification
Proposed By Year
System
Carolus
Two-Kingdom 1758
Linnaeus
Three-
Ernst Haeckel 1866
Kingdom
Robert H.
Five-Kingdom 1969
Whittaker
Two Kingdom Classification System
Limitations of the Two Kingdom Classification System
➢ No distinction between prokaryotes and eukaryotes
➢ No distinction between unicellular and multicellular organisms
➢ Fungi were grouped with plants
➢ Organisms with mixed characteristics (e.g., Euglena) could not
be classified properly
➢ No separate kingdom for Protista
➢ Viruses were not included
➢ Did not reflect evolutionary relationships
➢ Based mainly on morphological characteristics rather than
cellular and molecular features
Three Kingdom Classification System
Limitations of the Three Kingdom Classification System
➢ Did not distinguish prokaryotes from eukaryotes
➢ Grouped all unicellular organisms together despite major
differences
➢ Included bacteria and cyanobacteria with protists, although they
are fundamentally different
➢ Did not separate fungi from plants, despite differences in
nutrition and cell wall composition
➢ Did not reflect evolutionary (phylogenetic) relationships among
organisms
Five Kingdom Classification System
Five Kingdom Classification System
Limitations of the five Kingdom Classification System
➢ Archaea and Bacteria are grouped together under Kingdom Monera,
although they differ significantly in their molecular and biochemical
characteristics
➢ Kingdom Protista is not a natural group, as it includes a wide variety of
unrelated unicellular eukaryotes
➢ The system does not accurately reflect evolutionary (phylogenetic)
relationships, which are better understood using molecular evidence
such as rRNA sequences
➢ Viruses are not included in the five-kingdom system because they are
acellular and do not possess cellular organization
Six Kingdom Classification System
Six Kingdom Classification System
Kingdom Cell Type Organization Nutrition Examples
Archaebacteria Autotrophic or Methanogens,
Prokaryotic Unicellular
(Archaea) heterotrophic Halophiles
Eubacteria Autotrophic or Escherichia coli,
Prokaryotic Unicellular
(Bacteria) heterotrophic Cyanobacteria
Amoeba,
Autotrophic or
Protista Eukaryotic Mostly unicellular Paramecium,
heterotrophic
Euglena
Heterotrophic
Fungi Eukaryotic Mostly multicellular Mushroom, Yeast
(absorptive)
Mosses, Ferns,
Plantae Eukaryotic Multicellular Autotrophic
Flowering plants
Heterotrophic Earthworm, Fish,
Animalia Eukaryotic Multicellular
(ingestive) Human
Three domain System
➢ The Three-Domain System was proposed by Carl Woese in 1990 based on
differences in ribosomal RNA (rRNA) sequences
➢ It classifies all living organisms into three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and
Eukarya
➢ Bacteria and Archaea are both prokaryotes but differ in their cell wall
composition, membrane lipids, and genetic characteristics
➢ Eukarya includes all organisms with membrane-bound organelles and a true
nucleus, such as protists, fungi, plants, and animals
➢ The Three-Domain System is the most widely accepted modern
classification because it accurately reflects the evolutionary relationships
among organisms
Three domain System
Characteristic Bacteria Archaea Eukarya
Cell type Prokaryotic Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Nucleus Absent Absent Present
Membrane-bound organelles Absent Absent Present
No peptidoglycan
Present in plants and
Cell wall Peptidoglycan present (pseudopeptidoglycan or
fungi; absent in animals
other polymers)
Cell membrane lipids Ester-linked lipids Ether-linked lipids Ester-linked lipids
Single circular Single circular Multiple linear
Chromosome
chromosome chromosome chromosomes
Present (histone-like
Histone proteins Absent Present
proteins)
70S (structurally different
Ribosomes 70S 80S
from bacteria)
Mode of reproduction Binary fission Binary fission Mitosis and meiosis
Often extreme
Diverse terrestrial and
Habitat Ubiquitous environments (also found
aquatic habitats
in normal environments)
Methanobacterium, Protists, Fungi, Plants,
Examples Escherichia coli, Bacillus
Halobacterium Animals
Kingdom Monera
➢ Cell Type: Prokaryotic organisms lacking a true nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles.
➢ Organization: Unicellular; may occur singly, in colonies, or as
filaments.
➢ Nutrition: Can be autotrophic (photosynthetic or chemosynthetic)
or heterotrophic (saprophytic or parasitic).
➢ Reproduction: Reproduce mainly by binary fission; genetic
recombination may occur through conjugation, transformation, or
transduction.
➢ Examples
• Escherichia coli
• Bacillus subtilis
• Nostoc (cyanobacterium)
• Anabaena (cyanobacterium)
Kingdom Protista
➢ Cell Type: Eukaryotic organisms with a true nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles.
➢ Organization: Mostly unicellular; some are colonial or
simple multicellular.
➢ Nutrition: Autotrophic, heterotrophic, or mixotrophic
(both autotrophic and heterotrophic).
➢ Reproduction: Reproduce by both asexual (binary
fission) and sexual methods.
➢ Examples
• Amoeba
• Paramecium
• Euglena
• Chlamydomonas
Kingdom Fungi
➢ Cell Type: Eukaryotic organisms with a chitin-containing cell
wall.
➢ Organization: Mostly multicellular; yeast is unicellular.
➢ Nutrition: Heterotrophic and absorptive; obtain nutrients
from dead or living organic matter.
➢ Reproduction: Reproduce by spores through both sexual
and asexual methods.
➢ Examples
• Mushroom (Agaricus)
• Yeast (Saccharomyces)
• Penicillium
• Rhizopus (bread mold)
Kingdom Plantae
➢ Cell Type: Eukaryotic organisms with cellulose-containing cell walls
and chloroplasts
➢ Organization: Multicellular and non-motile
➢ Nutrition: Autotrophic; perform photosynthesis using chlorophyll Plant Group Example
➢ Reproduction: Reproduce sexually and/or asexually depending on Monocots Rice
Dicots Pea
the group
Pinophyta Pine
Ginkgophyta Ginkgo
Pteridophyta Fern
Bryophyta Moss
Kingdom Animalia
➢ Cell Type: Eukaryotic cells without a cell wall
➢ Organization: Multicellular and generally motile
➢ Nutrition: Heterotrophic; obtain food by ingestion
➢ Reproduction: Mostly reproduce sexually, with
well-developed organ systems
➢ Phylum Porifera – Sponge
➢ Phylum Coelenterata – Hydra
➢ Phylum Ctenophora – Comb jelly
➢ Phylum Platyhelminthes – Tapeworm
➢ Phylum Aschelminthes – Roundworm
➢ Phylum Annelida – Earthworm
➢ Phylum Arthropoda – Cockroach
➢ Phylum Mollusca – Snail
➢ Phylum Echinodermata – Starfish
➢ Phylum Hemichordata – Balanoglossus (Acorn worm)
➢ Phylum Chordata – Human
Viruses
➢ Structure: Acellular particles composed of DNA or RNA
enclosed within a protein coat (capsid); some possess a
lipid envelope.
➢ Living Nature: Inert outside the host cell but become
active and replicate only inside living cells (obligate
intracellular parasites).
➢ Reproduction: Cannot reproduce independently; use the
host cell's machinery for replication.
➢ Classification: Not included in any of the biological
kingdoms because they lack cellular organization.
➢ Examples
• Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), Bacteriophage,
Influenza virus, Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2), Tobacco Mosaic
Virus (TMV)
Components of Taxonomy
Component Description
Recognizing and
Identification determining the identity of
an organism.
Assigning a scientific name
according to
Nomenclature
internationally accepted
rules.
Arranging organisms into
groups based on shared
Classification
characteristics and
evolutionary relationships.
Describing the
morphological, anatomical,
Characterization physiological, biochemical,
and molecular features of
organisms.
Taxonomic Hierarchy
The hierarchical system was introduced by Carolus Linnaeus.
Taxonomic Example Example Example
Description
Rank (Human) (E. coli) (Rice)
Highest
Domain taxonomic Eukarya Bacteria Eukarya
category
Broad grouping of Bacteria (or Monera in the five-
Kingdom Animalia Plantae
organisms kingdom system)
Group of related Pseudomonadota (formerly Magnoliophyta
Phylum Chordata
classes Proteobacteria) (Angiosperms)
Group of related Liliopsida
Class Mammalia Gammaproteobacteria
orders (Monocotyledons)
Group of related
Order Primates Enterobacterales Poales
families
Group of related Poaceae (Grass
Family Hominidae Enterobacteriaceae
genera family)
Group of closely
Genus Homo Escherichia Oryza
related species
Basic unit of
Species sapiens coli sativa
classification
Molecular taxonomy and phylogenetics
Term Definition Example
Molecular taxonomy is the branch of taxonomy that
Comparing the DNA sequences of
Molecular uses DNA, RNA, and protein sequences to identify,
Escherichia coli strains to identify
Taxonomy classify, and distinguish organisms based on their
and classify them.
genetic similarities and differences.
Phylogenetics is the study of the evolutionary
Constructing a phylogenetic tree to
relationships among organisms based on genetic,
show the evolutionary relationship
Phylogenetics morphological, or molecular data. These
between humans, chimpanzees,
relationships are represented using a phylogenetic
and gorillas using DNA sequences.
tree.
Molecular Taxonomy vs Traditional Taxonomy
Feature Traditional Taxonomy Molecular Taxonomy
Basis Morphology DNA, RNA, Proteins
Accuracy Moderate High
Time Required Longer Faster
Suitable for Microorganisms Limited Excellent
Environmental Influence High Very Low
What is Molecular Taxonomy?
Definition
Molecular taxonomy is the branch of taxonomy that uses DNA,
RNA, and protein sequences to identify, classify, and distinguish
organisms based on their genetic similarities and differences.
In Simple Words
Instead of relying only on physical characteristics, molecular
taxonomy compares the genetic material of organisms to
determine their identity and relationships.
Why Do We Need Molecular Taxonomy?
Limitations of Traditional Taxonomy
➢ Organisms may look similar but be genetically different
➢ Physical traits can change with environmental conditions
➢ Difficult to identify microorganisms using morphology alone
➢ Closely related species may have very few visible differences
Molecular taxonomy helps overcome these limitations.
Advantages of Molecular Taxonomy
Benefits
➢ More accurate classification
➢ Identifies closely related species
➢ Useful for microorganisms
➢ Detects cryptic species (species that look alike)
➢ Provides information about evolutionary relationships
➢ Fast and reliable
What Molecules Are Used?
Molecular Markers
Molecule Purpose
DNA Most commonly used for classification
RNA Helps identify microorganisms
Proteins Used to compare amino acid sequences
Basic Steps in Molecular Taxonomy
Workflow
➢ Collect sample
➢ Extract DNA
➢ Amplify target gene using PCR
➢ Sequence the DNA
➢ Compare sequence with database
➢ Identify organism
➢ Construct phylogenetic tree
Applications of Molecular Taxonomy
Applications
➢ Identification of new species
➢ Classification of microorganisms
➢ Disease diagnosis
➢ Biodiversity studies
➢ Agriculture Food authentication
➢ Wildlife conservation Forensic science
Limitations of Molecular Taxonomy
Challenges
➢ Requires specialized equipment
➢ Higher cost
➢ Needs trained personnel
➢ Requires bioinformatic tools
➢ DNA contamination may affect results
Model Organisms
➢ Model organisms are living species used for scientific research
➢ They help scientists understand fundamental biological processes
➢ Knowledge gained from them can be applied to other organisms
➢ They possess characteristics that make them suitable for laboratory studies
➢ They play a vital role in advancing genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Advantages of Model Organisms
➢ Short lifespan
➢ Small, easy maintenance
➢ Large offspring producers
➢ Well studied genome
➢ Easy genetic manipulations
➢ Only a few ethical issues
Escherichia coli
➢ Escherichia coli (E. coli) is a Gram-negative, rod-
shaped bacterium
➢ It is one of the most widely used model organisms
in biological research
➢ It grows rapidly and is easy to culture under
laboratory conditions
➢ It has a small, well-characterized genome that is
easy to manipulate genetically
➢ It is extensively used in molecular genetics,
biotechnology, and protein expression studies
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
➢ Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a unicellular eukaryotic
yeast
➢ It is one of the most widely studied model
organisms in biology
➢ It is easy to grow and maintain under laboratory
conditions
➢ It has a simple, well-characterized genome suitable
for genetic studies
➢ It is widely used in cell biology, biotechnology, and
biomedical research
Drosophila melanogaster
➢ D. melanogaster is commonly known as the fruit fly
➢ It is one of the most widely used model organisms
in genetics and developmental biology
➢ It has a short life cycle and produces a large number
of offspring
➢ It has a small, well-studied genome that is easy to
manipulate genetically
➢ It is widely used to study heredity, development,
and human diseases
Caenorhabditis elegans
➢ C. elegans is a microscopic, free-living roundworm
(nematode)
➢ It is a widely used model organism in genetics and
developmental biology. It has a short life cycle and
is easy to grow in the laboratory
➢ It has a simple body structure with a fully mapped
cell lineage and genome
➢ It is extensively used to study development,
neurobiology, aging, and human diseases
Arabidopsis thaliana
➢ Arabidopsis thaliana is a small flowering plant widely
used as a model organism
➢ It is the most extensively studied model plant in
biology
➢ It has a short life cycle and is easy to grow under
laboratory conditions
➢ It has a small, fully sequenced genome that is easy to
manipulate genetically
➢ It is widely used to study plant genetics, development,
and responses to environmental stress
Mus musculus
➢ Mus musculus is commonly known as the house
mouse
➢ It is one of the most widely used mammalian model
organisms
➢ It shares a high degree of genetic similarity with
humans
➢ It has a short reproductive cycle and is easy to
breed in laboratories
➢ It is extensively used to study genetics, human
diseases, drug development, and immunology
Comparison among the model organisms
Model
Organism Type Why is it Used? Major Research Applications
Organism
Grows rapidly, inexpensive to culture,
Bacterium Molecular genetics, recombinant DNA technology,
E. coli simple genome, easy genetic
(Prokaryote) protein expression
manipulation
Yeast Simple eukaryote, easy to culture, short
Cell biology, genetics, biotechnology, cancer
S. cerevisiae (Unicellular generation time, well-characterized
research
Eukaryote) genome
Short life cycle, many offspring, easy
D. Genetics, developmental biology, evolution,
Fruit fly (Insect) genetic studies, shares many genes with
melanogaster human disease research
humans
Roundworm Transparent body, fixed number of cells, Developmental biology, neurobiology, aging,
C. elegans
(Nematode) short life cycle, fully mapped cell lineage apoptosis
Small genome, rapid life cycle, easy Plant genetics, molecular biology, plant
A. thaliana Flowering plant
cultivation, produces many seeds physiology, stress biology
High genetic similarity to humans,
House mouse Human diseases, immunology, cancer research,
M. musculus similar physiology and organ systems,
(Mammal) drug discovery
well-developed genetic tools
Thank you