MOD1

The earth pressure is classified into-At rest Earth

pressure If the wall is restrained from moving, the
lateral earth pressure on the wall at any depth is called
the at-rest earth pressure. (Figure a) .Active earth
pressure If the wall tilt away from the soil retained.
With sufficient wall tile, a triangular soil wedge behind
the wall will fail. The lateral pressure for this condition is
referred to as active earth pressure. (Figure b). Passive
Earth pressure If the wall pushed into the soil retained.
With sufficient wall movement, a soil wedge will fail.
The lateral pressure for this condition is referred to as
passive earth pressure. (Figure c)

-Rankine’s Earth Pressure Theory The Assumption

of the theory are: 1. The soil mass is homogenous and
semi-infinite 2. Soil is dry and Cohesion less 3. Ground
surface is plane (Horizontal or Inclined) 4. Back of
retaining wall is smooth and vertical 5. The soil is in a
state of plastic equilibrium.
Coulomb’s Wedge Theory The assumptions are 1. The
backfill is homogenous and isotropic 2. The backfill is
dry and cohesion less 3. The slip surface is plane 4. The
wall surface is rough 5. The soil wedge act as a rigid
body.
Functions of foundations 1. Reduction of Load Intensity
Foundations distribute the loads of the super structure,
to a larger area so that the intensity of the load at its
base (i.e., total load divided by the total area) does not
exceed the safe bearing capacity of the sub-soil. 2. Even
distribution of load Foundation distributes the non-
uniform load of super structure evenly to the sub-soil.
For example, two columns carrying unequal loads can
have a combined footing which may transmit the load to
sub-soil evenly with uniform soil pressure. Due to this,
unequal differential settlements are minimized. 3.
Provision of level surface Foundation provides levelled
and hard surface over which the superstructure can be
built. 4. Lateral stability Foundation anchors the super-
structure to the ground, thus imparting lateral stability
to the super-structure. The stability of the building,
against sliding and overturning due to horizontal forces
(such as wind, earthquake etc.) is increased due to
foundation. 5. Safety against undermining Foundation
provides the structural safety against undermining or
scouring due to burrowing animals and flood water. 6.
Protection against soil movements Special foundation
measures prevent or minimize the distress or cracks in
the super-structure due to expansion or contraction of
the sub-soil because of moisture movements in some
problematic soils.
Selection of type of foundation-
1. Loads of Structure • Loading conditions coming from
the structure is one of the factors that govern
foundation selection. It is influenced by type of building,
type of construction material, environmental factors,
earthquake susceptibility. 2. Soil Bearing Capacity • Soil
bearing capacity is one of the most crucial criteria that
affect the selection of the appropriate type of
foundation. 3. Soil Types • There are different types of
soil like sandy soil, loose soil, clayey soil, and expansive
soils. The bearing capacity is the ability of soil to safely
support structural loads without suffering shear failure
and intolerable settlement. • Raft/Mat foundation is the
best foundation type to be built on clay soil, and ribs
and beams can be incorporated into it to increase its
stiffness. 4. Ease of Construction • The choice of
foundation should be made keeping in mind the ease
with which it can be executed/constructed at the site.
The construction of different types of foundation
requires labour of different skillset and different level of
skills. 5. Water Table Level • If the groundwater table is
located below the formation level of the foundation,
then a shallow footing like isolated or combined footing
should be chosen. Moreover, for higher water table,
raft/mat footing should be proposed. 6. Adjoining
Structure/Water Bodies/Slopes • When foundation of
the neighbouring structure is very close the foundation
to be construction, it may influence the choice and the
safety of the adjoining structure. • Factors such as
closeness to a river, lake, natural drain, or vicinity to a
slope should be taken in counting. 7. Natural Disaster
and Extreme Weather • If the area has a history of
severe natural events or extreme weather, then these
parameters should be selected taken these parameters
into considerations. The past record or data of natural
disasters and extreme weather should be employed as a
base for foundation selection. 8. Economic Design •
When there are number of feasible foundation choices
for the given project site, economical factor may
influence the selection of the foundation. Nonetheless,
choosing an economical foundation should not
compromise the safety, workmanship, strength, and
durability of the foundation.
Different types of shallow foundations-1) Strip Footing
A strip footing is provided for a load-bearing wall. A strip
footing is also provided for a row of columns which are
so closely spaced that their spread footings overlap or
nearly touch each other. In such a case, it is more
economical to provide a strip footing than to provide a
number of spread footings in one line. A strip footing is

also known as continuous footing.

2) Spread or Isolated Footing or Individual Footing A
spread footing also called as isolated footing, pad
footing and individual footing is provided to support an
individual column. A spread footing is circular, square or
rectangular slab of uniform thickness. Sometimes, it is
stepped or slopped to spread the load over a large area.
3) Combined Footing A combined footing supports two
columns. It is used when the two columns are so close
to each other that their individual footings would
overlap. A combined footing is also provided when the
property line is so close to one column that a spread
footing would be eccentrically loaded when kept
entirely within the property line. By combining it with
that of an interior column, the load is evenly distributed.
A combined footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal.

4) Strap or Cantilever Footing A strap (or cantilever)

footing consists of two isolated footings connected with
a structural strap or a lever. The strap connects the two
footings such that they behave as one unit. The strap is
designed as a rigid beam. The individual footings are so
designed that their combined line of action passes
through the resultant of the total load.

5) Mat or Raft Foundations A mat or raft foundation is a

large slab supporting a number of columns and walls
under the entire structure or a large part of the
structure. A mat is required when the allowable soil
pressure is low or where the columns and walls are so
close that individual footings would overlap or nearly
touch each other.
Advantages of Shallow Foundation-1) Shallow
foundation is convenient for foundations having depth is
equal to or less than the foundation width. 2) It is used
if the bearing capacity of soil is high at shallow depth. 3)
For compressive soils, it helps to reduce settlement. 4) It
requires less excavation hence reducing the labour cost
of excavation work. 5) Construction of shallow
foundations is simple as the depth involved in placing
the foundation is less. 6) Equipment required for the
construction of a shallow foundation is simple and also
less costly. 7) A shallow foundation can be constructed
in a short time
Disadvantages of Shallow Foundations-1) It cannot be
used, if weight of structure is high and load of the
structure is distributed unequally. 2) It cannot be used,
if the bearing capacity of top surface soil is less. 3) If
sub-soil water level is high and it is uneconomical to
pump out the water from the hole or canal. 4) If there is
a chance of scouring as the structure is near sea or river
shallow foundation cannot be used. 5) There is a chance
of scouring if the structure is near a river or sea. A
shallow foundation cannot be used at such places. 6)
These foundations should be built below the frost
line/freezing line. 7) Shallow foundations generally
require supervision after a couple of decades in order to
counteract any soil movement that may have taken
place.
MOD2

Assumptions in Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Theory. 1.

Depth of foundation is shallow; less than or equal to its
width. 2. Base of the footing is rough. 3. Soil above
bottom of foundation has no shear strength; it is only a
surcharge load against the overturning load 4. Surcharge
up to the base of footing is considered. 5. Load applied
is vertical and uniformly distributed. 6. The soil is
homogenous and isotropic. 7. The footing is long and
L/B ratio is infinite. 8. The shear strength of the soil is
governed by Mohr-Coulomb equation.
Factors affecting bearing capacity 1. Soil strength
Bearing capacity of cohesionless soil and mixed soil
increases unproportionally with the increase of in the
effective friction angle. However, bearing capacity of
cohesive soil varies linearly with the soil cohesion
provided that the effective friction angle is zero. 2.
Foundation Width • Foundation width proportional to
bearing capacity of cohesionless soil. • Bearing capacity
of cohesive soil of constant shear strength and infinite
depth is independent of foundation width. 3.
Foundation Depth • The greater the bearing capacity
the deeper the foundation. 4. Soil Weight and Surcharge
• The contribution of subsurface and surcharge soil,
which are influenced by water table, to the bearing
capacity cannot be ignored. • The water table should
not be above the base of the foundation to avoid
construction, seepage, and uplift problems. • If the
water table is below the depth of the failure surface,
then it has no influence on the bearing capacity. 5.
Spacing Between Foundations • Minimum spacing
between footings, which 1.5 times foundation width,
during the design of foundation in order to avoid
reduction in bearing capacity. 6. Earthquake and
Dynamic Motion • Liquefaction reduces effective stress
to zero and causes gross differential settlement of
structures and loss of bearing capacity. 7. Frost Action •
Reduces bearing capacity 8. Subsurface Voids • Bearing
capacity of soil decreases due to subsurface voids.
Types of Bearing Capacity Failures/ Failure mechanisms
General Shear Failure • General shear failure generally
occurs in the low compressible soil i.e., dense sand or
stiff clay • The effect of passive pressure • Occurs in soil
with relative density ID > 65 % • Occurs in soil with
angle of shearing resistance Φ > 360 • Occurs in soil
with void ratio e < 0.55 • There is considerable
heaving/bulging on the surface • The stress strain curve
is brittle • Failure load can be determined from the
load-settlement curve • Foundation failed by tilting in
general shear failure.

Local shear failure • It is having the properties between

GSF and PSF • Relative density between 30% and 60% •
Occurs in medium dense sand or on a clay of medium
consistency • A slight heaving occurs on ground surface
TRACE KTU 3 • No well-defined failure patterns • Failure
load cannot be determined from the load-settlement
curve • Occurs in soil when Φ 0.75

Punching shear failure • Occurs in loose sands, clay and

high compressible soil • Footing will shift downward •
No heaving/bulging on the surface occurs • Occurs in
soil with relative density is less than 30 % • Occurs in
soil with angle of shearing resistance ideally can be Φ
=210 • No failure pattern seen on adjacent side of
footing • The failure load is difficult to determine from
the load settlement curve • Mainly occurs in deep
foundation
Effect of water table in bearing capacity
qu=cNc+γDNq+0.5γBNγ
Case 1: If water table is below B distance from the
bottom of footing - No effect of water table
Case 2: If water table is x distance below the bottom of
footing
qu=cNc+γDNq+0.5(γx+ γsub(B-x)) Nγ
Case 3: Water table at the level of footing
qu=cNc+γDNq+0.5γsubBNγ
Case 4: If water table is x distance below the ground
surface
qu=cNc+[γx+γsub(D-x)] Nq+0.5(γx+ γsubBNγ)
Case 5: If water table is at ground surface
qu=cNc+γsubDNq+0.5γsubBNγ

MOD3
Causes of settlement-1. Weak Bearing Soils • Some
soils are simply not capable of supporting the weight or
bearing pressure exerted by a building's foundation. As
a result, the footings press or sink into the soft soils,
similar in theory to how a person standing in the mud
sinks into soft, wet clay. 2. Poor Compaction •
Placement of fill soils is common practice in the
development of both commercial and residential
subdivisions. • In general, before a foundation can be
constructed on a plot, hilltops are cut down and valleys
are filled in order to create buildable lots. 3. Changes in
Moisture Content • Extreme changes in moisture
content within foundation soils can result in damaging
settlement. • Soils with high clay contents also have a
tendency to shrink with loss of moisture. As clay soils
dry out, they shrink or contract, resulting in a general
decrease in soil volume. 4. Maturing Trees and
Vegetation • Maturing trees, bushes and other
vegetation in close proximity to a home or building are a
common cause of settlement. As trees and other
vegetation mature, their demand for water also grows. •
The root systems continually expand and can draw
moisture from the soil beneath the foundation. 5. Soil
Consolidation • Consolidation occurs when the weight
of a structure or newly-placed fill soils compress lower,
weak clayey soils. The applied load forces water out of
the clay soils, allowing the individual soil particles to
become more densely spaced. • Consolidation results in
downward movement or settlement of overlying
structures.
Allowable settlement and Maximum settlement • The
allowable settlement is defined as the acceptable
amount of settlement of the structure. • The settlement
of a foundation that is acceptable both structural and
aesthetic point of view is called allowable settlement
which generally includes a factor of safety. • The
allowable maximum settlement depends upon 1. The
type of soil 2. Type of foundation 3. The structural
framing system 4. Type of construction 5. Use of
construction • The maximum settlement ranging from
20mm to 300 mm is generally permitted to various
structures. • Theoretically no damage is done to the
superstructure if the soil settles uniformly. • However,
settlements exceeding 150 mm may cause trouble in
utilities such as water pipeline, severs, telephone lines
and also in access from street.
Field Load Test/Plate load test • The plate load test is a
field test, which is performed to determine the ultimate
bearing capacity of the soil and the probable settlement
under a given load. • This test is very popular for the
selection and design of the shallow foundation.
Procedure 1. Excavate test pit up to the desired depth.
The pit size should be at least 5 times the size of the test
plate (Bp). 2. At the centre of the pit, a small hole or
depression is created. The size of the hole is the same as
the size of the steel plate. The bottom level of the hole
should correspond to the level of the actual foundation.
The depth of the hole is created such that the ratio of
the depth to width of the hole is equal to the ratio of
the actual depth to the actual width of the foundation.
3. A mild steel plate is used as a load-bearing plate
whose thickness should be at least 25 mm thickness and
size may vary from 300 mm to 750 mm. The plate can
be square or circular. Generally, a square plate is used
for square footing and a circular plate is used for circular
footing. 4. A column is placed at the centre of the plate.
The load is transferred to the plate through the centrally
placed column. 5. The load can be transferred to the
column either by gravity loading method or by truss
method. 6. For gravity loading method a platform is
constructed over the column and load is applied to the
platform by means of sandbags or any other dead loads.
The hydraulic jack is placed in between column and
loading platform for the application of gradual loading.
This type of loading is called reaction loading. 7. At least
two dial gauges should be placed at diagonal corners of
the plate to record the settlement. The gauges are
placed on a platform so that it does not settle with the
plate. 8. Apply seating load of .7 T/m2 and release
before the actual loading starts. 9. The initial readings
are noted. 10. The load is then applied through the
hydraulic jack and increased gradually. The increment is
generally one-fifth of the expected safe bearing capacity
or one-tenth of the ultimate bearing capacity or any
other smaller value. The applied load is noted from the
pressure gauge. 11. The settlement is observed for each
increment and from dial gauge. After increasing the
loadsettlement should be observed after 1, 4, 10, 20,
40, and 60 minutes and then at hourly intervals until the
rate of settlement is less than .02 mm per hour. The
readings are noted in tabular form. 12. After completing
the collection of data for a particular loading, the next
load increment is applied and readings are noted under
new load. This increment and data collection is repeated
until the maximum load is applied. The maximum load is
generally 1.5 times the expected ultimate load or 3
times of the expected allowable bearing pressure.
Advantages of Plate Load Test • Being able to
understand the foundation behaviour under loading
conditions. • Evaluation of bearing capacity of soil at a
certain depth and prediction of settlement for a certain
load. • Shallow foundation can be calculated
considering the allowable bearing capacity, which can
be predicted from the plate load test. • Time and cost-
efficient. • Easy to perform. • Reliable. Limitations of
Plate Load Test • The test predicts the behaviour of soil
located at a depth less than twice the depth of the
width of the bearing plate. But in practical condition,
the influence zone of a foundation is up to a much
greater depth. • The plate load test is performed for a
short time period, so it cannot predict the settlement
for a longer period, especially for cohesive soil. • The
bearing capacity for clayey soil is almost similar to the
bearing capacity obtained from the plate load test, but
in the case of dense sandy soil, the plate load test
provides a conservative value. The actual capacity
obtained for dense sandy soil is higher than the results
from the plate load test. • The settlement for losing
sandy soil is usually greater than the settlement
indicated by the plate bearing test.
Principles of design of raft foundation • Calculation
methods for mat foundation design shall be based on
the latest version of applicable codes. • The depth of
mat foundation must satisfy shear requirements. • A
uniform thickness can be used for raft foundation if
columns are equally spaced and the loads are not very
heavy. • A minimum cover of 50 mm is required for mat
foundation. The above reinforcement cover may be
increased based on harmful chemicals and minerals in
the soil and fluctuations of water table when it is very
near to the foundation. • Accurate estimations of all
types of loads, moments, and forces are needed for the
present as well as for future expansion. • Foundation
structures should be able to sustain the applied loads,
moments, forces, and induced reactions without
exceeding the safe bearing capacity of the soil. • The
settlement of the structure should be as uniform as
possible and it should be within the tolerable limits. •
Mat foundation should provide adequate safety for
maintaining the stability of structure. • The raft
foundation should be economical.
Floating Raft foundations • A Floating Foundation, also
known as Balancing Raft is a type of foundation where
the weight of the building is approximately equal to the
full weight of the soil and water removed from the site
of the building prior to construction. Principle of
Floating Foundation The main principle of floating
foundation is to balance the weight of removed soil by a
structure of same weight which causes zero settlement
to the structure. So, this foundation is also called as
balancing raft foundation.
Bearing capacity equations for raft on clay (Skempton’s
formula) In cohesive soil the net ultimate beating
capacity on the basis of shear failure criteria is
determined by Skempton’s equation, which is:

Where, Nc is the bearing capacity factor for a strip

footing at surface and is taken as 5. Cu is the undrained
shear strength, Df, B and L are depth, width and length
of footing respectively. The safe bearing capacity is

given by:
Where, F is the factor of safety. The factor of safety
should neither be less than 3 for normal loading
condition and 2 for extreme loading condition.
Design of Combined footing • Combined footings are
constructed for two or more columns when they are
close to each other and their foundations overlap. •
Whenever two or more columns in a straight line are
carried on a single spread footing, it is called a
combined footing. Isolated footings for each column are
generally the economical. • Combined footings are
provided only when it is absolutely necessary, as ➢
When two columns are close together, causing overlap
of adjacent isolated footings ➢ Where soil bearing
capacity is low, causing overlap of adjacent isolated
footings ➢ Proximity of building line or existing building
or sewer, adjacent to a building column.
MOD4
CLASSIFICATION OF PILES 1. Based on material used •
Timber • Steel • Concrete • Composite 2. Based on load
transfer • End bearing piles • Friction piles • Combined
end bearing and friction piles 3. Based on method of
installation • Driven piles/Displacement piles – Driven
precast piles – Driven cast-in-situ piles • Bored
Piles/Non displacement piles – Bored cast-in-situ piles –
Bored precast piles 4. Based on purpose • Compression
piles – End bearing piles – Friction piles • Tension or
uplift piles • Under-ream piles • Laterally loaded piles –
vertical – Inclined (batter piles) • Anchor piles
Uses of Piles/Necessity • Carry vertical compressive
loads • Resist uplift or tensile forces • Resist horizontal/
inclined loads • Ground improvement • Provide
anchorage against • Horizontal pull • Increase the
stability of tall structures • Increase the stability if
superstructure load is high and non-uniform. • If highly
compressible soil is present at shallow depth.
PILE LOAD TEST Pile load test is conducted to • To
determine the load carrying capacity of pile • To
determine the settlement of pile .Test Setup • Test
setups consist of two anchor pile with a reaction girder
at the top • The test pit should be at least 3B or 2.5 m
clear from the anchor piles • The test is conducted after
a period of 3 days after installation of the test pile in
sandy soils, and after a period of one month after the
installation of the test pile in silts and soft days. • Load
is applied through hydraulic jack • Load applied as 20 %
increment of allowable load • Settlement is recorded
with three dial gauges • The load settlement curve is
shown below • As per IS 2911, the allowable load is the
least of the below two. • The allowable load = ½ the
load at the settlement of 10 % pile diameter • The
allowable load = 2/3 the load at a settlement of 12 mm

NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTION • When the soil layer

surrounding the pile settles more than the pile, a
downward drag occurs on the pile. This downward drag
imposes a downward load on the pile. It is called
negative skin friction • Negative skin friction Qnsf
reduces the load carrying capacity of pile.

In Cohesive Soil The negative skin friction in cohesive

soil, Qnsf 𝑄𝑛𝑠𝑓 = 𝑐𝐴𝑛𝑠
In cohesionless soil The negative skin friction in
cohesionless soil, 𝑄𝑛𝑠𝑓
𝑄𝑛𝑠𝑓 = 1/2 𝑘γ𝐿𝑛𝐴𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑛δ
COMPONENTS OF WELL FOUNDATION ➢ Cutting edge:
It facilitate the downward movement of well for sinking
➢ Curb: tapered portion of the well above the cutting
edge ➢ Steining: Wall of the well. It is made of brick
masonry, stone masonry or reinforced concrete ➢
Bottom Plug: Formed by concreting at the bottom. It
serves as the base of the well ➢ Top Plug: Formed by
concreting at the top ➢ Well cap: it is used to transfer
the load from the superstructure to the well.

Tilt and Shift is the main problem during well sinking

Well Sinking Through Stiff Clay Strata: • If a stiff clay
layer is encountered during the well sinking, a very
tough and challenging situation is faced. • The well
becomes stationary and does not move at all. • The well
may start tilting due to the action of horizontal water
current force. • It may lead to an expensive and time-
consuming affair for attempting to make the well
straight and vertical. Sinking of Well Through Boulder
Strata: • If Boulders are lying in loose condition, then by
standard grabbing and chiselling is suitable. • If they are
cemented but not very firmly, then by underwater
blasting is effective by sending experienced divers. • If
they are cemented very firmly, pneumatic sinking may
have resorted to Alternatively. • Drilling through holes
kept in steining and bottom plug and by anchoring
Rectifying Methods for well sinking Rectifying methods
for Rectification of shifting and tilting problems in well
foundations are as follows: ➢ Eccentric loading-• The
well tilt can be rectified by placing eccentric loading on
the higher side. Higher side is nothing but the opposite
side of tilt or lower side. • A loading platform is
constructed on the higher side and load is placed on it.
• This eccentric load will increase downward pressure
on higher side and correct the tilt. ➢ Excavation on
higher side-• When well is tilted to one side, excavation
should be increased on the other side which is opposite
to tilted side. • This technique is useful only in the initial
stages of well sinking. ➢ Water jetting-• Water jetting
on external surface of well on the higher side is another
remedial measure for rectifying tilt. • When water jet is
forced towards surface of well, the friction between soil
and well surface gets reduced and the higher side of
well becomes lowered to make well vertical ➢ Pulling
the well-• The well can be pulled towards higher side
using steel ropes. • One or more steel ropes are wound
around the well with wooden sleepers packed in
between well and ropes to prevent damage to the well
steining by distributing load over to larger area of
steining. ➢ Using hydraulic jacks-• Neighbor vertical
well foundations or suitable arrangements made will
give support to the jack system. • Care should be taken
while pushing the well otherwise the well may shift ➢
Using struts-By providing struts as supports on the
lower side or tilted side of well, further tilting can be
prevented. Wooden sleepers are provided between
struts and well steining to prevent damage to well
steining and to distribute pressure to larger area. ➢
Excavation under cutting edge-• This technique is used
for hard strata soils. In this method, the well is de-
watered first and open excavation is carried out exactly
under the cutting edge on the higher side. • If de-
watering is not possible, soil strata is loosened using
suitable equipment with the help of professional divers.
➢ Wood sleeper under cutting edge-• If tilting towards
lower side is increasing, then wooden sleepers are
placed under cutting edge on the lower side to control
the tilting temporarily. • When well is corrected to
vertical level, these sleepers can be removed.

MOD5

The objectives of a soil investigation program: 1.

Selection of the type and the depth of foundation
suitable for a given structure. 2. Evaluation of the load-
bearing capacity of the foundation. 3. Estimation of the
probable settlement of a structure. 4. Determination of
potential foundation problems (for example, expansive
soil, collapsible soil, sanitary landfill, and so on). 5.
Establishment of ground water table. 6. Prediction of
lateral earth pressure for structures like retaining walls,
sheet pile bulkheads, and braced cuts. 7. Establishment
of suitable construction methods 8. Analysis of safety of
existing structures and suggest remedial measures.
Guidelines for choosing spacing and depth of borings
[I.S. guidelines only]
LATERAL EXTENT/Spacing OF EXPLORATION • Lateral
extent and spacing of exploration and boring hole
depend on the variation of soil strata in the horizontal
direction. • For small and less important Building: One
bore hole in the center is enough • For compact
Building covering an area of about 4 hectares: 5 bore
holes, one at the center and 4 at the corners

• For large multi-story building: Bore hole at all corners

and also at important locations. • The spacing between
the bore holes are generally kept between 10 to 30 m
DEPTH OF EXPLORATION • Depth of exploration
depends on soil profile, influence zone, type of structure
and intensity of loading. • Depth of exploration for
square footing = 1.5 times the width of the footing
• Depth of exploration for Strip footing = 3 times the
width of the footing • Depth of exploration for Closely
spaced footing = 1.5 times the width of the entire
loaded area • Depth of exploration for Pile foundation
For Bearing piles • Depth of exploration = 1.5 times the
width of the pile group For Friction piles • Depth of
exploration = 1.5 times the width of the pile group
measured from lower third point.
Methods of subsurface exploration Excavation Methods
are 1. Open excavation: • Open Excavation is made to
inspect the soil. • Open pits and trenches are made for
investigation • Depth of exploration is small 2. Boring
Excavation • Depth of Exploration is large • Deeper bore
hole is excavated and soil samples are collected and
tested in laboratory. Depending upon the type of soil
and purpose of boring, the following methods are used
for boring 1. Auger Boring 2. Wash Boring 3. Rotary
Drilling
Types of sampllings-Disturbed Sample • The samples in
which the natural structure of the soil got disturbed
either partly or fully during sampling are called
disturbed samples • They are further classified as a.
Non-Representative Sample b. Representative Sample
Non -representative Sample • Non-representative
samples consist of mixture of materials from various soil
or rock strata or are samples from which some mineral
constituents have been lost or got mixed up. • These are
suitable only for providing qualitative information such
as major changes in subsurface strata. • Example: Soil
sample from Auger and wash boring Representative
samples • Representative samples are those in which all
the constituent minerals are retained but only the
structure of the soil got disturbed • There are changes
in water content also • These samples are used in the
determination of physical properties like atterberg limits
and specific gravity. Undisturbed sample/Chunk sample
• Undisturbed samples are those which are subjected to
minimum disturbances. • Purely undisturbed sample is
an ideal condition because all the samples will get
disturbed to some extent even though precise
equipment are used • These samples are used in
strength and consolidation test.
Types of sampler-Standard Split-Spoon or Split-Barrel
Sampler • It is the most commonly used sampler for
obtaining undisturbed soil samples. • A split-spoon
sampler is also used to conduct SPT in the borehole.
When the SPT is conducted, the soil sample
simultaneously enters the sampler by the end of the
test, which is then withdrawn and taken to the
laboratory. Scraper Bucket Sampler: • Sampling with a
standard split-spoon sampler becomes difficult if the soil
contains pebbles. • A scraper bucket sampler may be
helpful for the collection of undisturbed samples in such
soil deposits. • However, it is possible to collect only
disturbed samples using a scraper bucket sampler. The
sampler is also useful to obtain samples of cohesionless
soil below GWT. Open-Tube Sampler/Shelby tube
samplers • The open-tube samplers are the simplest
type of samplers for collection of undisturbed samples.
• They are thin-wall tube samplers made of stainless
steel and are also known as thin-wall Shelby tube
samplers. • The bottom of the tube is sharpened and
beveled, which acts as a cutting edge. Piston Sampler: •
A piston sampler consists of two parts – a sampler
cylinder and a piston system. • The piston rod is 30 cm
(12 in.) in diameter at the bottom end and fits easily
inside the hollow drill rod. • Piston samplers are thin-
walled tube samplers that collect undisturbed samples
in soft soil. Denison sampler • A large-size, swivel-type
double-tube core barrel designed for soil-testing work
to obtain relatively undisturbed core like samples of soft
rock and/or soil formations. • The inner tube is provided
with a thin wall liner and a finger- or basket-type core
lifter or core-retaining device. • samples collected are
truly undisturbed

i)Inside Clearance • The internal diameter of the cutting

edge (Dci) should be slightly less than the internal
diameter of the sampling tube (Dsi) to give inside

clearance (Ci) •
• The inside clearance does the following: a) Allows for
elastic expansion of the soil as it enters the sampler. b)
Reduces the frictional drag on the soil sample from the
wall of the sampler, which otherwise causes disturbance
to the sample. c) Helps to retain the soil sample.
ii. Outside Clearance: • Outside clearance (Co) is the
gap between the outer surface of the cutting edge and
the outside surface of the sampling tube. • Outside
clearance prevents frictional drag between the outside
surface of the sampling tube and the walls of the
borehole or and hence facilitates easy driving and
withdrawal of the sampler and also prevents damage of

the sampler.
iii. Area Ratio: • The outside clearance, the wall
thickness of the sampler, and the inside clearance
together influence the displace-ment caused to the
natural soil during collection of the soil sample. • The
more the sum of these three, the greater will be the soil
displacement and the more will be the degree of
disturbance caused to the soil sample. • This is
expressed in the form of area ratio (Ar) and is defined as

Standard Penetration Test • It is the most important

and most commonly used field test. • This test is used
for determining ➢ Relative density ➢ Angle of internal
resistant ➢ Unconfined compressive strength ➢
Bearing capacity of soil • SPT is conducted in a bore hole
using a split spoon sampler • Typical equipment: drill
rig, split spoon sampler, hammering equipment, casing
pipe. Procedure: 1. The sampler is lowered to the
bottom of the hole 2. Drive the sampler by dropping a
hammer of 63.5kg weight through a height of 750 mm
3. The number of blows required to penetrate 150 mm
is counted. 4. The number of blows for further two
successive 150 mm penetration is also counted 5. The
first 150 mm drive is considered as seating load and is
ignored. The total number of blows required to
penetrate the remaining 300 mm is called the Standard
penetration number N.
CORRECTIONS OF N VALUE-
Correlations of SPT N Value ➢ The value of the
standard penetration number N depends upon the
relative density of the cohesionless soil and the
unconfined compressive strength of the cohesive soil.
➢ If the soil is combat or stiff, the penetration number
is high. ➢ The angle of sharing assistance of the
cohesionless soil depends upon the number N. ➢ The
greater the N value, the greater is the angle of shearing
resistance.