Module 1 - Analytic functions
S. Devi Yamini
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Overview
1 Complex numbers
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Overview
1 Complex numbers
2 Complex function
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Overview
1 Complex numbers
2 Complex function
3 Analytic function
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Overview
1 Complex numbers
2 Complex function
3 Analytic function
4 Harmonic function
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Motivation
The equation x 2 + 1 = 0 has no real solution.
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Motivation
The equation x 2 + 1 = 0 has no real solution.
i 2 = −1
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Motivation
The equation x 2 + 1 = 0 has no real solution.
i 2 = −1
The solution of the above equation is x = ±i
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Introduction to Complex numbers
Complex numbers C
Set of all numbers of the form z = x + iy where x, y ∈ R
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Introduction to Complex numbers
Complex numbers C
Set of all numbers of the form z = x + iy where x, y ∈ R
Here, Re(z) = x, Im(z) = y and i 2 = −1
i is the imaginary number.
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Introduction to Complex numbers
Complex numbers C
Set of all numbers of the form z = x + iy where x, y ∈ R
Here, Re(z) = x, Im(z) = y and i 2 = −1
i is the imaginary number.
Operations on Complex Numbers
(2 + 3i) + (5 + 4i)
(2 + 3i) − (5 + 4i)
((2 + 3i)(5 + 4i)
2+3i
5+4i
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Properties
Let z = x + iy
- Complex conjugate of z is z̄ = x − iy
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Properties
Let z = x + iy
- Complex conjugate of z is z̄ = x − iy
- z̄¯ = z
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Properties
Let z = x + iy
- Complex conjugate of z is z̄ = x − iy
- z̄¯ = z
p
- Absolute value of z is |z| = x 2 + y 2
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Properties
Let z = x + iy
- Complex conjugate of z is z̄ = x − iy
- z̄¯ = z
p
- Absolute value of z is |z| = x 2 + y 2
- z z̄ = (x + iy )(x − iy ) = x 2 + y 2 = |z|2
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Properties
Let z = x + iy
- Complex conjugate of z is z̄ = x − iy
- z̄¯ = z
p
- Absolute value of z is |z| = x 2 + y 2
- z z̄ = (x + iy )(x − iy ) = x 2 + y 2 = |z|2
- Two complex numbers z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 are equal if
x1 = x2 and y1 = y2
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Properties
Let z = x + iy
- Complex conjugate of z is z̄ = x − iy
- z̄¯ = z
p
- Absolute value of z is |z| = x 2 + y 2
- z z̄ = (x + iy )(x − iy ) = x 2 + y 2 = |z|2
- Two complex numbers z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 are equal if
x1 = x2 and y1 = y2
- i 2 = 1, i 3 = −i, i 4 = 1, i 5 = i, . . .
Hence i 4k = 1, i 4k+1 = i, i 4k+2 = −1, i 4k+3 = −i
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Properties
Let z = x + iy
- Complex conjugate of z is z̄ = x − iy
- z̄¯ = z
p
- Absolute value of z is |z| = x 2 + y 2
- z z̄ = (x + iy )(x − iy ) = x 2 + y 2 = |z|2
- Two complex numbers z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 are equal if
x1 = x2 and y1 = y2
- i 2 = 1, i 3 = −i, i 4 = 1, i 5 = i, . . .
Hence i 4k = 1, i 4k+1 = i, i 4k+2 = −1, i 4k+3 = −i
- |z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |
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Geometrical representation
A complex number z = x + iy is represented in Complex plane (Argand
plane or R2 )
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Polar coordinates
x = rcosθ, y = rsinθ
x 2 + y 2 (absolute value of z) and θ = tan−1 yx (argument of
p
where r =
z)
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Polar coordinates
x = rcosθ, y = rsinθ
where r = x 2 + y 2 (absolute value of z) and θ = tan−1 yx (argument of
p
z)
The polar form of z is z = x + iy = r (cosθ + isinθ) = re iθ
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Polar coordinates
Let z1 = r1 e iθ1 , z2 = r2 e iθ2 .
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Polar coordinates
Let z1 = r1 e iθ1 , z2 = r2 e iθ2 .
Find
- z1 z2
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Polar coordinates
Let z1 = r1 e iθ1 , z2 = r2 e iθ2 .
Find
- z1 z2 = r1 r2 e i(θ1 +θ2 )
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Polar coordinates
Let z1 = r1 e iθ1 , z2 = r2 e iθ2 .
Find
- z1 z2 = r1 r2 e i(θ1 +θ2 )
z1
- z2
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Polar coordinates
Let z1 = r1 e iθ1 , z2 = r2 e iθ2 .
Find
- z1 z2 = r1 r2 e i(θ1 +θ2 )
z1 r1 i(θ1 −θ2 )
- z2 = r2 e
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Problems
1 Find the reciprocal of 2 + 3i
2 Express the
√ following complex numbers in polar form
(a) 2 + 2 3i (b) −3i
z1
3 Suppose z1 = 3 − 4i and z2 = −4 + 3i. Find (a) z1 z2 (b) z2
z+z̄ z−z̄
4 Prove that Re(z) = 2 and Im(z) = 2i
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Complex function
A complex function is a function f whose domain and range are subsets of
the set C of complex numbers
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Complex function
A complex function is a function f whose domain and range are subsets of
the set C of complex numbers
f is a complex function such that w = f (z) where z = x + iy and
w = u + iv
Here u = u(x, y ), v = v (x, y )
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Complex function
Problem
Express w = z 2 interms of real and imaginary parts
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Complex function
Problem
Express w = z 2 interms of real and imaginary parts
w = (x 2 − y 2 ) + i(2xy )
u(x, y ) = x 2 − y 2 , v (x, y ) = 2xy
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Complex function
Problem
Express w = z 2 interms of real and imaginary parts
w = (x 2 − y 2 ) + i(2xy )
u(x, y ) = x 2 − y 2 , v (x, y ) = 2xy
Derivative of a complex function
Let f be a complex function defined in the neighbourhood of a point z0 .
The derivative of f at z0 is
f (z0 + ∆z) − f (z0 )
f ′ (z0 ) = lim
∆z→0 ∆z
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Complex function
Problem
Express w = z 2 interms of real and imaginary parts
w = (x 2 − y 2 ) + i(2xy )
u(x, y ) = x 2 − y 2 , v (x, y ) = 2xy
Derivative of a complex function
Let f be a complex function defined in the neighbourhood of a point z0 .
The derivative of f at z0 is
f (z0 + ∆z) − f (z0 )
f ′ (z0 ) = lim
∆z→0 ∆z
Differentiate: f (z) = 4z 3 − 5z 2 + 2z + 3
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Complex function
Problem
Write f (z) in the form of u(x, y ) and v (x, y )
1
(a) f (z) = z 3 + z + 1 (b) f (z) = i−z
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Complex function
Problem
Write f (z) in the form of u(x, y ) and v (x, y )
1
(a) f (z) = z 3 + z + 1 (b) f (z) = i−z
Ans: (a) u(x, y ) = x 3 − 3xy 2 + x + 1, v (x, y ) = 3x 2 y − y 3 + y
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Complex function
Problem
Write f (z) in the form of u(x, y ) and v (x, y )
1
(a) f (z) = z 3 + z + 1 (b) f (z) = i−z
Ans: (a) u(x, y ) = x 3 − 3xy 2 + x + 1, v (x, y ) = 3x 2 y − y 3 + y
(b) u(x, y ) = −fracxx 2 + (1 − y )2 , v (x, y ) = −frac1 − y x 2 + (1 − y )2
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Neighbourhood of a complex number
Let z0 be a complex number and ϵ be any positive real number, then the ϵ
neighbourhood of z0 is the set of all points z such that |z − z0 | < ϵ
N(z0 ) = {z ∈ C : |z − z0 | < ϵ}
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Deleted-Neighbourhood of a complex number
Let z0 be a complex number and ϵ be any positive real number, then the ϵ
neighbourhood of z0 is the set of all points z such that |z − z0 | < ϵ
N ′ (z0 ) = {z ∈ C : 0 < |z − z0 | < ϵ}
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Analytic function
A function f (z) is said to be analytic at z0 if f is differentiable at z0 and f
is differentiable at some neighbourhood of z0
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Analytic function
A function f (z) is said to be analytic at z0 if f is differentiable at z0 and f
is differentiable at some neighbourhood of z0
A function f (z) is analytic in a domain if it is analytic at every point of
the domain.
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Analytic function
A function f (z) is said to be analytic at z0 if f is differentiable at z0 and f
is differentiable at some neighbourhood of z0
A function f (z) is analytic in a domain if it is analytic at every point of
the domain.
1 An analytic function is also termed as holomorphic or regular function.
2 A function which is analytic everywhere in the complex plane - Entire
function.
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Cauchy-Riemann Equations
Necessary condition for a function to be analytic
If a function f (z) = u + iv is analytic in a domain D, then u, v satisfy
Cauchy-Riemann (C-R) equations in the domain D
∂u ∂v
=
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
=−
∂y ∂x
provided the first order partial derivatives exist.
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Cauchy-Riemann Equations
Necessary condition for a function to be analytic
If a function f (z) = u + iv is analytic in a domain D, then u, v satisfy
Cauchy-Riemann (C-R) equations in the domain D
∂u ∂v
=
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
=−
∂y ∂x
provided the first order partial derivatives exist.
Note
To prove that f (z) is not analytic, we have to prove that C-R equations do
not satisfy.
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Cauchy-Riemann Equations
Necessary condition for a function to be analytic
If a function f (z) = u + iv is analytic in a domain D, then u, v satisfy
Cauchy-Riemann (C-R) equations in the domain D
∂u ∂v
=
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
=−
∂y ∂x
provided the first order partial derivatives exist.
Note
To prove that f (z) is not analytic, we have to prove that C-R equations do
not satisfy.
C-R equations in Polar form
ur =1 1r vθ , vr = − 1r uθ
Let f (z) = u(r , θ) + iv (r , θ), then Module 16 / 21
Problems
1 Check whether the function f (z) = z̄ is analytic or not.
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Problems
1 Check whether the function f (z) = z̄ is analytic or not.
2 Show that f (z) = |z|2 is differentiable at z = 0 but not analytic at
z = 0.
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Problems
1 Check whether the function f (z) = z̄ is analytic or not.
2 Show that f (z) = |z|2 is differentiable at z = 0 but not analytic at
z = 0.
3 Find the constants a, b, c if f (z) = (x + ay ) + i(bx + cy ) is analytic.
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Problems
1 Check whether the function f (z) = z̄ is analytic or not.
2 Show that f (z) = |z|2 is differentiable at z = 0 but not analytic at
z = 0.
3 Find the constants a, b, c if f (z) = (x + ay ) + i(bx + cy ) is analytic.
Ans. a = −b, c = 1
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Cauchy-Riemann equations
Sufficient condition for a function to be analytic
If first order partial derivatives of u and v are continuous, and if the C-R
equations are satisfied, then the function f (z) = u + iv is analytic.
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Cauchy-Riemann equations
Sufficient condition for a function to be analytic
If first order partial derivatives of u and v are continuous, and if the C-R
equations are satisfied, then the function f (z) = u + iv is analytic.
Note
order
To prove that f (z) is analytic, we have to prove that the first partial
derivatives of ux , uy , vx , vy are continuous; and satisfy the C-R equations.
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Problems
1 Check whether f (z) = 2xy + i(x 2 − y 2 ) is analytic or not
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Problems
1 Check whether f (z) = 2xy + i(x 2 − y 2 ) is analytic or not
2 Find the points where the functions ceases to be analytic:
a. f (z) = z 2z−1 b. f (z) = (z−i)
z+i
2
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Harmonic function
Laplacian operator
∂2 ∂2
∆2 = +
∂x 2 ∂y 2
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Harmonic function
Laplacian operator
∂2 ∂2
∆2 = +
∂x 2 ∂y 2
Laplace equation
∂2ϕ ∂2ϕ
+
∂x 2 ∂y 2
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Harmonic function
Laplacian operator
∂2 ∂2
∆2 = +
∂x 2 ∂y 2
Laplace equation
∂2ϕ ∂2ϕ
+
∂x 2 ∂y 2
Harmonic function
A real function of two variables x, y that possesses continuous second order
derivatives and that satisfy Laplace equation is called Harmonic function.
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Harmonic function
Laplacian operator
∂2 ∂2
∆2 = +
∂x 2 ∂y 2
Laplace equation
∂2ϕ ∂2ϕ
+
∂x 2 ∂y 2
Harmonic function
A real function of two variables x, y that possesses continuous second order
derivatives and that satisfy Laplace equation is called Harmonic function.
Problem
Find the value of m if u = 2x 2 − my 2 + 3x is harmonic.
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Harmonic conjugate
If u and v are harmonic functions such that f (z) = u + iv is analytic, then
u is a harmonic conjugate of v and viceversa.
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Harmonic conjugate
If u and v are harmonic functions such that f (z) = u + iv is analytic, then
u is a harmonic conjugate of v and viceversa.
If f (z) = u + iv is analytic , then the curves u(x, y ) = C1 and
v (x, y ) = C2 cut orthogonally where C1 , C2 are varying constants.
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