CHAPTER 2

The Changing Political Landscape Of India

Class 1

Introduction

• Medieval means “between two ages” (between ancient and modern periods).

• In European history, it refers to the period between the fall of the Roman Empire
and the Renaissance (period of revival of art, literature and learning in Europe
from the 14th to the 17th centuries marking the transition from the Middle Ages to
modern times.

• In India, the medieval period spans from the 11th to the 17th century.

• The ear witnessed,

• Rise and fall of many kingdoms.

• Emergence of new political and administrative systems.

• Growth in cultural and economic exchanges.

• Expansion of cities and trade.

• Development in architecture, literature and education.

• It was a period of transformation, not a “dark age”.

Invasions and Political Changes

• The 11th century marked major political changes in India

• Invaders entered India through the Hindu Kush mountain passes.

• Invasions( attacks by foreign armies to enter and take control of another country
or region) transformed India's political landscape.

• Many invaders including Turkic and Afghan groups from Central Asia sought
territorial expansion, access to Indias wealth and at times the spread of their
religious beliefs.

• New rulers and kingdoms emerged.

Political Changes Under the Delhi Sultanate

The Delhi Sultanate was established after the defeat of King Prithviraj Chauhan in 1192
CE, marking a new phase in northern Indias political history.

Major Dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate

Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (1206–1290 CE)

• First rulers of Delhi.

• Laid the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate.

Khalji Dynasty (1290–1320 CE)

• Expanded the empire through military campaigns.

• Introduced economic reforms.

Tughlaq Dynasty (1320–1414 CE)

• Known for ambitious projects.

• Conducted administrative experiments.

Sayyid Dynasty (1414–1451 CE)

• Short-lived dynasty with limited control.

• Ruled after the Tughlaqs.

Lodi Dynasty (1451–1526 CE)

• Last dynasty before the Mughal conquest.

• Strengthened administration before the rise of the Mughals.

Each dynasty brought its own style of governance polices and strategies to consolidate
power.

Regional Kingdoms that Resisted the Sultanate

• Several kingdoms remained independent.

• Eastern Gangas (Odisha) preserved their culture and administration.

• Hoysalas (Karnataka) maintained their independence and remained important

centres of art and culture.

• These kingdoms reflected the political diversity of medieval India.

Features of the Delhi Sultanate : The Sultanate’s political landscape was

characterised by both ambition and instability.
 • Frequent military campaigns for territorial expansion.

• Collection of tribute from subordinate regions.

• Raiding towns and seizing resources.

• Succession disputes were common.

• Despite instability, authority became centralised.

• Delhi emerged as the main political and administrative centre of northern India.

Class 2

Ala-ud-din Khilji (1296–1316 CE)

• One of the most notable rulers of the Delhi Sultanate.

• Conducted extensive military campaigns across North and Central India.

• Successfully repelled repeated Mongol invasions.

• Expanded the empire and increased wealth.

• His slave – general Malik Kafur led expeditions into southern India.

• Conquered territories of:

o Pandya Kingdom

o Hoysala Kingdom

• Attacked important religious centres such as:

o Srirangam

o Madurai

o Chidambaram

o Rameswaram

Architectural Achievements of the Delhi Sultanate

Qutub Minar

• Located in Delhi.

• Started by Qutb-ud-din Aibak.

• Completed by Iltutmish ( Mamluk Dynasty)

 • Symbol of Sultanate power.

Alai Darwaza

• Built by Ala-ud-din Khilji.

• Combined Islamic architecture with local craftsmanship.

Tughlaqabad Fort

• Built by Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq.

• Emphasised strong defence and fortification.

• Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque in Delhi served as a religious, cultural and social

centre.

• Influenced urban planning and architectural design.

• Strengthened the Sultanate's cultural presence.

Qutub Minar

• Begun by Qutb-ud-din Aibak in 1192 CE.

• Built using materials from demolished Hindu and Jain temples.

• Temple-style carvings can still be seen on nearby structures.

Ambitions and Setbacks Of Tughlaq

Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–1351 CE)

• One of the most ambitious rulers of the Delhi Sultanate.

• Known for grand schemes and bold experiments.

• Expanded the empire to its greatest extent since the Mauryan Empire.

• Many policies were poorly planned and caused instability.

Transfer of the Capital

• Shifted the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (Devagiri).

• Intended to improve control over the vast empire.

• Thousands of people had to travel over 1,000 km.

• The plan failed and the capital was moved back to Delhi.

• Caused hardship and loss of life.

Introduction of Token Currency

 • Introduced copper coins with the value of silver or gold coins.

• Innovative idea for that period.

• Led to confusion among traders.

• Encouraged counterfeiting.

• Weakened the economy.

Effects of His Policies

• Created administrative difficulties.

• Increased instability within the Sultanate.

• Gradually reduced the prosperity of the Delhi Sultanate.

Royal Wealth and Luxury

• The royal court enjoyed immense wealth and luxury.

• Sultans lived in grand palaces decorated with jewels and fine furnishings.

• Lavish feasts and luxurious lifestyles were common.

Sources of Wealth

• Wealth came from:

o Military plunder

o Heavy taxation

o Slave trade

• Enslaved people were sold or used as forced labour.

Effects on the Economy

• Excessive dependence on plunder weakened the economy.

• Trade and agricultural productivity were disrupted.

• Created additional challenges for the empire.

Religious Sites and Iconoclasm

• Many Hindu, Jain and Buddhist religious sites were attacked.

• Looting was a major motive.

• Religious images and structures were deliberately destroyed (iconoclasm).

• Some monuments survived with modified architectural features.

 • These actions affected India's cultural and religious landscape.

Muhammad bin Tughlaq's Legacy

• His reign combined innovation, ambition and failure.

• His experiments highlighted the challenges of governing a vast empire.

• His rule remains an important example in medieval Indian history.

Class 3

TIMUR'S TRAIL OF DESTRUCTION

• Many Delhi Sultanate rulers imposed Jizya, a tax on non-Muslims.

• Officially, it was considered payment for state protection and military service.

• In practice, it often led to discrimination and extra financial burden.

• Towards the 14th century northern India witnessed one of the most devastating
invasions in its medieval history.

• Timur was a Turco-Mongol ruler from Central Asia.

• He invaded India in 1398 CE.

• His main target was Delhi, one of Asia's richest cities.

• To expand his power and influence.

• To acquire India's wealth and treasures.

• He described it as a "holy war" against non-believers. (infidels)

• Timur was renowned for his military campaign across Persia, Central Asia and
parts of Middle East.

• Towns and marketplaces were plundered.

• Temples and buildings were destroyed.

• When his army finally reached Delhi, they inflicted a catastrophe: 10,000 were
killed.

• Many people were enslaved.

• Delhi was left in ruins.

• The economy became weak.

• Political instability increased.

• People suffered poverty and hardship.

 • After gathering vast amounts of treasure and enslaving large sections of the
population, Timur withdrew from India as swiftly as he had arrived.

• A new power gradually rose to prominence.

• The Lodi Dynasty (1451–1526 CE) became the last ruling dynasty of the Delhi
Sultanate.

• The Sultanate gradually weakened.

Regional Kingdoms Became Independent

• Several kingdoms asserted independence:

o Bengal

o Gujarat

o Malwa

o Mewar

o Vijayanagara

The invasions heavy taxation and internal conflicts had fragmented the once expensive
empire.

STANDING AGAINST THE SULTANATE

Introduction

• The Delhi Sultanate could not fully control all parts of India.

• Many regional kingdoms resisted its expansion, preserving their independence

and cultural heritage.

Eastern Ganga rulers of Kalinga

• Ruled much of present-day Odisha and parts of Bengal and Andhra Pradesh.

• Successfully resisted the Sultanate.

• Narasimhadeva I was an important ruler. He was renowned for his military skill
and cultural achievements.

• He successfully defeated the Sultanate.

• Built the famous Konark Sun Temple.

Hoysalas

• Controlled most of present-day Karnataka.

• While rulers like Ala-ud-din Khilji were drawn southward by the region’s wealth, the
Hoysalas defended their territory

• Later weakened by repeated attacks and internal conflicts.

• Became part of the Vijayanagara Empire in the mid-14th century.

Bahmani Sultanate

• Emerged in the Deccan in the mid-1300s.

• Controlled large territories.

• Became a major regional power.

• Influenced medieval Indian politics.

Mewar Kingdom

• Located in present-day Rajasthan.

• Led by Rana Kumbha in the 15th century.

• Successfully defended its territory against Delhi and other Sultanates.

• Showed the strength of local rulers.

Overall, the Delhi Sultanate’s control was never absolute. Over the centuries it had to
contend with independent kingdoms, internal revolts and newly emerging powers,
highlighting the vibrant and diverse political landscape of medieval India.

Case study 1

Kumbhalgarh Fort – A Wall of Resilience

 Built in the 15th century by Rana Kumbha of Mewar.

 Located in the Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan.

 Symbol of Rajput courage, strength and architectural skill.

 Designed as a secure refuge during invasions.

 Wall stretches over 36 km.

 Second-longest continuous wall in the world after the Great Wall of China.

 Wide enough for eight horses to ride side by side.

 Built for strong defence and protection.

 Protected Mewar rulers and their families.

 Young Maharana Pratap spent his early years here.

 Served as a safe shelter during times of danger

 Surrounded by rugged hills and thick forests.

 Elevated location provided a military advantage.

 Strong fortifications made enemy conquest difficult.

 Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

 Represents Rajasthan's rich history and heritage.

 Symbol of resistance, resilience and bravery.

Class 4

Vijayanagara – The Rise of a Southern Kingdom

 Vijayanagara Empire rose in the 14th century.

 Founded by brothers Harihara and Bukka who once served as governors under
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq.

 Established after weakening of the Delhi Sultanate.

 Capital city: Vijayanagara (present-day Hampi, Karnataka).

 Became famous for its wealth and temples.

 Developed into an important centre of trade.

 Had busy and prosperous markets.

 Expanded across much of South India.

 North of Vijayanagara was the Bahmani Sultanate.

 Bahmani kingdom later split into five Deccan Sultanates:

• Bijapur

• Golconda

• Berar

• Ahmadnagar

• Bidar
 Frequent conflicts took place between them and Vijayanagara.

 Despite the frequent wars Vijayanagara grew into one of the major centre of
agriculture and trade.

 Rulers invested in irrigation projects.

 Supported artisans and merchants.

 Built magnificent religious and public buildings.

Krishnadevaraya’s Rule

• Reigned from 1509–1529 CE.

• Expanded the empire’s territory.

• Strengthened military defences.

• Encouraged literature, art and architecture.

• Encouraged Telugu, Kannada and Sanskrit scholars.

• Wrote the famous Telugu poem Amuktamalyada which included a section
called Rajaniti, which explained good governance.
• His reign saw military, economic and cultural prosperity.
• Built magnificent temples like the Vitthala Temple.
• Gave generous grants to sacred places such as Tirupati.
• Vijayanagara attracted merchants and travellers worldwide.
• Portuguese traveller Domingo Paes visited during Krishnadevaraya's reign.
• He described the city as "as large as Rome and very pleasing to eye”
• Markets sold spices, jewels, textiles and horses.
• Markets were crowded with ox carts and traders from many regions.
• Paes also remarked on the prosperity of the people and the orderly
administration that kept the vast empire functioning.
• Weakened after Krishnadevaraya's death.
• In 1565 CE, the combined armies of Deccan Sultanate defeated the
Vijayanagara forces led by his son in law Ramaraya at the Battle of Talikota .
• The capital city was plundered and destroyed.
• Some regions continued under former military governors Nayakas.
• The empire never regained its former strength.
• Gradually declined during the mid-17th century.
• Left a rich cultural and architectural legacy.
Vitthala Temple
• Located at Hampi.
• Famous for its musical stone pillars.
• Has over 500 pillars.
 • Pillars produce musical notes when tapped lightly

Case study 2

The Suffix “-Pati”

• Derived from Sanskrit.

• Means lord, master or chief.

• Used in titles to show authority and responsibility.

• Linked leaders to the people, land or institutions they governed.

• Examples of “-Pati” Titles

• Chhatrapati – supreme ruler (used by Shivaji Maharaj).

• Sabhapati – head of an assembly.

• Nyayapati – chief judge or overseer of justice.

• Gramapati – leader of a village.

• Gahapati – head of a household or landowning peasant.

• Bhupati – lord of the earth.

• Samantapati – feudal chief.

• The consistent use of Pati in these titles shows how leadership and authority
were recognised in medieval India.

Rise of the Mughals

• Delhi Sultanate weakened in the early 16th century.

• Zahir-ud-Din Muhammad Babur invaded India.

• Babur was a Turko-Mongol ruler.

• Descended from Timur and Chinggis Khan.

• Babur Lost control of Samarkand (present-day Uzbekistan).

• Turned his attention towards India.

• Used advanced military strategies.

• Introduced gunpowder weapons and artillery.

First Battle of Panipat (1526)

• Fought between Babur and Ibrahim Lodi.

 • Babur decisively defeated Ibrahim Lodi.

• Ended the Delhi Sultanate.

• Marked the beginning of the Mughal Empire.

• Changed the course of Indian history.

• Gunpowder weapons became more important than traditional warfare.

• Established a powerful new empire in India.

• Marked a turning point in military tactics.

Babur's Impressions of India

• Babur wrote his memoir called Baburnama offers a remarkably vivid glimpse
into his personality and the era he shaped.

• It reveals a ruler of refined sensibilities—one who delighted in gardens, elegant

architecture, fruit-laden orchards, and the diverse birds he so often
catalogued—yet it also lays bare his ruthlessness as a conqueror, notorious for
plundering cities and erecting macabre "towers of skulls" from his vanquished
foes.( The Baburnama doesn't only show Babur as someone who loved gardens,
art, and nature. It also shows that he could be very cruel in war. After defeating
his enemies, he sometimes looted their cities and ordered towers to be built
using the skulls of the defeated soldiers. He did this to frighten others and
display his power.)
• Despite his frequent longing for his Central Asian homeland, Babur recognised
the immense prosperity and potential of India. He praised its fertile soils, rich
reserves of gold and silver, skilled craftsmen, and even the refreshing monsoon
air that he found both healthy and pleasing.
• These advantages ultimately convinced him to establish and expand his
dominion in India rather than attempt to reclaim his ancestral territories in
Central Asia.

Humayun and the Afghan Interlude

• Babur died in 1530.

• His son Humayun succeeded him.

• Humayun struggled to maintain control.

• Sher Shah Suri defeated the Mughals.

• Established the Sur Empire across northern India

Sher Shah Suri's Reforms

• Introduced efficient land revenue assessments.

 • Issued a stable silver currency called Rupiya.

• Improved infrastructure by restoring and expanding the Grand Trunk Road.

• Improved trade, administration and communication.

Return of Humayun

• Humayun regained the throne in 1555.

• His restoration was short-lived.

• He died in 1556.

• His son Akbar became the successor.

The Challenge of Hemu

• Hemu, a resourceful military commander and later chief minister under the Sur
rulers captured Delhi in 1556.

• Took the title Hemchandra Vikramaditya.

• In the Second Battle of Panipat (1556), Mughal forces defeated him.

• Bairam Khan led Akbar's army.

• This victory restored Mughal authority in Delhi and prepared the ground for
Akbar’s long and consolidating reign.

Class 5

Akbar: Expansion and Consolidation of the Mughal Empire

• Succeeded Humayun as Mughal Emperor.

• Aimed to expand Mughal authority across India.

• His reign combined military conquest with political diplomacy.

• His reign would be marked by both episodes of stark and brutality and innovative
pursuit of political accommodation.

Siege of Chittor (1567–68)

His siege of the Rajput stronghold of Chittor was grim.

• Rajputs resisted the Mughal siege for over five months.

• Chittor Fort eventually fell after fierce fighting.

• Thousands were killed in battle.

 • Hundreds of Rajput women committed jauhar ( a historic practice in which
women of the besieged fort sacrificed their lives to avoid capture) rather than
face enslavement or violation.

• Akbar only twenty five at the time ordered the execution of nearly 30,000
civilians.

• Temples were demolished after the victory.

Insight:

• In the medieval period, invading armies often enslaved or mistreated the women
of conquered regions. Among the Rajputs, the practice of jauhar—mass self-
immolation by women—came to be regarded as a tragic yet heroic act of
preserving honour in the face of certain defeat. The most remembered instance
was during the fall of Chittorgarh, when hundreds of women entered the flames
while their men fought to the end.

• As the empire expanded, Akbar came to believe that endless warfare alone
could not ensure stability.

3. Shift in Akbar's Policies

• Realized that warfare alone could not ensure stability.

• Adopted diplomacy and political accommodation.

• Formed marriage alliances with Rajput princesses.

• Appointed Rajputs to important positions in the Mughal court.

• Abolished the jizya tax on non-Muslims.

4. Sulh-i-Kul (Peace with All)

• Promoted religious tolerance.

• Encouraged interfaith discussions.

• Supported scholars of different religions.

• Won the cooperation of many Rajput chiefs.

• Strengthened unity and stability in the empire.

5. Akbar's Later Reign

• Reigned from 1556–1605.

• Middle years focused on administrative consolidation.

• Later campaigns expanded Mughal control in:

 o Kashmir

o Sindh

o Deccan

o Afghanistan

• His religious outlook became more inclusive over time.

Akbar's Intellectual and Cultural Contributions

1. Akbar's Religious Outlook

Despite being unable to read or write Akbar showed a remarkable intellectual

curiosity.

• Became more tolerant as he gained experience.

• Opposed forcing religion on others.

• Promoted religious harmony and mutual respect.

2. House of Translation (Fatehpur Sikri- capital )

• Established the House of Translation

• Major Sanskrit texts translated into Persian:

o Mahabharata (Razmnama)

o Ramayana

o Bhagavad Gita

o Panchatantra

• Encouraged cultural exchange between Persian, Indian, and European scholars.

3. Centre of Learning

• Hosted discussions on religion and philosophy.

• Invited scholars and Jesuit priests.

• Promoted intellectual curiosity despite being illiterate.

The Mughal Cultural Zenith

1. Jahangir (1605–1627)

• Continued patronage of art and architecture.

 • Encouraged miniature paintings and natural history.

• Expanded Mughal influence in the Deccan.

2. Shah Jahan (1628–1658)

• Ushered in the golden age of Mughal architecture.

• Built famous monuments:

o Taj Mahal

o Red Fort (Delhi)

o Red Fort (Agra)

o Restored Humayun's Tomb

• Architecture, miniature painting, calligraphy, and Hindustani classical music

flourished.

Aurangzeb and the Empire at its Greatest Extent

1. War of Succession (1657)

• Began after Shah Jahan fell ill.

• Fierce struggle among his sons.

• Dara Shikoh was Shah Jahan's chosen successor.

• Aurangzeb defeated Dara Shikoh and became emperor.

2. Aurangzeb's Rise

• Dara Shikoh was captured and executed.

• Aurangzeb eliminated his brothers.

• Shah Jahan was imprisoned in Agra Fort until his death.

Aurangzeb's Reign (1658–1707)

1. Aurangzeb's Rule

• Took the title 'Alamgir' ("Conqueror of the World") in 1658.

• Ruled for 49 years, the longest reign among Mughal emperors.

• Expanded the Mughal Empire to its greatest territorial extent.

2. Deccan Campaigns
 • Spent the last 25 years fighting in the Deccan.

• Faced strong resistance from the Marathas.

• Continuous wars drained the empire's resources.

3. Causes of Mughal Decline

• Heavy military expenditure weakened the treasury.

• Long wars reduced the efficiency of central administration.

• These factors contributed to the rapid decline of the Mughal Empire after
Aurangzeb's death in 1707.

4. Religious Policy

• Followed the Sunni tradition of Islam.

• Reintroduced the jizya tax on non-Muslims.

• Imposed a pilgrimage tax on Hindus visiting sacred places.

• Discouraged court music and dance.

• Banned practices considered un-Islamic.

Growth of the Mughal Empire (1526–1707) – map

Territorial Expansion

• 1526 (Babur): Established the Mughal Empire.

• 1605 (Akbar): Expanded the empire across most of North India.

• 1707 (Aurangzeb): Extended Mughal rule deep into the Deccan, reaching its
largest size.

Class 6

Aurangzeb's Later Reign and Decline of the Mughal Empire

1. Religious Policies

• Aurangzeb issued farmāns (royal edicts) to strengthen imperial authority.

• Ordered the demolition of some temples and religious schools in 1669.

• Temples at Varanasi, Mathura, and Somnath were destroyed.

 • Also targeted some Jain temples, Sikh gurudwaras, Sufis, and Zoroastrians
(Parsis).

2. Final Years

• Became regretful and expressed sadness in letters to his sons.

• I came alone and am going away alone. I know not who I am and what I have
been doing… I have not done well for the country and the people and of the
future there is no hope.

• Spent his last years in the Deccan.

• Faced continuous rebellions and an overextended army.

• Died in 1707 at the age of 88.

3. Decline of the Mughal Empire

• Long wars weakened the empire.

• Religious divisions increased unrest.

• Administrative system became weak.

• After Aurangzeb's death, the Mughal Empire began to fragment.

Administering India

Administration under the Delhi Sultanate

1. Centralised Government

• The Sultan was the supreme political and military authority.

• According to historical accounts, his duties included defending the frontiers of

Islam, maintaining law and order, collecting taxes and ensuring the well being of
his subjects through direct contact with them.

2. Council of Ministers

• Assisted the Sultan in administration.

• Managed different government departments.

3. Iqta System

• Land or territory (iqtas) were given to nobles called iqtadars.

• Iqtadars:
 o Collected taxes.

o Used part of the revenue for administration.

o Sent the remaining revenue to the royal treasury.

o In return they had to maintain troops for the Sultan whenever required.

o This system enabled Sultanate control distant territories efficiently

though it also left the peasantry vulnerable to heavy taxation.

Administration under the Mughals

1. Mughal Administration

• Developed mainly under Akbar.

• Combined strong central control with local participation.

• Administration was divided into different departments.

2. Important Officials

• Diwan – Managed finance and revenue.

• Mir Bakhshi – Supervised military affairs.

• Khan-i-Saman – Managed trade, industries, agriculture, and the royal

household.

• Sadr – Looked after justice, religious affairs, and education.

3. Provincial Administration

• The empire was divided into 12 Subahs (provinces).

• Each province followed a similar administrative system.

• Village self-governing bodies continued to function.

A major innovation of Akbar’s reign was the Mansabdari System.

Features

• Introduced by Akbar.

• Described in Abul Fazl's Ain-i-Akbari.

• Every officer (Mansabdar) was given a Mansab (rank).

• Rank determined the number of soldiers, horses, elephants, and camels to be

maintained.
 • Enabled quick expansion of the Mughal army without maintaining the traditi

• Mansabdars were usually paid through Jagirs (land grants) and were called
Jagirdars.

Other Features

• Akbar promoted religious tolerance.

• However, non-Muslims held fewer high administrative posts.

• Officials of foreign origin were often preferred over Indian Muslims for higher
positions.

• Akbar's trusted finance minister Raja Todar Mal strengthened empire through his
revenue reforms.

• Introduced systematic land surveys.

• Taxes assessed based on:

o Crop type

o Yield

o Market prices

• Improved revenue collection.

• Stabilized the Mughal Empire's finances.

• Delhi Sultanate and Mughal administration influenced later governance.

Class 7

People’s Lives

A Changing Yet Enduring Society

• Period: 13th–17th centuries.

• India witnessed rise and fall of Delhi Sultanate and Mughal dynasties.

• Society remained centered on:

o Agriculture

o Trade

o Craftsmanship

o Community life
 • Strong agrarian economy.

• Guilds (Srenis) and occupational communities (Jatis) promoted production and

trade.

• Credit systems and cooperative trade kept markets active.

• India became one of the world's wealthiest regions.

Building the Economy: Roads, Cities, and Coins

• Delhi Sultans built:

o Roads

o Bridges

o Irrigation canals

o Fortified towns

• Mughals expanded and improved infrastructure.

• Growth of new administrative and trading cities.

• Better transport encouraged movement of goods and people.

Standardised Coinage

• Gold, silver, and copper coins circulated widely creating a standardised system
of exchange.

• Introduced:

o Rupaya (silver coin)

o Dam (copper coin)

• Standardised currency simplified trade.

• Safe roads and stable currency promoted long-distance commerce.

• Connected local markets with international trade.

Agriculture: Backbone of the Economy

• Agriculture was the main occupation.

• Major source of state revenue.

 • Main food crops:

o Rice

o Wheat

o Barley

o Sugarcane

o Pulses

• Important cash crops or non- food crops

o Cotton

o Indigo

o Silk

o Jute

• Supported flourishing craft industries.

• To boost productivity rulers constructed and maintained irrigation systems,

including canals, tanks, and wells. The Persian wheel which lifted water from
wells to fields, became a familiar sight across many regions.

• The availability of water enabled farmers to grow two or even three crops
annually.

• Major challenges:

o High land revenue (taxes)

o Periodic droughts

• Heavy taxation often pushed peasants into debt.

• Some families were forced to give up their land.

Crafts, Industry, and Trade

• India was a major centre of skilled craftsmanship.

• Important products:

o Fine textiles

o Metal tools

o Jewellery
 o Weapons

o Carved stonework

o Decorative objects

• Indian muslin, silk, and cotton textiles gained worldwide fame.

• Shipbuilding expanded to support overseas trade.

• Major ports:

o Calicut (Kozhikode)

o Surat

o Mangalore

o Masulipatnam

o Hooghly

• Main exports:

o Textiles

o Spices

o Indigo

• Main imports:

o Horses

o Metals

o Silk

o Luxury goods

• Trade partners:

o Arabia

o Persia

o Central Asia

o Europe

• Exports exceeded imports, bringing wealth into India.

• Prominent merchant groups:

o Marwaris
 o Chettiars

• Managed extensive trade networks.

• Continued trade even during wars and political instability.

The Hundi System: Early Banking

• Hundi = Written order directing one person to pay another a certain sum of
money.

• Allowed merchants to transfer money safely.

• Reduced risk of robbery and confiscation.

• Worked across kingdoms and beyond India's borders.

• Early banking system based on:

o Credit

o Trust

o Reputation

Temples as Economic and Cultural Centres

• Temples served as religious, social, and economic hubs.

• Kings and wealthy patrons donated:

o Land

o Gold

o Other resources

• Temple authorities:

o Built irrigation tanks

o Maintained roads

o Supported craftsmen

o Financed local trade

Markets often developed around temple complexes attracting pilgrims, traders, and
artisans. In this way temples fostered self-sustaining local economies that linked
spirituality with commerce.
Inequalities and hardships

• Wealth was unevenly distributed.

• Upper classes (rulers, nobles, landlords, merchants) lived comfortably.

• Peasants and labourers faced difficult living conditions.

• Heavy taxes reduced farmers' earnings.

• Many became landless labourers or bonded workers, especially during famines.

• Craftspeople and manual workers also suffered due to wars and increased
taxes.

• Despite these challenges, Indian society demonstrated remarkable resilience

adapting to change while preserving its traditions and skills.

Communities and coexistence

• People of different faiths lived and worked together:

o Hindus
o Muslims
o Jains
o Sikhs
o Others
• Economic cooperation often overcame religious differences.
• Shared language, customs, and trade promoted peaceful coexistence.
• Communities maintained harmony for centuries.

 Conflicts occasionally occurred over sacred sites.

 Everyday cooperation remained strong.

 Festivals, fairs, and village gatherings encouraged:

• Cultural exchange

• Community participation

• Shared traditions

• Peaceful coexistence

Cultural Resilience and Shared Heritage

• Political changes did not weaken India's cultural traditions.

• People preserved and renewed their:

o Artistic traditions
 o Literary heritage

o Spiritual practices

• Music, painting, temple art, and folk performances flourished.

• Received support from both rulers and local communities.

• Indian society adapted to change while preserving its heritage.

• Mughal Empire excelled in wealth, art, and administration.

• Large empire became difficult to govern.
• Increasing taxation created public dissatisfaction.
• Local grievances and regional ambitions weakened imperial authority.
• Peasants, tribes, and regional rulers asserted independence.
• Resistance movements marked the gradual decline of the Mughal Empire.
• Reshaped India's political landscape.

Resistance to the Mughals

• Many local rulers and communities opposed Mughal expansion.

• Resistance aimed to protect:
o Independence
o Traditions
o Local ways of life
• Struggles occurred across different regions.
• Gradually weakened Mughal authority.
• Led to the rise of regional powers.

Major Kingdoms and Communities that Resisted the Mughals

• Hoysalas
• Gajapati Kingdom
• Eastern Ganga Kingdom
• Bahmani Kingdom
• Sikhs
• Rajputs
• Ahoms

Peasant and Tribal Rebellions

• Revolts were led not only by kings but also by ordinary people.
• Peasants and tribal communities resisted oppression.
• Protested against:
o Harsh rule
o Exploitation
o Excessive taxation

 Among them were the Jat peasants lived in:

 • Western Uttar Pradesh
• Haryana
• Eastern Rajasthan

 Rebelled in the 17th century against oppressive Mughal officers.

 Main cause: Excessive taxes.

 Mughal army retaliated after an officer was killed.

 Nearly 20,000 Jat fighters resisted the Mughal forces.

 Though the rebellion was suppressed, it became a symbol of resistance against

injustice.

 Tribal communities resisted Mughal expansion.

 Major tribes included:

• Bhils
• Gonds
• Santhals
• Kochs

 Lived mainly in hilly and forest regions.

 Opposed land seizure and heavy taxation.

 Many remote tribes retained their independence.

Rani Durgavati – The Brave Queen of the Gonds

• Queen of the Garha Kingdom in central India.

• Ruled wisely and ensured peace and prosperity.

• Maintained an army of:

o 20,000 soldiers

o 1,000 elephants

• Known for courage, leadership, and good governance.

• In 1564, Akbar's Mughal forces invaded Garha Kingdom.

• Though greatly outnumbered, she refused to surrender.

• Personally led her army in battle.

 • When seriously wounded, chose death over [Link] took her own life

• Became a lasting symbol of courage, sacrifice, and resistance.

Rajput Pride and Resistance

• In the northwest India Rajputs were determined defenders of their

independence.

• Resisted both the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire.

• Strongholds of Rajput power:

o Mewar

o Marwar

• Inspired by bravery and loyalty to their homeland.

• Maharana Pratap of Mewar refused Mughal rule.

• Fought Akbar's forces in the Battle of Haldighati (1576).

• Though defeated, he escaped and continued resistance.

• Used guerrilla warfare in the Aravalli hills.

• Supported by the Bhil tribes.

• Remembered as a symbol of Rajput courage and patriotism

Rajput Resistance under Aurangzeb

• During Aurangzeb's reign, Rajput nobles continued resisting Mughal rule.

• Durga Das Rathore of Marwar led the struggle for independence.

• Mughal control remained limited in many parts of Rajasthan.

• Bhils supported the Rajputs with their skills and bravery.

The Ahoms of Assam

• Ruled the Brahmaputra Valley in Assam.

• Migrated from present-day Myanmar centuries earlier.

• Established a strong and independent kingdom.

• Introduced the Paik System. Under this system

o Every able-bodied man served the state.

o Military or labour service was exchanged for land.

 o Helped maintain public works and a strong army.

Ahom Resistance to the Mughals

• Used forests, hills, and rivers for defense.

• Mughal forces invaded during Aurangzeb's reign.

• Mughals briefly captured Garhgaon, the Ahom capital.

• Ahoms launched a successful counterattack.

• In the Battle of Saraighat (1671)

• Fought on the Brahmaputra River.

• Led by Lachit Borphukan.

• Small Ahom navy defeated the Mughal fleet.

• Preserved Assam's independence for generations.

• One of India's greatest victories against the Mughals.

Rise of the Sikhs

• Guru Nanak founded Sikhism in 15th-century Punjab.

• Preached:

o Equality

o Compassion

o Devotion to one God (Ik Onkar)

o His followers known as Sikhs

• Sikh community gradually became a strong socio-political force.

• Overtime some Mughal rulers viewed Sikh teachings with suspicion.

• When emperor Jahangir discovered that Guru Arjan the fifth Guru had supported
his rebellious son, he ordered Guru’s execution.

• Guru Hargobind formed a Sikh army for protection.

• Guru Tegh Bahadur defended religious freedom.

• Refused forced conversion under Aurangzeb.

• Chose martyrdom rather than abandon his principles.

 • He was executed in Chandni Chowk Delhi.

• Guru Gobind Singh was the tenth Sikh Guru.

• Founded the Khalsa in 1699.

• Khalsa was a brotherhood of saint-soldiers.

• Main ideals:

o Justice

o Equality

o Protection of faith

• Continued resistance against Mughal oppression.

• Strengthened Sikh unity and identity.

• In later years various Sikh confederacies emerged, under Maharaja Ranjit Singh

• United various Sikh confederacies.

• Established the Sikh Empire in the early 19th century.

• Known as the Sher-e-Punjab (Lion of Punjab).

• Made Lahore his capital.

• Built a strong, disciplined army of Sikhs and non-Sikhs.

• Promoted:

o Religious tolerance

o Good administration

o Trade

o Art and architecture

• Last major independent Indian ruler before British dominance.

Voices of Courage and Freedom

• Many groups resisted Mughal rule:

o Jat peasants

o Tribal warriors

o Rani Durgavati
 o Maharana Pratap

o Lachit Borphukan

o Sikh Gurus

• Their resistance inspired future generations.

• Promoted ideals of:

o Courage

o Freedom

o Justice

o Self-rule

• Resistance movements gradually weakened the Mughal Empire.

• Contributed to the empire's decline.

• Encouraged the rise of regional powers.

• Helped shape a more diverse and dynamic India.

• Left a lasting legacy of courage, dignity, and independence.

Multiple Choice Questions

(a) The Delhi Sultanate was established after the defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan.
Answer: (iii) Prithviraj Chauhan

(b) Who introduced token currency during the Delhi Sultanate?

Answer: (ii) Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq

(c) The Vijayanagara Empire reached its peak under Krishnadevaraya.

Answer: (iii) Krishnadevaraya

(d) The first Battle of Panipat in 1526 was fought between Babur and Ibrahim Lodi.
Answer: (ii) Babur and Ibrahim Lodi

(e) Who was responsible for the revenue reforms under Akbar?
Answer: (ii) Raja Todar Mal

Fill in the Blanks

(a) The medieval period in India generally spans from the 7th to the 17th centuries.

(b) Ala-ud-din Khilji's general who led campaigns into southern India was Malik Kafur.

(c) Timur invaded India in the year 1398 CE.

(d) The Eastern Ganga king who commissioned the Sun Temple at Konark was
Narasimhadeva I.

Unscramble the Letters

Help Box:

• conavagirjaa → Vijayanagara

• kbara → Akbar

• sahlak → Khalsa

• evsla → Slave

• prepcoc → Copper

(a) The Mamluk dynasty is also called the Slave dynasty.

(b) Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq's token currency experiment used Copper coins.

(c) Vijayanagara's capital was Vijayanagara.

(d) The Mughal emperor who abolished jizya was Akbar.

(e) Guru Gobind Singh founded the Khalsa in 1699

State Whether the Following Statements are True or False

(a) Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq successfully shifted the capital permanently to
Daulatabad.
Answer: False

(b) The Delhi Sultanate never faced resistance from regional kingdoms.
Answer: False

(c) The Qutub Minar was completed during the Tughlaq dynasty.
Answer: False (It was completed during the Slave/Mamluk dynasty under Iltutmish.)

(d) The Persian wheel was used to lift water for irrigation in medieval India.
Answer: True

(e) Aurangzeb reimposed the jizya tax on non-Muslims.

Answer: True

Match the Following

Column A Column B

(a) Battle of Saraighat (iv) Commander Lachit Borphukan

(b) Hemu (v) Military commander and wazir under the Sur rulers

(c) Mansabdari System (ii) Military ranking and administration under Mughals

(d) Qutub Minar (iii) Qutub-ud-din Aibak

(e) Babur (i) Founder of Mughal Empire

Very Short Answer Type Questions

(a) Who commissioned the Sun Temple at Konark?

Answer: King Narasimhadeva I

(b) Which Mughal emperor introduced the Mansabdari system?

Answer: Akbar

(c) Which battle marked the end of the Vijayanagara Empire?

Answer: Battle of Talikota (1565)

(d) Who defeated Hemu at the Second Battle of Panipat?

Answer: Akbar (under the leadership of Bairam Khan)

(e) What tax was levied on non-Muslims during the Sultanate and Aurangzeb's rule?
Answer: Jizya

Short Answer Type Questions

(a) How did Ala-ud-din Khilji expand the Sultanate's territories?

He expanded the Sultanate through military conquests, defeated Rajput kingdoms, and
sent Malik Kafur to conquer parts of South India.

(b) Describe one major administrative experiment of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq.

He introduced token currency made of copper and brass instead of silver. The
experiment failed because people produced counterfeit coins.

(c) Explain the significance of the Grand Trunk Road.

The Grand Trunk Road improved trade, communication, administration, and movement
of armies across northern India.

(d) Describe the purpose of the iqta system under the Delhi Sultanate.

The iqta system granted land (iqtas) to officials in return for collecting revenue and
maintaining law, order, and troops.

(e) How did the Hundi system help trade in medieval India?

The Hundi was a bill of exchange that allowed merchants to transfer money safely
without carrying cash, making long-distance trade easier.

Long Answer Type Questions

(a) Explain the rise and fall of the Delhi Sultanate, highlighting its challenges and
achievements.

• Established in 1206 by Qutub-ud-din Aibak.

• Expanded under rulers like Iltutmish, Ala-ud-din Khilji, and Muhammad-bin-

Tughlaq.

• Achievements included efficient administration, promotion of trade,

construction of monuments, and cultural development.

• Challenges included Mongol invasions, rebellions, weak rulers, and Timur's

invasion.

• It declined and ended in 1526 after Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First
Battle of Panipat.

(b) Describe Timur's invasion of India and its consequences.

• Timur invaded India in 1398 CE.

• He defeated Sultan Nasir-ud-din Mahmud Tughlaq and captured Delhi.

• Delhi was heavily looted, and thousands of people were killed.

• The invasion weakened the Delhi Sultanate and led to political instability.
(c) How did Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq's policies affect the empire and its people?

• Shifted the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad.

• Introduced token currency.

• Increased taxes in the Doab region.

• Most policies failed, causing hardship, revolts, and weakening the Sultanate.

(d) Describe the contribution and resistance of Rani Durgavati against the Mughals.

• Rani Durgavati ruled the Gond kingdom wisely.

• She defended her kingdom against Mughal forces led by Asaf Khan.

• She fought bravely and chose death over surrender in 1564.

• She is remembered as a symbol of courage and patriotism.

(e) Explain how local rulers, tribes, and communities resisted the Mughal Empire.

• Maharana Pratap resisted Akbar in Mewar.

• Ahoms under Lachit Borphukan defeated the Mughals at the Battle of

Saraighat.

• Marathas under Shivaji challenged Mughal rule.

• Jats, Sikhs, Satnamis, and tribal groups also resisted Mughal authority.

• Assertion and Reason

• Assertion (A): Timur's invasion of Delhi in 1398 caused massive destruction. (True)
• Reason (R): He aimed to plunder India's wealth and punish those whom he
considered infidels. (True)
• Correct Answer: (a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of
A.