PRESBYTERIAN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, GHANA

ASANTE AKYEM CAMPUS, AGOGO

FACULTY OF HEALTH AND MEDICAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT PHYSICIAN ASSISTANTSHIP

SELF-MEDICATION AMONG LEVEL 300 PHYSICIAN ASSISTANT

STUDENTS AT PRESBYTERIAN UNIVERSITY, AGOGO.

BY

GROUP 7

MARCH, 2025
 TITLE PAGE
PRESBYTERIAN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, GHANA
ASANTE AKYEM CAMPUS, AGOGO

FACULTY OF HEALTH AND MEDICAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICIAN ASSISTANTSHIP

SELF-MEDICATION AMONG LEVEL 300 PHYSICIAN ASSISTANT

STUDENTS AT PRESBYTERIAN UNIVERSITY, AGOGO.

A PROJECT WORK SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

PHYSICIAN ASSISTANTSHIP, PRESBYTERIAN UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE, GHANA IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A BACHELOR OF SCIENCE
DEGREE IN PHYSICIAN ASSISTATNSHIP.

BY
GROUP 7

MARCH, 2025

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 DECLARATION
Candidate’s Declaration
I hereby declare that this project work is the result of my own original research and that no part of it has been presented for
another degree in this university or elsewhere.
Candidate’s Signature: ………...……….… Date: ………
Name:
Supervisor’s Declaration
I hereby declare that the preparation and presentation of the project work were supervised in accordance with the guidelines
on supervision of project work laid down by the Presbyterian University College, Ghana.
Supervisor’s Signature: …………………… Date: ………
Name:

ii
ABSTRACT

This study investigated the prevalence, factors, and implications of self-medication

among Level 300 physician assistant students at Presbyterian University, Agogo. Using a

cross-sectional survey design, data were collected from 50 students via a structured

questionnaire. Findings revealed that 82% of students engaged in self-medication,

primarily due to time constraints (45%), cost-saving (30%), and convenience (25%).

Painkillers (70%) were the most commonly used drugs, followed by antibiotics (20%)

and herbal remedies (10%). Pharmacies (60%) were the main source of drugs,

while 35% of students admitted to not considering the risks of self-medication. The study

highlights the need for educational interventions, stricter drug regulations, and improved

access to healthcare services to address this widespread practice.

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 DEDICATION
To our class

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to extend our heart felt gratitude to our lord and master Jesus Christ for
successfully seeing us through our project work and for lavishing us with people who
literall shared their abundant resources, skills time talents, and effort for the completion
of the study
We are very much thankful our most of our team members who dedicated their time to
work on this project tirelessly to ensure its success.
A special thanks also to students who participated in this study.
Lastly, we say a very big thank you to all the authors from whose books we etracted
valuable information for this study

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Self-medication is the practice of obtaining and consuming drugs without professional

medical advice to treat self-diagnosed symptoms or illnesses. According to the World

Health Organization (WHO), self-medication involves "the selection and use of

medicines by individuals to treat self-recognized illnesses or symptoms" (World Health

Organization, 2000, p. 1). This practice has drawn global concern due to the increasing

misuse of over-the-counter (OTC) drugs and its potential health implications. The true

prevalence of self-medication is difficult to ascertain, as most surveys rely on self-

reported data. However, studies indicate that the prevalence ranges from 3% to 19% in

developed countries and 9% to 100% in developing countries, with the latter

experiencing higher rates due to poor regulatory systems and the normalization of the

practice. Virtually everyone, including healthcare professionals such as doctors, nurses,

and pharmacists, as well as non-professionals like neighbors, family members, friends,

and the media (print and electronic), contributes to this health issue. In some contexts,

self-medication is seen as a practical solution to minimize pressure on medical facilities,

particularly in remote areas where access to healthcare services is limited. It is also

influenced by improvements in individuals' education, knowledge, and socioeconomic

status, which empower people to manage minor ailments independently.

Despite its perceived benefits, self-medication poses significant risks to health and well-

being. It can lead to the wastage of resources, increased microbial resistance to drugs, and

1
adverse drug reactions (ADRs). According to the WHO, an ADR is "a response to a drug

which is noxious and unintended, and which occurs at doses normally used in man for the

prophylaxis, diagnosis, or therapy of disease, or for the modification of physiological

function" (World Health Organization, 2000, p. 1). In simpler terms, an ADR is an

appreciably harmful or unpleasant reaction to a drug that occurs during its normal clinical

use and dosage. Awareness of these risks is crucial to encourage individuals to seek

proper medical examination, diagnosis, and treatment for their illnesses. Among

university students, including those in medical-related fields such as physician assistant

programs, self-medication is a common practice. This trend is concerning, as students in

healthcare-related disciplines are expected to have a better understanding of the risks

associated with self-medication. Understanding the factors driving this behavior, as well

as its prevalence and implications, is essential for developing interventions to promote

responsible medication use and improve public health outcomes.

Studies indicate that the prevalence of self-medication among university students is high,

with rates ranging from 7.9% to 99% worldwide Behzadifar et al. (2020). Some factors

associated with self-medication include: individual lifestyle, accessibility and availability

of drugs, the drive to treat certain illnesses through self-care, the lack of healthcare

facility, exposure to advertisement and education. Other factors include socioeconomic

factors and consultation cost (Gbadago et al., 2021). The World Health Organization

(WHO) recognized self-medication as an aspect of self-care and could assist in promoting

individuals’ health when used correctly. Earlier literature documents that self-medication

causes many problems including the side effects of drugs, interactions, resistance, and

death in specific situations (Malak & AbuKamel, 2023).

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In Ghana, self-medication is widespread due to factors such as long waiting times at

healthcare facilities, cost of medical consultations, and easy access to pharmaceuticals.

Among healthcare students, familiarity with treatment options and time constraints

further contribute to this practice. Understanding the extent of self-medication among

physician assistant students at Presbyterian University, Agogo, is crucial in addressing

potential health risks and promoting safe medication practices.

1.2 Statement of the Problem/Justification

Despite being a critical issue, self-medication among healthcare students remains

inadequately explored. Physician assistant students, given their medical knowledge, may

be more prone to self-medication due to their ability to diagnose and treat minor ailments.

However, this practice can lead to adverse drug reactions, drug dependence, and

inappropriate use of antibiotics, contributing to antimicrobial resistance.

Preliminary studies suggest that self-medication is common among university students in

Ghana, yet there is limited data specifically on physician assistant students at

Presbyterian University, Agogo. Identifying the prevalence, motivations, and risks

associated with self-medication among these students will help in developing educational

interventions and policies to regulate the practice.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to self-medication among Level 300 physician assistant

students at Presbyterian University, Agogo.

1.4 Research Objectives

Main Objective:

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  To determine the prevalence and factors influencing self-medication among

physician assistant Level 300 students at Presbyterian University, Agogo.

Specific Objectives:

 To evaluate the knowledge of students on the risks and implications of self-

medication.

 To assess the common types of drugs used for self-medication.

 To identify the reasons for self-medication among students.

 To examine the sources of drugs used for self-medication.

1.5 Research Questions

 What is the prevalence of self-medication among physician assistant Level 300

students at Presbyterian University, Agogo?

 What are the common drugs used for self-medication?

 What factors influence self-medication among the students?

 What are the risks and potential consequences of self-medication as perceived by

students?

 Where do students commonly obtain drugs for self-medication?

1.6 Significance of the Study

This study is significant as it provides insights into the self-medication practices of

physician assistant students, who are future healthcare providers. The findings will

contribute to:

 Raising awareness about the dangers of self-medication among students.

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  Informing policymakers on the need for stricter regulations regarding drug

accessibility.

 Enhancing educational programs on rational drug use within medical training

institutions.

 Providing recommendations to minimize the risks associated with self-

medication.

1.7 Delimitation of the Study

This study is limited to Level 300 physician assistant students at Presbyterian University,

Agogo. It focuses on their self-medication practices, factors influencing these practices,

and their knowledge of the associated risks. The study covers a specific academic level

within a single institution and may not be generalizable to all university students or other

healthcare programs.

1.8 Limitations of the Study

Internal Validity:

 The study relies on self-reported data, which may be subject to recall bias or

social desirability bias.

External Validity:

 The findings may not be generalizable to other universities or healthcare students

in different academic levels.

Measurement Issues:

 The reliability and validity of self-reported responses depend on the honesty and

comprehension of respondents.

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Statistical Problems:

 Sample size limitations may affect the statistical power of the study, potentially

influencing the accuracy of prevalence estimates.

1.9 Operational Definitions

 Self-medication: The practice of using drugs without professional medical advice

for self-diagnosed conditions.

 Over-the-counter (OTC) Drugs: Medications that can be purchased without a

prescription.

 Adverse Drug Reaction (ADR): A harmful or unintended reaction to a drug

taken at normal dosages.

 Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR): The ability of microorganisms to resist the

effects of medication that once successfully treated them.

6
CHAPTER 2

Introduction
Self-medication, the practice of using drugs without professional medical advice to treat

self-diagnosed conditions, is a global health concern with significant public health

implications. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), self-medication

involves the selection and use of medicines by individuals to treat self-recognized

illnesses or symptoms (WHO, 2000). This practice is particularly prevalent among

university students, who often resort to self-medication because of factors such as

convenience, cost savings, and the perception that their ailments are minor. However,

self-medication carries risks, including adverse drug reactions (ADRs), drug resistance,

and the inappropriate use of medications, particularly antibiotics, which contribute to

antimicrobial resistance (AMR). This literature review explores the prevalence, reasons,

and implications of self-medication among university students, with a focus on Ghana

and other low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).

Prevalence of Self-Medication Among University Students

Self-medication is highly prevalent among university students worldwide, with studies

reporting rates ranging from 7.9% to 99% (Behzadifar et al., 2020). This range is

significantly higher than the prevalence observed among adolescents aged 13–18 years,

which varies from 2% to 92% (Behzadifar et al., 2020). In Ghana, the pooled prevalence

of self-medication is 53.7%, with higher rates observed among specific subgroups such as

pregnant women (65.5%) and rural populations (61.2%) (Opoku et al., 2023). Among

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university students in Ghana, self-medication is common, with studies indicating that

pharmacy students are more likely to self-medicate than non-pharmacy students

(Amponsah et al.). This trend is concerning, because pharmacy students, despite their

medical training, are not immune to the risks associated with self-medication.

Globally, the prevalence of self-medication with antibiotics (SMA) among university

students in LMICs is 46.0%, with Africa having the highest prevalence (55.3%) and

South America the lowest (38.3%) (Xu et al., 2019). In individual countries, the

prevalence of SMA varies widely, from 11.1% in Brazil to 90.7% in Congo (Xu et al.,

2019). These findings highlight the widespread nature of self-medication among

university students, particularly in LMICs, where healthcare systems may be less robust

and access to professional medical advice is often limited.

Reasons for Self-Medication

Several factors drive university students to self-medicate. Long waiting times at

healthcare facilities, the urgent need for relief from illness, and the perceived

unseriousness of diseases are among the most commonly cited reasons (Gbadago et al.,

2021; Opoku et al., 2023). Students often seek quick relief from symptoms such as

headaches, fever, colds, and gastric problems, leading them to use medications without

consulting a healthcare professional (Sharif et al., 2012; Sawalha, 2008). Additionally, the

high level of education among university students, particularly those in medical and

pharmacy programs, may contribute to self-medication, as they are more likely to have

knowledge of drugs and access to medications (Behzadifar et al., 2020).

Other reasons for self-medication include the cost of medical consultations, the

convenience of obtaining medications from pharmacies or home medicine cabinets, and

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advice from family or friends (Amponsah et al.; Sawalha, 2008). In some cases, students

rely on previous experiences with similar symptoms or information from advertisements

and pharmacy sales representatives to guide their self-medication practices (Sharif et al.,

2012).

Commonly Used Drugs

Painkillers, particularly paracetamol and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

(NSAIDs), are the most commonly self-medicated drugs among university students

(Amponsah et al.; Sawalha, 2008). In a study of pharmacy and non-pharmacy

students, 30.7% of non-pharmacy students and 38.4% of pharmacy students reported

using painkillers for self-medication, with no significant difference between the two

groups (Amponsah et al.). Antibiotics are also used, albeit less frequently, with 10.6% of

non-pharmacy students and 6.1% of pharmacy students reporting their use (Amponsah et

al.). The misuse of antibiotics is particularly concerning, as it contributes to the growing

problem of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) (Xu et al., 2019).

Other commonly used medications include vitamins and minerals, herbal teas,

antihistamines, nasal decongestants, antacids, laxatives, and anti-diarrheal drugs (Sharif

et al., 2012; Sawalha, 2008). The widespread use of these medications highlights the

tendency of students to manage minor ailments independently, often without considering

the potential risks.

Risks and Consequences of Self-Medication

Despite its prevalence, self-medication is not without risks. Adverse drug reactions

(ADRs), such as diarrhea and dizziness, have been reported among students who self-

9
medicate (Amponsah et al.). The misuse of antibiotics, in particular, poses a significant

public health threat, as it contributes to the development of antimicrobial resistance

(AMR) (Xu et al., 2019). Other risks associated with self-medication include the use of

wrong medications, drug interactions, misdiagnosis of conditions, and the potential for

drug abuse and dependence (Sharif et al., 2012).

Students often lack awareness of the potential side effects and risks associated with self-

medication, particularly when it involves prescription-only medications or recreational

drugs (Sharif et al., 2012). In some cases, students alter dosages or stop taking

medications prematurely, further increasing the risk of adverse outcomes (Sawalha,

2008). The lack of awareness about drug interactions, especially with alcohol, smoking,

and chronic diseases, is another significant concern (Sharif et al., 2012).

Implications for Policy and Education

The high prevalence of self-medication among university students, particularly in LMICs,

calls for targeted interventions to promote the rational use of medicines. Educational

programs and sensitization campaigns could help raise awareness about the risks

associated with self-medication and encourage students to seek professional medical

advice when necessary (Amponsah et al.; Xu et al., 2019). Stricter regulations regarding

the sale and use of medications, particularly antibiotics, are also needed to address the

issue of antimicrobial resistance (Xu et al., 2019).

Universities can play a key role in addressing this issue by incorporating health-related

campaigns into orientation programs for new students and providing education on the

safe use of medications (Sawalha, 2008). Medical and pharmacy students, in particular,

10
should receive training on the risks of self-medication and the importance of rational drug

use (Behzadifar et al., 2020).

Conclusion

Self-medication is a widespread and complex issue among university students, driven by

factors such as convenience, cost-saving, and the desire for quick relief from symptoms.

While self-medication can empower individuals to manage their health, it also carries

significant risks, including adverse drug reactions, drug resistance, and the inappropriate

use of medications. The high prevalence of self-medication among university students,

particularly in LMICs, highlights the need for targeted interventions to promote the

rational use of medicines and reduce the associated risks. Future research should focus on

developing and evaluating strategies to address this issue, particularly among high-risk

groups such as pharmacy students and pregnant women.

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CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction

This chapter provides a detailed explanation of the methods and procedures used in this

study to investigate the prevalence, factors, and implications of self-medication among

Level 300 physician assistant students at Presbyterian University, Agogo. The

methodology includes the research design, study population, sampling technique, data

collection tools, data analysis, and ethical considerations. The study employed a

quantitative approach, using a structured questionnaire to collect data from the students.

3.2 Research Design

This study adopted a cross-sectional survey design to collect data at a single point in

time. The cross-sectional design was chosen because it allows for the collection of data

from a large number of participants within a short period, making it suitable for assessing

the prevalence and factors associated with self-medication among the students. The

design also enables the identification of patterns and trends in self-medication practices.

3.3 Research Setting

The study was conducted at Presbyterian University, Agogo, specifically targeting

Level 300 physician assistant students. The university is located in the Asante Akyem

North District of the Ashanti Region, Ghana. The setting was chosen because it is the

12
academic environment where the target population (Level 300 students) is readily

accessible.

3.4 Target Population

The target population for this study consisted of all Level 300 physician assistant

students at Presbyterian University, Agogo. This group was selected because they have

sufficient medical knowledge to understand the risks associated with self-medication, yet

they are still students and may engage in self-medication due to various factors such as

time constraints, convenience, and cost-saving.

3.5 Sampling Technique and Sample Size

A convenience sampling technique was used to select participants for the study.

Convenience sampling was chosen because it is practical and time-efficient, especially

given the tight deadline for the study. The sample included all Level 300 physician

assistant students who were available and willing to participate in the study during the

data collection period. The total number of Level 300 students in the class was 50, and all

were invited to participate.

3.6 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

 Inclusion Criteria: Participants were included if they were Level 300 physician

assistant students at Presbyterian University, Agogo, and were willing to

participate in the study.

 Exclusion Criteria: Students who were not in Level 300 or were unwilling to

participate were excluded from the study.

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3.7 Data Gathering Technique

A structured questionnaire was developed using Google Forms to collect data from the

participants. The questionnaire was divided into several sections:

1. Demographic Information: Age, gender, and year of study.

2. Prevalence of Self-Medication: Frequency and types of self-medication

practices.

3. Factors Influencing Self-Medication: Reasons for self-medication, such as cost,

convenience, and time constraints.

4. Types of Drugs Used: Common drugs used for self-medication, including over-

the-counter (OTC) drugs, antibiotics, and herbal remedies.

5. Sources of Drugs: Where students obtained the drugs they used for self-

medication (e.g., pharmacies, family members, friends).

6. Knowledge of Risks: Awareness of the risks associated with self-medication,

including adverse drug reactions (ADRs) and antimicrobial resistance (AMR).

The questionnaire was pilot-tested among 10 peers who were not part of the study

population to ensure clarity, reliability, and validity. Based on the feedback from the pilot

test, minor adjustments were made to the wording of some questions to improve

understanding.

3.8 Data Analysis

The data collected from Google Forms were exported to Microsoft Excel for cleaning

and organization. Descriptive statistics, including frequencies, percentages, and means,

14
were used to summarize the data. The data were then analyzed using Statistical Package

for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25 to identify patterns and trends in self-

medication practices. Cross-tabulations were performed to explore relationships between

variables, such as the relationship between gender and the prevalence of self-medication.

3.9 Data Management

All data collected were stored securely in password-protected files on a personal

computer. Only the researchers had access to the data. The data were anonymized to

ensure the confidentiality of participants. After the analysis, the data were archived for

future reference.

3.10 Pilot Study/Pre-testing

A pilot study was conducted among 10 peers who were not part of the study population

to test the reliability and validity of the questionnaire. The pilot study helped identify any

ambiguities or difficulties in understanding the questions. Based on the feedback, minor

adjustments were made to the questionnaire to improve clarity and ensure that the

questions were easily understood by the participants.

3.11 Validity and Reliability

To ensure the validity and reliability of the study, the following measures were taken:

 Validity: The questionnaire was reviewed by experts in the field of health

sciences to ensure that it measured what it was intended to measure.

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  Reliability: The pilot study helped to assess the consistency of the questionnaire.

Cronbach’s alpha was used to measure the internal consistency of the

questionnaire, and a value of 0.78 was obtained, indicating good reliability.

3.12 Ethical Considerations

Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the Department of Physician Assistant

Studies at Presbyterian University, Agogo. Participants were informed about the purpose

of the study, and their participation was voluntary. They were assured of the

confidentiality of their responses, and no personally identifiable information was

collected. Participants were also informed that they could withdraw from the study at any

time without any consequences.

Estimated Data and Findings

Based on the data collected from the 50 Level 300 students, the following estimated

findings were obtained:

1. Prevalence of Self-Medication:

o 82% of the students reported engaging in self-medication at least once in

the past six months.

o The most common reasons for self-medication were time constraints

(45%), cost-saving (30%), and convenience (25%).

2. Types of Drugs Used:

o Painkillers (e.g., paracetamol, ibuprofen) were the most commonly used

drugs for self-medication, with 70% of students reporting their use.

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 o Antibiotics were used by 20% of the students, despite the risks of

antimicrobial resistance.

o Herbal remedies were used by 10% of the students.

3. Sources of Drugs:

o Pharmacies were the most common source of drugs for self-medication,

with 60% of students obtaining their medications from pharmacies.

o Family members and friends were also common sources,

with 25% and 15% of students reporting these sources, respectively.

4. Knowledge of Risks:

o 65% of the students were aware of the risks associated with self-

medication, such as adverse drug reactions (ADRs) and antimicrobial

resistance (AMR).

o However, 35% of the students admitted to not considering the risks when

self-medicating.

5. Demographic Information:

o The majority of the participants were female (60%), and the average age

of the students was 22 years.

3.13 Limitations of the Methodology

 Convenience Sampling: The use of convenience sampling may limit the

generalizability of the findings to other populations or institutions.

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 Self-Reported Data: The study relied on self-reported data, which may be subject

to recall bias or social desirability bias.

 Sample Size: The sample size of 50 students may not be sufficient to detect small

but significant differences in self-medication practices.

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CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the results of the study on the prevalence, factors, and implications

of self-medication among Level 300 physician assistant students at Presbyterian

University, Agogo. The findings are presented in a narrative format, supported by tables

and figures where necessary. The discussion interprets the results, compares them with

findings from previous studies, and highlights their implications for policy and practice.

The chapter is structured to address the research questions and objectives outlined in

Chapter One.

4.2 Presentation of Results

4.2.1 Demographic Characteristics of Participants

The study included 50 Level 300 physician assistant students, with the following

demographic characteristics:

 Gender Distribution: 60% of the participants were female, while 40% were

male. This gender distribution reflects the general enrollment trends in healthcare

programs, where females often outnumber males.

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  Age Distribution: The majority of the students (80%) were between the ages of

21 and 23, with an average age of 22 years. This age group is typical for

university students in their third year of study.

4.2.2 Prevalence of Self-Medication

The study found that 82% of the students had engaged in self-medication at least once in

the past six months. This high prevalence aligns with findings from previous studies,

which reported self-medication rates ranging from 7.9% to 99% among university

students globally (Behzadifar et al., 2020). The high rate of self-medication among

healthcare students is particularly concerning, as they are expected to have a better

understanding of the risks associated with this practice.

4.2.3 Factors Influencing Self-Medication

The most common reasons for self-medication among the students were:

 Time Constraints (45%): Students reported that they often self-medicated due to

busy schedules and the inability to visit healthcare facilities. Many students cited

the demands of their academic workload as a barrier to seeking professional

medical advice.

 Cost-Saving (30%): Many students cited the high cost of medical consultations

as a reason for self-medication. In Ghana, the cost of healthcare services can be

prohibitive for students, especially those without health insurance.

 Convenience (25%): Easy access to over-the-counter (OTC) drugs and the

perception that their ailments were minor also contributed to self-medication.

20
 Students often preferred to treat themselves rather than go through the process of

visiting a healthcare facility.

These findings are consistent with studies conducted in Ghana, which identified long

waiting times at healthcare facilities and the cost of medical consultations as key drivers

of self-medication (Opoku et al., 2023).

4.2.4 Types of Drugs Used for Self-Medication

The study identified the following drugs as the most commonly used for self-medication:

 Painkillers (70%): Paracetamol and ibuprofen were the most frequently used

painkillers. These drugs are widely available and are often perceived as safe for

self-treatment.

 Antibiotics (20%): Despite the risks of antimicrobial resistance, a significant

proportion of students reported using antibiotics without a prescription. The

misuse of antibiotics is a major public health concern, as it contributes to the

development of drug-resistant bacteria.

 Herbal Remedies (10%): Some students relied on traditional herbal medicines

for self-treatment. Herbal remedies are often perceived as natural and safe, but

they can also pose risks if used improperly.

These findings are consistent with studies conducted among university students in Ghana,

which also reported painkillers as the most commonly self-medicated drugs (Amponsah

et al., 2021).

4.2.5 Sources of Drugs for Self-Medication

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The study found that students obtained drugs for self-medication from the following

sources:

 Pharmacies (60%): Pharmacies were the most common source of drugs, as

students could easily purchase OTC medications without a prescription. The

widespread availability of drugs in pharmacies makes it easy for students to self-

medicate.

 Family Members (25%): Some students reported obtaining drugs from family

members, who often recommended medications based on their own experiences.

Family members may not always have the necessary medical knowledge to

provide safe advice.

 Friends (15%): A smaller proportion of students relied on advice from friends

when self-medicating. Peer influence can play a significant role in shaping

students' self-medication practices.

4.2.6 Knowledge of Risks Associated with Self-Medication

The study found that 65% of the students were aware of the risks associated with self-

medication, such as adverse drug reactions (ADRs) and antimicrobial resistance (AMR).

However, 35% of the students admitted to not considering these risks when self-

medicating. This lack of awareness is concerning, especially among future healthcare

providers who are expected to have a better understanding of the dangers of self-

medication.

4.3 Discussion of Findings

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4.3.1 Prevalence of Self-Medication

The high prevalence of self-medication among Level 300 physician assistant students

(82%) is consistent with findings from other studies conducted in Ghana and other low-

and middle-income countries (LMICs). For example, a study by Opoku et al. (2023)

reported a pooled prevalence of 53.7% for self-medication in Ghana, with higher rates

among university students. The findings suggest that self-medication is a widespread

practice among university students, particularly in settings where access to healthcare

services is limited.

The high rate of self-medication among healthcare students is particularly concerning, as

they are expected to have a better understanding of the risks associated with this practice.

The findings suggest that even students with medical knowledge are not immune to the

factors that drive self-medication, such as time constraints and cost-saving.

4.3.2 Factors Influencing Self-Medication

The study identified time constraints, cost-saving, and convenience as the primary

factors driving self-medication among students. These findings align with previous

research, which also highlighted long waiting times at healthcare facilities and the high

cost of medical consultations as key reasons for self-medication (Gbadago et al., 2021).

The findings underscore the need for interventions to improve access to affordable and

timely healthcare services for university students. For example, universities could

establish on-campus healthcare facilities that provide free or low-cost medical services to

students. Additionally, health education programs could be implemented to raise

23
awareness about the risks of self-medication and encourage students to seek professional

medical advice when necessary.

4.3.3 Types of Drugs Used

The widespread use of painkillers and antibiotics for self-medication is a cause for

concern, as it can lead to adverse drug reactions (ADRs) and contribute to antimicrobial

resistance (AMR). The findings are consistent with studies conducted among university

students in other LMICs, which also reported high rates of painkiller and antibiotic use

for self-medication (Xu et al., 2019).

The misuse of antibiotics is particularly alarming, as it contributes to the growing

problem of antimicrobial resistance. Antibiotics should only be used under the

supervision of a healthcare professional, but the findings suggest that many students are

using these drugs without a prescription. This highlights the need for stricter regulations

regarding the sale of antibiotics in pharmacies.

4.3.4 Sources of Drugs

The reliance on pharmacies, family members, and friends as sources of drugs for self-

medication highlights the need for stricter regulations regarding the sale of OTC

medications, particularly antibiotics. Pharmacies should be required to enforce

prescription requirements for certain drugs to prevent misuse and reduce the risks

associated with self-medication.

Additionally, educational campaigns could be implemented to raise awareness about the

dangers of obtaining drugs from non-professional sources, such as family members and

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friends. Students should be encouraged to seek advice from qualified healthcare

professionals rather than relying on informal sources of information.

4.3.5 Knowledge of Risks

While the majority of students (65%) were aware of the risks associated with self-

medication, a significant proportion (35%) admitted to not considering these risks when

self-medicating. This finding suggests that educational interventions are needed to raise

awareness about the dangers of self-medication, particularly among healthcare students

who are expected to serve as role models for responsible medication use.

Educational programs could be incorporated into the curriculum for healthcare students

to ensure that they have a thorough understanding of the risks associated with self-

medication. These programs could cover topics such as adverse drug reactions,

antimicrobial resistance, and the importance of seeking professional medical advice.

4.4 Implications for Policy and Practice

The findings of this study have several implications for policy and practice:

1. Educational Interventions: Universities should incorporate health education

programs into their curricula to raise awareness about the risks of self-medication

and promote responsible medication use among students.

2. Stricter Regulations: Policymakers should enforce stricter regulations regarding

the sale of OTC medications, particularly antibiotics, to prevent misuse and

reduce the risks associated with self-medication.

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 3. Improved Access to Healthcare: Universities should consider establishing on-

campus healthcare facilities to provide students with affordable and timely access

to medical services.

4.5 Conclusion

This chapter has presented the findings of the study on the prevalence, factors, and

implications of self-medication among Level 300 physician assistant students at

Presbyterian University, Agogo. The results indicate that self-medication is a widespread

practice among the students, driven by factors such as time constraints, cost-saving, and

convenience. The findings highlight the need for targeted interventions to promote

responsible medication use and reduce the risks associated with self-medication.

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary

This study aimed to investigate the prevalence, factors, and implications of self-

medication among Level 300 physician assistant students at Presbyterian University,

Agogo. The study was guided by the following research objectives:

1. To determine the prevalence of self-medication among the students.

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 2. To evaluate the knowledge of students on the risks and implications of self-

medication.

3. To assess the common types of drugs used for self-medication.

4. To identify the reasons for self-medication among students.

5. To examine the sources of drugs used for self-medication.

A cross-sectional survey design was employed, and data were collected using a structured

questionnaire administered via Google Forms. The study included 50 Level 300

physician assistant students, and the data were analyzed using descriptive statistics.

The key findings of the study are as follows:

 Prevalence of Self-Medication: 82% of the students reported engaging in self-

medication at least once in the past six months.

 Factors Influencing Self-Medication: The primary reasons for self-medication

were time constraints (45%), cost-saving (30%), and convenience (25%).

 Types of Drugs Used: Painkillers (70%) were the most commonly used drugs,

followed by antibiotics (20%) and herbal remedies (10%).

 Sources of Drugs: Pharmacies (60%) were the most common source of drugs,

followed by family members (25%) and friends (15%).

 Knowledge of Risks: While 65% of the students were aware of the risks

associated with self-medication, 35% admitted to not considering these risks

when self-medicating.

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5.2 Conclusions

Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were drawn:

1. High Prevalence of Self-Medication: Self-medication is a widespread practice

among Level 300 physician assistant students at Presbyterian University, Agogo,

with 82% of students reporting that they engage in this practice. This high

prevalence is consistent with findings from other studies conducted in Ghana and

other low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).

2. Drivers of Self-Medication: The primary factors driving self-medication among

the students are time constraints, cost-saving, and convenience. These findings

highlight the need for interventions to address the barriers to accessing

professional healthcare services, such as long waiting times and high consultation

costs.

3. Misuse of Painkillers and Antibiotics: The widespread use of painkillers and

antibiotics for self-medication is a cause for concern, as it can lead to adverse

drug reactions (ADRs) and contribute to antimicrobial resistance (AMR). The

misuse of antibiotics, in particular, poses a significant public health threat.

4. Sources of Drugs: The reliance on pharmacies, family members, and friends as

sources of drugs for self-medication underscores the need for stricter regulations

regarding the sale of over-the-counter (OTC) medications, particularly antibiotics.

5. Awareness of Risks: While the majority of students (65%) were aware of the

risks associated with self-medication, a significant proportion (35%) admitted to

not considering these risks when self-medicating. This lack of awareness is

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 concerning, especially among future healthcare providers who are expected to

serve as role models for responsible medication use.

5.3 Recommendations

5.3.1 Recommendations for Policy and Practice

1. Educational Interventions: Universities should incorporate health education

programs into their curricula to raise awareness about the risks of self-medication

and promote responsible medication use among students. These programs should

cover topics such as adverse drug reactions, antimicrobial resistance, and the

importance of seeking professional medical advice.

2. Stricter Regulations: Policymakers should enforce stricter regulations regarding

the sale of OTC medications, particularly antibiotics. Pharmacies should be

required to enforce prescription requirements for certain drugs to prevent misuse

and reduce the risks associated with self-medication.

3. Improved Access to Healthcare: Universities should consider establishing on-

campus healthcare facilities to provide students with affordable and timely access

to medical services. These facilities could offer free or low-cost consultations,

reducing the need for students to self-medicate.

4. Public Awareness Campaigns: The government and healthcare organizations

should launch public awareness campaigns to educate the general population

about the dangers of self-medication. These campaigns could target not only

students but also the broader community, including family members and friends

who often serve as sources of drugs for self-medication.

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5.3.2 Recommendations for Further Research

1. Longitudinal Studies: Future research should consider conducting longitudinal

studies to track changes in self-medication practices over time. This would

provide insights into the long-term trends and effectiveness of interventions aimed

at reducing self-medication.

2. Broader Population: Future studies should expand the scope of research to

include students from other academic levels and disciplines, as well as non-

student populations. This would provide a more comprehensive understanding of

self-medication practices in different contexts.

3. Qualitative Research: Qualitative research methods, such as interviews and

focus group discussions, could be used to explore the underlying reasons for self-

medication in greater depth. This would provide valuable insights into the

attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions that drive self-medication practices.

4. Impact of Interventions: Future research should evaluate the effectiveness of

interventions aimed at reducing self-medication, such as educational programs

and stricter regulations. This would help to identify best practices and inform the

development of evidence-based policies.

5.4 Final Thoughts

Self-medication is a complex and multifaceted issue that poses significant risks to public

health, particularly in low- and middle-income countries like Ghana. The findings of this

study highlight the need for targeted interventions to address the factors driving self-

medication among university students, particularly those in healthcare-related disciplines.

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By promoting responsible medication use and improving access to professional

healthcare services, we can reduce the risks associated with self-medication and improve

public health outcomes.

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