Chapter 7

I/O connectors

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I/O Connectors
• A connection point that acts as interface between the computer and external devices
like mouse, printer, modem, etc. is called port.
Ports are of two types −
1. Internal port − It connects the motherboard to internal devices like hard disk
drive, CD drive, internal modem, etc.
2. External port − It connects the motherboard to external devices like modem,
mouse, printer, flash drives, etc.

• I/O (Input/Output) Connectors are electrical connectors that provide high speed data
transmission through means of a secure electrical contact between frequently
inserted/extracted cables and their application.
• These io connectors are commonly used in products that require data transmission or
internet connection such as computers, routers, servers, switches, and allow the I/O
of audio/video signal data in applications such as car navigation systems, car audio
devices, etc.

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Let us look at some of the most commonly used ports

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Some important types of ports are as per follow
Serial Port
Used for external modems and older computer mouse
• Serial ports transmit data sequentially one bit at a time. So they need
only one wire to transmit 8 bits. However it also makes them slower.
• Serial ports are usually 9-pin or 25-pin male connectors. They are also
known as COM (communication) ports or RS323C ports.

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Parallel Port
• Parallel ports can send or receive 8 bits or 1 byte at a time. Parallel
ports come in form of 25-pin female pins and are used to connect
printer, scanner, external hard disk drive, etc.

USB Port
• USB stands for Universal Serial Bus. It is the industry standard for
short distance digital data connection. USB port is a standardized port
to connect a variety of devices like printer, camera, keyboard, speaker,
etc.
• Data travels at 12 megabits per second.

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PS-2 Port
• PS/2 stands for Personal System/2. It is a 6-pin port standard that
connects to the mini-DIN cable. PS/2 was introduced by IBM to
connect mouse and keyboard to personal computers. This port is now
mostly obsolete, though some systems compatible with IBM may
have this port.
Infrared Port
• Infrared port is a port that enables wireless exchange of data within a
radius of 10m. Two devices that have infrared ports are placed facing
each other so that beams of infrared lights can be used to share data.
Ethernet Port :
• Connects to a network and high-speed Internet.
• Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000 megabits per second depending
upon the network bandwidth.
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Firewire Port :
• Transfers large amounts of data at a very fast speed.
• Connects camcorders and video equipment to the computer.
• Data travels at 400 to 800 megabits per second.

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 Chapter 8
Introductions to software
maintenance concepts

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Software maintenance
• is defined as the modification of a software product after delivery to correct
faults, to improve performance or other attributes, or to adapt the product to a
modified environment. It lasts for the lifespan of the software and requires
careful logging and tracking of change requests as per the guidelines for change
management set out at the end of the requirements phase.
Software maintenance processes are initiated for a number of reasons. These
differing reasons result in four categories of maintenance activities. These are
• Perfective maintenance—This involves improving functionality of software in
response to user-defined changes.
• Adaptive maintenance—This process involves the alteration of the software
which is due to changes within the software environment.
• Corrective maintenance—This process involves the correction of errors that have
been identified within the software.
• Preventative maintenance—This involves updating the software in order to
improve upon its future maintainability without changing its current functionality.

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History of the Operating System
Operating System
• The operating system is a system program that serves as an interface
between the computing system and the end-user. Operating systems create
an environment where the user can run any programs or communicate with
software or applications in a comfortable and well-organized way.
• Furthermore, an operating is a software program that manages and controls
the execution of application programs, software resources and computer
hardware. It also helps manage the software/hardware resource, such as file
management, memory management, input/ output and many peripheral
devices like a disk drive, printers, etc. These are the popular operating
system: Linux OS, Windows OS, Mac OS, VMS, OS/400 etc.

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• An operating system is software that supports and manages all the programs and
applications used by a computer or mobile device.
• An operating system uses a graphic user interface (GUI), a combination of
graphics and text, that allows you to interact with the computer or device.
• Every computer or smart device needs at least one operating system to run
applications and perform tasks.
➢Operating systems use two components to manage computer programs and
applications:
• The kernel is the core inner component that processes data at the hardware
level. It handles input-output management, memory and process management.
• The shell is the outer layer that manages the interaction between the user and
the OS. The shell communicates with the operating system by either taking the
input from the user or a shell script. A shell script is a sequence of system
commands that are stored in a file.
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Operating system functions
• Basic functions of an operating system include:
Booting: An operating system manages the startup of a device.
Memory management: An operating system coordinates computer applications and
allocates space to different programs installed in the computer.
Data security: An operating system protects your data from cyberattacks.
Loading and execution: An operating system starts and executes a program.
Drive/disk management: An operating system manages computer drives and divides
disks.
Device control: An operating system enables you to allow or block access to devices.
User interface: This part of an operating system, also known as UI, allows users to
enter and receive information.
• Process management: The operating system allocates space to enable computer
processes,
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such as storing and sharing information. 12
Types of Operating System
• Batch Operating System
• Time-Sharing Operating System
• Embedded Operating System
• Multiprogramming Operating System
• Network Operating System
• Distributed Operating System
• Multiprocessing Operating System
• Real-Time Operating System

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Batch Operating System
• In Batch Operating System, there is no direct interaction between user and computer.
Therefore, the user needs to prepare jobs and save offline mode to punch card or paper
tape or magnetic tape. After creating the jobs, hand it over to the computer operator;
then the operator sort or creates the similar types of batches like B2, B3, and B4. Now,
the computer operator submits batches into the CPU to execute the jobs one by one.
After that, CPUs start executing jobs, and when all jobs are finished, the computer
operator provides the output to the user.

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Time-Sharing Operating System
• It is the type of operating system that allows us to connect many people located at
different locations to share and use a specific system at a single time. The time-sharing
operating system is the logical extension of the multiprogramming through which users
can run multiple tasks concurrently. Furthermore, it provides each user his terminal for
input or output that impacts the program or processor currently running on the system.
It represents the CPU's time is shared between many user processes. Or, the
processor's time that is shared between multiple users simultaneously termed as time-
sharing.

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Embedded Operating System
• The Embedded operating system is the specific purpose operating
system used in the computer system's embedded hardware
configuration. These operating systems are designed to work on
dedicated devices like automated teller machines (ATMs), airplane
systems, digital home assistants, and the internet of things (IoT) devices.

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Multiprogramming Operating System
• Due to the CPU's underutilization and the waiting for I/O resource till that
CPU remains idle. It shows the improper use of system resources. Hence, the
operating system introduces a new concept that is known as
multiprogramming. A multiprogramming operating system refers to the
concepts wherein two or more processes or programs activate simultaneously
to execute the processes one after another by the same computer system.
When a program is in run mode and uses CPU, another program or file uses
I/O resources at the same time or waiting for another system resources to
become available. It improves the use of system resources, thereby increasing
system throughput. Such a system is known as a multiprogramming operating
system.

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Network Operating System
• A network operating system is an important category of the operating
system that operates on a server using network devices like a switch,
router, or firewall to handle data, applications and other network resources.
It provides connectivity among the autonomous operating system, called as
a network operating system. The network operating system is also useful to
share data, files, hardware devices and printer resources among multiple
computers to communicate with each other.

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Types of network operating system
• Peer-to-peer network operating system: The type of network operating
system allows users to share files, resources between two or more computer
machines using a LAN.

• Client-Server network operating system: It is the type of network operating

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Distributed Operating system
• A distributed operating system provides an environment in which multiple independent
CPU or processor communicates with each other through physically separate
computational nodes. Each node contains specific software that communicates with the
global aggregate operating system. With the ease of a distributed system, the
programmer or developer can easily access any operating system and resource to
execute the computational tasks and achieve a common goal. It is the extension of a
network operating system that facilitates a high degree of connectivity to communicate
with other users over the network.

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Multiprocessing Operating System
• It is the type of operating system that refers to using two or more central
processing units (CPU) in a single computer system. However, these
multiprocessor systems or parallel operating systems are used to increase
the computer system's efficiency. With the use of a multiprocessor system,
they share computer bus, clock, memory and input or output device for
concurrent execution of process or program and resource management in
the CPU.

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Real-Time Operating System
• A real-time operating system is an important type of operating system used
to provide services and data processing resources for applications in which
the time interval required to process & respond to input/output should be so
small without any delay real-time system. For example, real-life situations
governing an automatic car, traffic signal, nuclear reactor or an aircraft
require an immediate response to complete tasks within a specified time
delay. Hence, a real-time operating system must be fast and responsive for
an embedded system, weapon system, robots, scientific research &
experiments and various real-time objects.

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Types of the real-time operating system:
• Hard Real-Time System
These types of OS are used with those required to complete critical tasks
within the defined time limit. If the response time is high, it is not accepted by
the system or may face serious issues like a system failure. In a hard real-time
system, the secondary storage is either limited or missing, so these system
stored data in the ROM.
• Soft Real-Time System
A soft real-time system is a less restrictive system that can accept software
and hardware resources delays by the operating system. In a soft real-time
system, a critical task prioritizes less important tasks, and that priority retains
active until completion of the task. Also, a time limit is set for a specific job,
which enables short time delays for further tasks that are acceptable. For
example, computer audio or video, virtual reality, reservation system, projects
like undersea, etc.
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 Generations of Operating System
The First Generation (1940 to early 1950s)
• When the first electronic computer was developed in 1940, it was created without
any operating system. In early times, users have full access to the computer machine
and write a program for each task in absolute machine language. The programmer
can perform and solve only simple mathematical calculations during the computer
generation, and this calculation does not require an operating system.
The Second Generation (1955 - 1965)
• The first operating system (OS) was created in the early 1950s and was known
as GMOS. General Motors has developed OS for the IBM computer. The second-
generation operating system was based on a single stream batch processing system
because it collects all similar jobs in groups or batches and then submits the jobs to
the operating system using a punch card to complete all jobs in a machine. At each
completion of jobs (either normally or abnormally), control transfer to the operating
system that is cleaned after completing one job and then continues to read and
initiates the next job in a punch card. After that, new machines were called
mainframes, which were very big and used by professional operators.
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The Third Generation (1965 - 1980)
• During the late 1960s, operating system designers were very capable of developing a new operating
system that could simultaneously perform multiple tasks in a single computer program called
multiprogramming. The introduction of multiprogramming plays a very important role in
developing operating systems that allow a CPU to be busy every time by performing different tasks
on a computer at the same time. During the third generation, there was a new development of
minicomputer's phenomenal growth starting in 1961 with the DEC PDP-1. These PDP's leads to the
creation of personal computers in the fourth generation.
The Fourth Generation (1980 - Present Day)
• The fourth generation of operating systems is related to the development of the personal
computer. However, the personal computer is very similar to the minicomputers that were
developed in the third generation. The cost of a personal computer was very high at that time;
there were small fractions of minicomputers costs. A major factor related to creating personal
computers was the birth of Microsoft and the Windows operating system. Microsoft created the
first window operating system in 1975. After introducing the Microsoft Windows OS, Bill Gates and
Paul Allen had the vision to take personal computers to the next level. Therefore, they introduced
the MS-DOS in 1981; however, it was very difficult for the person to understand its cryptic
commands. Today, Windows has become the most popular and most commonly used operating
system technology. And then, Windows released various operating systems such as Windows 95,
Windows 98, Windows XP and the latest operating system, Windows 7. Currently, most Windows
users use the Windows 10 operating system. Besides the Windows operating system, Apple is
another popular operating system built in the 1980s, and this operating system was developed by
Steve Jobs, a co-founder of Apple. They named the operating system Macintosh OS or Mac OS.
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Advantages of Operating System
• It is helpful to monitor and regulate resources.
• It can easily operate since it has a basic graphical user interface to communicate with your
device.
• It is used to create interaction between the users and the computer application or
hardware.
• The performance of the computer system is based on the CPU.
• The response time and throughput time of any process or program are fast.
• It can share different resources like fax, printer, etc.
• It also offers a forum for various types of applications like system and web application.
Disadvantage of the Operating System
• It allows only a few tasks that can run at the same time.
• If any error occurred in the operating system; the stored data can be destroyed.
• It is a very difficult task or works for the OS to provide entire security from the viruses
because any threat or virus can occur at any time in a system.
• An unknown user can easily use any system without the permission of the original user.
• The cost of operating system is very high.
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➢When a computer or any other computing device is in a powerless state, its
operating system remains stored in secondary storage like a hard disk or SSD.
But, when the computer is started, the operating system must be present in
the main memory or RAM of the system.
Booting
• When a computer system is started, there is a mechanism in the system that
loads the operating system from the secondary storage into the main memory,
or RAM, of the system. This is called the booting process of the system.
Types of Booting
• There are two types of booting depending on the number of operating
systems installed on the machine/computer, i.e.
• Booting
• Dual Booting
Let us understand these two concepts in the context of computer booting.
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• After an operating system is generated, it must be available for use by the
hardware. But how does the hardware know where the kernel is or how to
load that kernel? The procedure of starting a computer by loading the kernel
is known as booting the system. Hence, it needs a special program, stored in
the ROM to do this job known as the Bootstrap loader. Example: BIOS (boot
input-output system). A modern PC BIOS (Basic Input/Output System)
supports booting from various devices. Typically, the BIOS will allow the user
to configure a boot order. If the boot order is set to:
• CD Drive
• Hard Disk Drive
• Network

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• Then the BIOS will try to boot from the CD drive first, and if that fails, it will try to boot
from the hard disk drive, and if that fails then it will try to boot from the network, and if
that fails, it won’t boot at all. Booting is a startup sequence that starts the operating
system of a computer when it is turned on. A boot sequence is the initial set of operations
that the computer performs when it is switched on. Every computer has a boot sequence.
The Bootstrap loader locates the kernel, loads it into main memory, and starts its
execution. In some systems, a simple bootstrap loader fetches a more complex boot
program from disk, which in turn loads the kernel.

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File Systems in Operating System
• A file system defines how files are named, stored, and retrieved from a storage
device.
• A file system is a method an operating system uses to store, organize, and manage
files and directories on a storage device. Some common types of file systems
include:
[Link] (File Allocation Table): An older file system used by older versions of Windows
and other operating systems.
[Link] (New Technology File System): A modern file system used by Windows. It
supports features such as file and folder permissions, compression, and
encryption.
[Link] (Extended File System): A file system commonly used on Linux and Unix-based
operating systems.
[Link] (Hierarchical File System): A file system used by macOS.
[Link] (Apple File System): A new file system introduced by Apple for their Macs
and iOS devices.
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What is BIOS?
• BIOS is a program, stands for basic input/output system, which is stored in
nonvolatile memory like ROM (Read Only Memory) or flash memory that
allows you to set up and access your computer system at the greatest basic
level.
• It is found on motherboards that are a pre-installed program on Windows-
based computers that executes when a computer is powered up. Before an
OS is loaded, the CPU accesses the basic input/output system (BIOS). Then,
the next function of BIOS is to examine all the hardware connections and
detects all your devices.
• The BIOS is built-in software that manages the hard drives and cannot live on
one. It cannot reside in the RAM (Random Access Memory) as it is accessible
before the computer system boots up. Actually, it lives on the ROM of the
computer system, and mainly it is located on EPROM (erasable programmable
read-only memory) chip. Therefore, the CPU accesses the EPROM when you
turn on the computer and provides control to the BIOS.
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• Users can perform different functions by using the BIOS user interface, which
is discussed below
• Users can perform hardware configuration
• They can select boot drives
• They can set the system clock
• The BIOS allows users to enable and disable certain system components
• To BIOS user interface function, it provides set password prompts for secured
access
Error messages and solution
• While working with an operating system, it is not uncommon to encounter
errors. A consolidated list of common Windows problems and solutions is
useful for a user when they encounter an error. In this article, we provide the
list of the most common Windows system error codes, a quick and easy
explanation of each one, and possible solutions to fix them.
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• Below is a list of the most common error codes that you may face while using
Windows and its basic components.
Error #1
➢Error Message: Connection Successful!
Solution: Does not require any action.
• Error #2
• Error Message: Invalid Procedure Call
• Solution: Dialup and Network components must be installed again
• Error #3
• Error Message: Stack Overflow
• Solution: 1. Try cold booting your computer 2. If this does not work, the
problem might come from your RAM or the Swap file
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 The End

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