30 Practical Physics for Degree Students 31

plane of the extreme

knife-edges k2 and k3
cenural knife edge kj. (Fig. 2.5) and hence the remain above the EXPT. 3. TO DETERMINE THE YOUNG'S MODULUS FOR THIE

less than the maximum value. When the sensitivity is now MATERIAL OF A WIRE BY SEARLE'S APPARATUS.
loads on each
increased the beam pan are Theory: Provided the distortion of a body is not too great, it
bends, lowering the positions of the two
extreme knife-edges. As a
consequence of this, sensitivity has been found that the amount of distortion is directly
increases. When the plane of the proportional to the magnitude of the forces producing the
extreme
brought below the horizontal plane in which theknife-edges is
central knife
distortion. This fact is known as "Hooke's law". If a wire of
edge lies, the sensitivity again decreases. The nature natural length l is stretched or compressed a distance x by a
of force F, experiment reveals that
variation of sensitivity of a balance is shown
in Fig. 2.9
beginning with the position of the central knife-edge below F= kx..... . . 4)
the Where k is a constant whose value will depend on the material.
plane of the extreme knife-edges.
the dimension of the wire and the units used for measurement.
Oral guestions and their Answers. In practice it is very desirable that the value of the constant
1. Why the beam and the pans of
are should depend only on the material of the specimen and not on
a balance
edges on agate plate ?
supported by knife- its dimension. Experiment shows that such a constant exists -

in order to diminish the friction of it is called Young's modulus of ela_ticity for the material
working parts of supPport and
suspension. symbol Y. If a force F be applied normally to a cross-sectional
2When will the beam of the balance be area A of the material in the form of a wire, then
horizontal ? F
When the moment of the mg
i s called the iensle stress where m is the mass of the
weight of the body to be weighed and that A
of the standard
'weight' about the fulcrum are equal Ttrz
What are the requisites load.g is theacceleration due to gravity andr is the radius of
of a
good balance ?
the wire . Let x be the increase in length produced in an
Must be truely sensitive, stable and rigid (See a text book).
What is senstivity ofa balance ? original length as a result of this force. Then is called the
See theory Expt. 2.
tensile strain.
Why are the weights put on the right-hand pan and the
the left-hand pan ?
boay on Young's modulus Y is then defined as the ratio of the tensile
The weighis are to be varied and for stress to tensile strain.
convenience of putting them,
they are placed on the right-hand pan. Y= tensilestress
tensile
strain
Distirguish between mass and weight. How do they vary?
Tr2

Mass (m) of a
body is the mg
quantity of ma:ter contained in the
body. It is an invariable quantity. TrZ
X> dynes / cm2
Weight (mg) is the force with which the body is attracted by he
carth towards its centre. It varies from As stres is aforce per unit area, it must be expressed in dynes
when the body is taken i) at
place to [Link] decreases
per sq. em or other units of similar dimensions. A strain is a
Irom pole to
high altitude (ii) in deep mine (ii)
equator. At the center of the earth it vanishes. As tae ratio and has no dimension. Young's modulus is, therefore.
acceleration due to gravity changes from
varies. place to place, the weight expressed in the same units as those used for stress.
7. What is measured APparatus: The Searle's apparatus, metre scale, suitable
buya
balance,- mass or weght ?i Weights, screw gauge and a long wooden stick.
Here mass is measured
by comparing it with that of the standard Deseription of the apparatus The Searle's apparatus, also
weights'. Only the spring balance gives the weight, but the rnown as micrometer apparatus, is shown in Fig 2.11.
rommon balance does not.
 32 Practical Physic for Degree Students 33
It consists of
two ) Multiply the area of cross-section of the wire in sq. cm by
metal frame-works
AB AB and D the breaking stress of the particular material given in the
supported
by two similar wires Appendix. This is the breaking load for the wire. The
wire

must not be loaded with more than half this breaking load.
wand W hanging To find the least count of the micrometer screw attached to
from the (iv)
same support
P. The the frame. determine the value of the smallest division of the
metal frames vertical scale. Give the circular scale a complete rotation and
are loosely fitted by a
observe the linear distance through which the edge of the disc
cross-piece K so that
moves. The distance covered is the pitch of the screw. Divide
any one of the frames the pitch by the number of circular divisions. This gives the
can slide .

vertically least count of the nicrometer.

through a small (v) Rotate the micrometer'screw so that air bubble in the spirit
range. One end of a level goes to the other end of it. Then rotate the micrometer
sensitive spirit level L screw in the opposite direction. until the air bubble is at the
rests on an arm. centre of the spirit level. From now the micrometer should
ENIK TMMUD1E pivoted to the frame always be turned in the same direction. Take the readings of
AB while the other the linear scale R and circular scale S.
end rests (vi) Place load (say half kg) on the scale pan. Owing to
an a
platform supported by elongation the level will be disturbed. After waiting for about a
a micrometer screw S minute adjust the micrometer screw till the bubble is
which moves against
brought
back to the centre. Note the reading of the micrometer. The
a short linear scale R difference of the two readings will give the elongation due to
fixed at this arm. Two the load added.
hooks are attached to (vii) In this way put equal
the lower parts of the
loads by a few instalments and take
the corresponding readings. These are readings with the loads
two frames AB and CD increasing on the pan.
M for supporting the (vii) When half the breaking load is reached, take out the load
stretching weight M one by one from the
pan and obtain another set of readings lor
and a scale pan (not loads decreasing, taking care to rotate the
micrometer screw in
shown). the same direction. At each instalmernt of
wait for about a minute before
decreasing the load,
taking the reading.
(ix) Measure the length of the
of
experimental wirefrom thepoint
Fig. 2.11 suspension to the point where it is clamped to the apparatus.
(x) Calculate the
Procedure: (i) Put two suitable elongation for each load increasing and
hook and scale pan to make the weights (say
1 to 2kg) on the decreasing. Draw the load versus mean elongation graph with
wires straight (dead load). load along abscissa and
) By mcans of a Screw
gauge measure the diameter of the elongation along ordinate.
experimental wire W at several regions (say 5
regions) with two
perpendicular readings at each region. Calculate Results:
the mean (A) Readings for the diameter of the
diameter and the area of wire
cross-section of the wire in sq. Cm. NO OI divisions on the micrometer erreur hand
 E

Eleongation in cms.
36 Practical Physics 37
for Degree Studentls

error should be avoided by THE

ii) 'Back-lash' turning the screw DETERMINE THE YOUNG'S MODULUS B)
EXPT. 4. TO
always in the same direction belore taking a reading.
FLEXURE OF A BEAM (BENDING METHOD).
d is
Oral Guestlons and their Answers. Theory If a rectangular beam of breadth b and depth
supported near its two ends by two knife-edges separated by a
. What is meant by elasticity ? bearn
il a load of mass m acting at a point of the
It is that property of a body which enables it to recover from a distance land
desormalion causecd by the aPplication ol a lorce, after the force is
equidistant from the knile-edges produces a depression yo
removed. When a given slress produces a delinite strain in a body
then Y. Young's modulus ol the material, is given by
the
which. after the removal ol the stress, regains its original state.
the body is said to be perlecly elastic. mg Where g is the acceleralion due to gravily.
2 Define (a) stress (b) strain (c) elastic limit and (d) Poisson's ratio ? Y -4hd3
4 yo
low power microscope or a
Apparatus: Rectangular beam,
a
(a) and (b) See Theory. (c) It is the range of deformation over
screw gauge. metre
which the body retlurns to its original state when the deforming
travelling microscope. suitable weights,
Sorces are withdrawn.{d) The ratio of laleral contracting strain to
scale.
the elongation strain is called Poisson's ratio. Its value lies of the apparatus is
Description of the apparatus: Setting
between+ and shown in Fig. 2.13.

3. Which is more elastic, nubber or steel ?

To produce a certain strain, greater stress is necessary for steel
than for rubber and hence steel is more elastic than rubber.
M
What is Hooke's Law ?See Theory'
What is breaking slress ?
It is the load requiredto
break wire
a of one sq. crm in eross
section. Breaking weight is the load required to break the wire. IIiunm(m IILNILLLLlinkuIiiluiulallulu

6. Why is t necessary to determine breaking load? K

When the applied load is less than half the breaking load.
Hooke's law is obeyed. K
?
7. Why two identical wires are suspended from the same support
See Discussion (i)
8. Will a longer and thicker wire change the value of Young's
nioclulus ?
No.
is taken afler
9. Why is it necessary to waita while before reading
pulting a load on the hanger ? the internal
Whenever a wire is stretched work is done against
slress. This work is converled into heat raising
the temperature
So the wire
of the wire and alfecting the modulus of elasticity.
must be allowed to come to the room temperature.
?
10. How Young's mocdulus is ulilised in practical field
beam will
Itisused in determining how much load a particular
constant.
salely carry. Hence in engineering, it an 'essential
is
load increasing and load decreasing
11. Why do the readings for
difer ?
to return to its
fter 1 e wire is stretched it requires some time
original length due to elastic after-elffect. The reading is usually
greater for load decreasing.

Fig. 2.13
 Practical Physicss for Degree Students

Oral guestions and their Answers.

87tI1
what is a cantileuer ? Y T .(1
A cantilever is a beam of which end is fixed in
one
horizontal where i s the length and r is the radius of the wire. I is the
position and the other free end is loaded. moment of inertia of one of the bars about its supporting
2 is it rnecessary to use a dead load here ?
thread.
No. because a beam of thickness of several millimetres is used and
The rigidity modulus, n. is givern by the formula.
hence there is no chance of producing kinks.
Does the weight of the beam afect the working formula ?
8TtIl
3.
In deducing the working formula the weight of the beam has been n Tr 2

neglected. But if the weight produces appreciable bending, it where T2 is the period of torsional oscillation when one of the
shouid be considered bars is clamped horizontally so that the specimen wire hangs
What is neutral surjace of the bent beam? yertically supporting the other bar which executes torsional
When the beam of uniform cross-s ction is bent downward at the osrillalions about the wire, and 1, r and I have the same
middie, the upper surface is compressed and the lower surface is significance.
extended. in between these two surlaces there is a layer which is Apparatus: Searle's apparatus, screw gauge. stop-watch.
neither exlended nor compressed. This layer is called neutral slide callipers, etc.
layer Description of the apparatus: A piece of specimen wire JS
5. What is berding moment ? about 30 cm long and 1 mm in diameter is soldered at the
When a beam is fixed at one end and loaded at the other end it midpoints of two brass bars AB
bends due to the moment of the applied force.
Due to this bending, and CD (Fig. 2.14a). The bars may
different layers change in length and as a
result longitudinal be about 30 cm long and 1.5 cm ir
forces are set up. This longitudinal forces acling on a cross-section width. They are suspended by
of a bar form a couple known as the bending moment which is means ol cotton threads so that
equal and opposite to the external bending couple while the beam the axis of suspension and the
1s in a sate of equilibrium. axis of the wire intersect at the
6 What is flexural rigidity ? centres of gravity of the bars. The
It is defined as the external bending moment which produces a
threads must be vertical so that
bending of unit radius of curvature. It is equal to Y. AK where Y is
they can exercise no conLrol over
Lhe Young's nodulus S
and
AK is the geometric monent of inertia. the oscillation of the bars in a
horizontal plane. In their
EXPT. 5. TO DETERMINE YOUNG'S MODULUS AND RIGIDTY position of equilibrium. the bars
MODULUS OF A SHORT WIRE BY SEARLE'S DYNAMIC will be parallel to each other and
METHOD. the wire will extend perpen-

Theory: 1f a wire specimen be fastened to two identical

dicularly fronm one to the other.
bars at their
Fg.2.14a. When the bars are twisted
mid-points from which
they are supported by equally in opposite directions about the threads as axes., the
threads and if the ends of the bars are drawn
released. the bars oscillate with a period
tog»ther and wire is bent and exerts a
on each rod.
T. In thai case back to' its
torque tending to
bring
Young's moduus Is given by the formula. position of equilibrium. When the systenm is
released the bars vibrate.
 44 for Degree Students 45
raclical ysics
Procedure: (i) Make the with a scale and
shown in Fig 2.14a. When arrangement of the ()Measure the length L
one of the barsMeasure
ofslide
the
system apparatus as the width b or radius
r with a callipers. also the
position. look from the
end B of the bar
is in
equilibrium suitable balance. Then calculate the
of the bar with a
downward and draw a chalk mark on
AB
vertically
mass
moment of inertia of the bar by using the formula
at a the lloor
point where the line of
or on
meets the loor or any object
sight
(i) Pull the ends Band C of the rods AB the object. 2+b) ifthe bars are rectangular
position of rest with and CD from
a thread (Fig. 2.14b) and their or M T).the bar is cylindrical.
then bum the
(vi) Now calculate the value of Y and n by using the formula
given in the theory of these quantities.

A
Results:
(A) Dala for length of the wire.

l3 ...cm. mean l = ..cm

...cm l2
=
...cm
l =

Least count of the screw gauge = ..mm = ...cm

Tabulate the screw gauge readings as in page. ...

Mean dianmeter = ... cm. Mean radius ... cm

(C) Moment of inertia of the bar.

Length ofthe bar, Lb
Width of the bar,
=...cm
= ...cmn

Mass of the bar, M=..gm

2+b) =.[Link]?, or! = Ml2+
Fig. 2.14b. (a Calculation of
thread. The bar will Fg. 2.14c.
(D) T
begin to
stopwatch and with reference to oscillate. Wilh the help of a
for 40. 30, and the chalk mark note the time
the mean 200 oscillations for
period ol oscillation the bar AB. Then No. No of Total time Period T, in Mean T, in
(ii) T. calculate
Then remove the bars from vibrations Sec.
obs. n sec. Sec.
clamp CD the colton
AB horizontally so that JS
hangs
threads and
Set AB in
(Fig 2.14 c vertically supporting
the wire in vibration in a horizontal 40
plane. thereby setting
the time for torsional oscillation. As done
40.30 and 20
watch. Calculate
the mean oscillations with the help of a
previously,
find out
3 20
**

(iv) By suitable period ol oscillalion stop

With the means determine To.
help of a screw the
wire very gauge determine thelength of the wire.
mean radius.
carefully at several places and diameter of the b) Calculation of T2.
then calculate the
Tabulate as in (a) above.
 Practical Physles

46

Calculation:

87t dynes/sq. cm
Y
T2 r
. . d y n e s / sq. cm
8Tll
and so the
T, length of the
wire is used
Discussions (i) Short detemmined by using
than the
same
accurate homogeneous
scldom
value of Y is more
the wire is
case
in that
wires as
long which
throughout its length. determined
simultaneously

value of n is also
(i) The method.
and not by
of the timing
is the advantage o b t a i n e d by
m o d u l u s is This is also
an

(ii) Young's in other

methods.
as
deflections
observing radius of
method. lhe
the
advantage of
mcasure

be taken to
should detemine

(iv) Special
carc
and also to
fourth power
in the are
obtairied
it
of Y andn
occurs
the wire as values
oscillations as the
the period of
by timing Answers.
and their
Oral guestions oscillation
torsional
oscillation
and
pendulum
1. How do the
and the
difer? controlled by gravity
oscillations are

The pendulum in the suspending

oscillations
are
controlled by torsion
torsional

wire. and rigidity

modulus by
modulus
compare
Young's
you
2. How c a n
this method ? that
it follows
formula (1) and (2) given in theory
the of
From
from the known value
Knowing T1 and T2 and
calculated
c a n be
either n or Y, the other ?
method
ratio, be
determined by this
Poisson's
3. Can o, the 2

2n (1+o) whence2{1+0)
=
:
Yes. Y
 Practi Physie for Degree Students 61
m
Mean value of as obtained from the
graph nertia of whichaha
=
..
Acceleration due to gravity =. . cm/sec2

360(gd
2r4 X*
m
..

dynes/ sq. cm. for Degree Studernts

53
(0-P,
MODULUS OF RIGIDITY OF A
DETERMINE THE
Discussions ( The length of the wire is to be measured EXPT. 7. TO OSCILLATIONS (DYNAMIC
METHOD OF
THE
from the point of suspension upto the point .at which the WIRE BY
pointer is attached. METHOD) of
be supported by a vertical wire
(ii) The radius of the wire should be measured with Theory: If a heavy
body
and radius r,
so that the axis of the wire passes
maximum possible accuracy. length
its centre of gravity (Fig 2.17)
(ii) The threads supporting the hangers should be parallel through turned
and if the body be
to ensure that the arm of the couple is equal to the diameter of released
through an angle and
the ly-wheel. vill execute
torsional
it vertical
oscillations
about a

axis. If at any instant the angle

Oral Questions and their Answers
of twist be 6, the
moment of the A
exerted by the
1. what are shearing stress and shearing strain ? torsional couple
Shearing stress is the tangential force applied per unit area while wire will be

shearing strain is the angle of shear expressed in radians. n T Ce. 1)

2. What is rigidity ? What is its unit ? 210

Rigidity is the ratio of shearing stress to the shearing strain. In a constant

where C=
C.C.S. system its unit is dynes/sq. cm.
and n is the modulus
of rigidity
3. Does the change in the values of length and diameter of the wire of the material of the-wire.
afeet the value of rigdity ? Therefore. the motion is sinmple
No. such changes only change the twist. harmonic and of fixed period
4. What is the effect of change of temperature on rigidity ?
T 2 2
With the increa_e of temperature. rigidity decreases.
5. where I is the moment of inertia
Distinguish between torsional rigidity tand simple rigidity (n)
The couple required to twist the of the body.
wire by one radian is the
torsional Sll
rigidity (t) while ratio of the shearing stress to shearing From (1) and (2), T =

strain is the simple rigidity (n). t = Fig. 2.17.

or n
dynes/[Link] disc or cylindrical bar,
APparatus: A uniform wire, a
scale, etc.
Suitable clamps, stop-watch, gauge, metre
screw
ol
Description of the apparatus:
The apparatus
consists a
nt
mPans
hv oiinnart
iaid
 Practical hysics for Degree Students 61

54
Practical Pluysics
lower end of
the wire B so that the axis ol for Degree Studenls
55
with the axis of the suspension coincides
cylinder. In Some cases the Results:
arrangement is enclosed in a whole
glass case to avoid (A) Readings for the diameter of the wire.
dist urbances. air
Tabulate as in expt. 3.
Procedure: () Detach the
cylinder from the Mean diameter of the wire = ... cm
and weigh it with abalance. Also measure its suspension Mean radius of the wire, r = ... cm
diameter
means of a pair of slide
callipers at five different places. by (B) Readings for the diameter of the cylinder.
calculate the moment of inertia of the Then
cylinder from its mass Tabulate the result as in expt. 6
M and radius a
using the relationI =Ma2 Radius of the cylinder, a = ... cm
(ii) Measure the diameter of the wire (C)Massof cylinder, M =. gm.
by means of a screw Moment of inertia of the
gauge at five different points along the cylinder,
length of the wire,
taking two mutually perpendicular readings at each
(iil) Suspend the cylinder with the position.
I =
Ma2 =...gr cn

experimental wire from (D) Length of the wire, 1.

the rigid support so that it rotates
about the axis of the wire. ().. cm (i)... cm (i) ... m
(iv) Measure the length of the wire
from the point of Mean 1 ... cm
support and the point which the wire is attached to
at (E) Readings for the time period T.
the
cylinder with a rod and metre scale.
fv) Put a vertical chalk mark on the
surface of the cylinder No. ot Time for Period of Mcan T.
and when it is at rest.
place a pointer facing the vertical line. obs.
In reference to
this pointer, oscillations are 30 oscillations OSciliation T
counted.
Alternatively a telescope is to be focussed from the distance on
the vertical line on
the cylinder so that it may 'remain
coincident (without
parallax) with the vertical line of the
cross-wire of telescope.
(vi) Givelittle twist to the
a
rest cylinder from its position of
through a certain
angle so that it begins to oscillate about Calculation: Modulus of
its axis of
suspension. With the help of a rigidity
time for 30 stop-watch, note the
complete oscillations. When the vertical line on n =T2r4 dynes/sq. cm
the cylinder is going towards the right, crossing the Discussions: (i) Since the radius of the wire
pointer or the vertical tip of the occurs in
line of the cross-wire of the fourth power, it should be measured
stop-watch is started. The telescope, a
very accurtely.
cylinder will perform one complete i) A large
number of oscillations should be counted for
OSCillation when the line
vertical line of the cross-wire
on it crosses the
pointer or the determining ordinary T, the period of oscillation.
(vii) Repeat the again in the same direction. ii) The experimental wire
should pass through the axis ot
operations three times and from these the cylinder.
observations calculate the mean
period of oscillation. iv The pendulum oscillation nf tho
*
1.-
 (v) Since the ratio al
ysics
dsplacement
conslant. the angular amplitude the to for Degree Students
may have anyacceleration is 57
the elastic limits of the value within
ivil With the
experimental wire.
increase of the
length of the wire
oscillation increases and with the increase of the
period of
the cylinder the period decreases. diameter of
Oral guestions and their Answers. dm

How ao the length and diameter of the wire

osciliation of a torsional
alfect the period
of
pendulum ?
See Discussion (vi)
2. Does the period of oscillalion depend on the
amplitude of
oscillation of [Link] ? mo
No. The angle of oscillation may have any value
within the
elastic limit of the suspension wire.
3. How wil the period of oscillation be
affected if the' bob of the
pendulum be made heauy ?
With greater mass. the moment of inertia increases
and hence it
will oscillate slowly with greater period.
EXPT. 8. TO DETERMINE THE PRING
CONSTANT AND
EFFECTTVE MASS OF A GIVEN SPIRAL SPRING
AND HENCE Fig. 2.18.
TO CALCULATE THE RIGIDITY
MODULUS OF THE MATERIAL At this same instant an element dm of the
OF THE SPRING mass m of the
spring will also be moving up but with a velocity v which is
Theory: If a spring be clamped vertically at the end P, and smaller than vo It is evident that the ratio between v and
Vo is
loaded with a mass mo at the other end A, then the of period just the
vibration of the spring along a vertical line is given by
ratio
between y and yo . Hence, .e., v
=y.
The kinetic energy of the
spring alone will be
T 271 =2 . (1)
But dm
where n is a constant called the effective mass of the spring
and k, the spring çonstant i.e.. the ratio between the added
may be written as dy,
Yo
where m is the mass of the

force and the spring.

corresponding stretch of the spring. Thus the integral equals to )[Link] total kinetic
How the mass of the spring contributes to the effective
mass of the vibrating system can be shown as follows. energy of the system will then be
Consider the kinetic energy of a spring and its load undergoing
(mo+ and the effective mass
of the system is,
simple harmonic motion. At the instant under consideration
let the load mo be moving with velocity vo as shown in fig. 2.18.-
therefore, mo+ m
 for Degree Studerils
59
Practical Physics
(vi) graphs with added loads m, in grams (ordinate)
Draw
. (2) extensions of the spring in cm (abscissa) and
with
Hencem =gm
* * * * * * * * * * * * * *

against the
Draw lines of best fit through the points.
elfective; nass of the spring and m = true mass of Tas a function of mo.
where m'
=

Is proportional to the determine the slope of the line by

the spring.
The appliea 1orce
moS (vil) From the first graph
the origin with co-
extension l withim
the elastíc limit. Therefore mg =
kl. choosing two points on it, one near

and the other near the upper end

ordinates x cIm and yj gm-wt
(3) Cm and y, gm-wt.
Hence m f the line with
co-ordinates X
* * * * * * * ' * * * * * *

modulus of the material of the spring,

1f n is the rigidity The slope will be 2 gm-wt/cm and the spring
then it can also be proved that
2onstant k will be this slope multipli d by g.
The second graph T vs mo does not pass through the
n 4 NRk (4)
origin owing to the spring which has not been
mass of the

where N = No. of turns in the spring, R =radius of the spring considered in drawing of the resulting line on
it. The
intercept
of the spring and k spring the effective of the spring.
=

andr radius of the wire the mass-axis gives m', mass

Measure the mass m of the spring with a balance and

constant. (vii)
convenient m a s s e s with
Apparatus : A spiral spring, showthat the effective mass m' obtained from the graph is
or a hook attached to a rigid
hanging arrangement, clamp m
framework of heavy metal rods, weighing
balance, stop clock ofit i.e., nm' =

may be a steel spring capableof

and scale. The spiral spring (ix) Count the number of turns in the spring. Determine the
cathetometer may also be used radius of the spring. With the help of the slide callipers (Art.
sufficient loads. A
supporting
to determine vertical displacements more accurately. 2.1] find out the inside and oulside diarmeters of the spring.
at one end at the edge of
the
Procedure : ) Clamp the spring Make several observations. Take the mean values. If D is the
hook attached to a
the spring by a outside diameter and d is the inside diameter then the mean
working table or suspend
of the spring is given by D+d
metal rods.
igid framework of heavy scale. radius
the spring with a metre
ii) Measure the length L of,
or make any other arrangement Also measure the radius of the wire of the spring very
Put a scale behind the spring
to measure the extensions of the spring carefully with a screw-gage. A number of values are to be
end of the spring so that obtained at dillerent points and the mnean value taken.
i ) Add suitable weight to the free
it extends to the position O (Fig. 2.18).
On the relerence frame Then with the help of eqn. (4), calculate the rigidity
read the extension l and note the modulus of the material of the spring.
put behind the spring,
posilion O. Results:
low
to a moderately (A) length of the spring L =
(iv) Pull the load from position O
will now execute
position B and then let it go. The spring (B Determinations of extensions and time periods.
and down about the No. of| Loads
simple hamonic motion and vibrate up Extension No. of Total time period
of 50 vibrations. obs.
position o. With a stop clock take the time in cms. vibrations in secs
the transits in one direction
Count the vibrations by observing gms. in seC.
at O the reference line.
of the upper edge of the load across

Compute the period T in sec. per vibration. 2

sets of loadsS. 3
() Repeat operations (üi) and (iv) for at least 5
 for Degree Students
ysics
60
Practical Physicss
mertia of which; about its axis
C Draw the graphs as described in
procedure (vi). rotation, is I. The length of t
D) Calculation of k, the spring constant and m', the string is such that it becom
mass of the spring effective
as desçribed in procedure (vi). detached from the axle when t
Fromgraph 1, y2 gm- wt/cm M(say). =
mass strikes the floor. In
falli
a distance h. the potential ener|
Spring constant k =
Mg =
.. dynes/cm
(E) Measurement of the mass ol the spring,
sured CM of the mass has been
convert
m.
.. =
gms. ... A into kinetic rotational ar
(F) Data for calculation of n, the
rigidity modulus of the the
material of the spring. ranslational energy. If w be tl
(a) No. of turns N in the spring = with maximum angular velocity of th
b) Radius of the spring R: wheel. F the amount of
Extermal diameter of the spring (mean) D . c n .
wo
done against frictionn
Internal diameter of the spring (mearn) d
rallel p
revolution and n, the number «
.. .cm.
=
ter of
Radius ofthe spring, R = revolutions made while the mas
falls the distance h. the loss i
(c) Radius of the wire of the spring (mean) r =. ..cIm. Fig 2.19a. potential energy of M
Calculation: n = *N* gain i/
=

. . dynes/[Link]. kinetic energy of M gain in K. E of

+
flywheel+work don
against frction.
From graph 1.
= . gm-wt/cm. = M (say).
Mgh Mru?
Spring constant k = Mg = .
while
=
+
la?+nF. (1)
. dynes/cm. After the mass strikes the ground the wheel executes:
From graph 2. Effective mass of
spring, m= gms. further n, revolutions and the
angular velocity graduall;
Oral guestions and their Aíswers.
1. What is spring constani ? in. In decreases to zero. The rotational kinetic
When a force is applied to the free end of a energy 10 has beer
spiral spring used up in overcoming frictional forces, hence
Suspended from a fixed support, the spring stretches in a normal e wire
manner and
and the
obeys Hooke's law. The ratio of the applied forcee Fn . (2)
elongation is a constant and is known as the spring
constant. I n2 revolutions take a time t. then the average angular
2 What is the
effective mass of the spring ? 27tn
On the
period of vibrations of a spring with a load, the effect of velocity a is given by
the mass of the
spring distributed over its whole length is the
same as
though one-third the mass of the spring is added to the. (r Since the angular velocity decreases uniformly from a
load. This one-third the the maximum o to
a minimum of zero. the average
effective mass of the
mass of the
spring is known as the angular
spring. aring
EXPT. 9. TO DETERMINE THE velocity a is also given by a =
MOMENT OF INERTLA OF A
FLY-WHEEL [Link] AXIS OF
ROTATION.
Theory : Fig. 2.19a. shows a mass M. attached by means of Also the motion is unifom. Hence
a
string to the axie. radius r. of a
fly-wheel the moment of
 ractical Physlcs
EXPT.10. TO DETERMINE THE VALUE OF
g. ACCELERATION
for Degree Students 67
DUE TO GRAVITY, BY MEANS OF A cOMPOUND
PENDULUM changeable i, e., when the body oscillates about O or S. the time
Theory Compound pendulum is a rigid body of any shape free period is the same. f GS l2 then l1 + l2 Land l +l2
=
=
=K?
to tum about a horizontal axis. and the moment ofinertla about the axis through G is MK? =
In M2 and K = V 1,l12
Fig. 2.20a. G is the centre
of Apparatus: A bar pendulum, a small metal wedge, a beam
gravity of the
pendulum of mass
M, which compass, a spirit level, a telescope with cross-wires in the eye-
performs oscillations
about a horizontal axis piece, stop-watch, and a wooden prism with metal
edge.
O. When the
through Description of the apparatus: The apparatus ordinarily used in
pendulum is at an the laboratory is a rectangular bar AB of brass about
angle 6 to the l metre
vertical, the long. A series of holes is drilled along the bar at intervals of 2-
equation of motion of the
3 cm (Fig. 2.20b). By inserting the metal
pendulum is I @ Mgl1 sin 6
=
wedge S in one of the holes and placing
where o is the angular the wedge on the support S,S2, the bar
acceleration produced, lj is the may be made to oscillate.
distance OG and I is the moment O
Procedure : (i) Find out the centre of
of inertia of the
pendulum about gravity G of the bar by balancing it on
the axis of oscillations. For the wooden prism. S
small amplitude of vibrations. (ii) Put achalk mark on the line AB of
sin 6 = 6, so that the bar. Insert the metal
wedge in the
Fig. 2.20 a I = Mg l , 6. first hole in the bar towards A and
place
the wedge on the support S
Hence the motion is simple harmonic, with period of S2 so that the
vibrations, bar can tum round S.
(ii) Place a telescope at a distance of
T 2TV Mg!1 about a metre from the bar and focus
the
cross-wires and rotate the collar of the
If K is the radius of
gyration of the pendulum about an axis tube till the cross-wires form a
distinct
through G parallel to the axis of oscillation through 0, from cross. Next focus the
the Paraliel Axes Thecremn, bar and see that the
telescope on the

I =M(K+1 ). and so point of inter.

section of the cross-wires
with the chalk mark
coincides
of the bar.
along the line AB
T 21 Ng12 V2 (iv) Set the bar to oscillate
taking caret
see that the
amplitude
not more than 5°,
of oscillations is
where L Note the time for 50
+l is the length of the equivalent simple oscillations by counting the oscilla-
pendulum. tions when the line AB
passes the Fig. 2.20 b.
If we measure
length GS inter-section of the cross-wires in the
=
along OG produced. then S is (v)
same direction
Measure the length from the and A of
called the centre of oscillation. the tirst
the bar to the top of
The points O and S are inter- hole i. e.. upto the
point of suspension ol the
pendulum
 65
Practical Physic
hl in the same way, for Degree Students 69
suspend the bar at holes 2, 3,
time note times for 50 oscillations. Also .....and each
from the end A for each hole. measure distances and that measured towards the end E to the right of the origin
(see Fig. 2.20c).
viil When the middlepoint ot the bar is passed, it
will turn A line ABCD drawn parallel to the abscissa intersects the two
round so that the end B is now on the
top. But continue curves at ABC &D. Here also the length AC or BD is the length
measuring distances from the point ol suspension to the of the equivalent simple pendulum.
end A.
vii) Now calculate the time-period T irom the
time recorded
for 50 oscillations.
(ix) On a nice and large graph paper, plot curve with a
abscissa and periodT as ordinate. while length as
the origin on the lest side of the
drawing the graph put
graph paper (Fig. 2.20c).
x) Through the point on the graph paper
centre of gravity of the bar, draw a verticalcorresponding
to the L-T Curve
line. Draw a second
line ABCD along the abscissa. AC or
BD is [Link] of the
equivalent simple pendulum i.e., L= 1+7K2 AG 1 and CG =

=
. C being the centre of oscillation.
2.
K2
Similarly GD =l1 and GD = =l2 B being the centre of
oscillation. From this. g =[Link] be calculated.
(xi) By drawing another line A' B'
of
C' D', calculate another value

Alternative method of measuring the length of the

pendulum.
Instead of
measuring length from the end A to the
point of
Suspension. length can also be
measured from the point of 40 30 20
suspension to the centre of 20 30 40
In that case gravity G of the bar (see Fig. 2.20b).
also there will be two Distance from C. G.(in cm)
sets of
the end A at the
top and again with the end B
readings-once
with.
Calculate the period T with 50 at the top.
oscillations at each
Now draw a
graph with the centre of gravity of thesuspension.
origin which is put at the middle bar at the
abscissa. Put the of the paper along the
length measured towards the end A to
the left
Fig. (2.20 c
 Practical
Physics for Degree Students 71
Results:

Ai Observation for the time period T and the distance of the (vi) Error due to the yielding of support, air resistance, and
point ofsuspension from the end A. irregular knife-edge should be avoided.

(vil) Determination of the position of G only helps us to

understand that AG =l and
At the lop Hole no. Distance Time for 50
rom
Mcan Time Mcan Period CC=h and is not necessary for determining the value of 'g'.
oscillations T
End A = CIm

(vili) For the lengths corresponding to the points A,B, C & D the
(i) e c
iil.. scc period is the sane.
Cm
.SCC (ix) At the lowest points of the curves Pi and P2 the centre of
(i). scc
11i. sec suspension and the centre of oscillation coincide.
It is really difficult to locate the points P1 and P2 in the graph
ii)
and so K is calculated from the relation
elc
K= VGAGB = VGBGC.
EndB
EXPT. 11. TO DETERMINE THE VALUE OF 'g BY KATER'S
ctc etc. REVERSIBLE PENDULUM.
Theory: In a Kater's pendulum if and be distances of two
points from the centre of gravity of the bar and on opposite
direction from it such that the periods of oscillations about
(B) Alternaive method of measuring length. these points are exactly equal, then period T is given
Use the above table only by
changing the third column by
"Distance from G". the centre of
(From graph)
gravity. T 2 or g=42 ..
(1)
But it is extremely difficult to make the
Lenguh AC = ... Cm
Length BD =... cn. periods exactly equal.
It can, however, be shown in the
Mean length L= AC+BD followingway that the time-
2 .Cn periods T| and T2 about these two points need not be
exactly
Corresponding time-period from the graph equal.
T ... SC
8.T2 ..... cm/secz
T 21/4R 4R
Discussions: () Distances are to be measured from the end A
or
the point G.
preferably from A. or
T2.4,g =472 (,2+K9. T,2 I2g= 472 (+K*).
i) In
measuring time an accurate stop-watch should be used.
(ii) Oscillations should be Subtracting. (T-T2l2)g= 4r2(0
bar erosses the
counted whenever the line of the
same direction.
intersecting point of the cross-wires, in the
(iv) Graph paper
or, -1T,2
used should have 2-12
Squares ard should be sharp lines and accurate l2
large curves. suíficiently large to draw smooth and
or,
v) Amplitude of .... (2)
oscillations must not be more than
5
-2
From the above
relation, g can be calculated.
Apparatus : Kater's nendnm ot on ..-'
 72
Practic Physics for Degree Students 73
Description of the apparatus: The Kater's
of a metal rod about pendulum consists
one metre in length having if the difference between these two times increases, slide the
w fixed at one end (Fig. 2.21). Two steel
a
heavy mass weight w in the opposite directlon
knife-edges
are fixed to this rod with their edges turned ki and ka
(v) Go on adjusting the weights Wj until the times for 10. 15 and
towards each
from which the pendulum can be
suspended. Two other other,
weights w and w2 can slide along the rod and can small
20 oscillations about the knife-edges k and k become nearly
be screwed equal.
anywhere on it. With the help of these two (vi) Then make the final adjustment by sliding w2 until the
weights, centre of
gravity of the rod can be altered and the periods of time for 50 occillations about the two knife-edges are very
of the pendulum about kj and k2 can be made oscillation nearly equal.
equal. The smaller weight W2 has a (vil) The apparatus is now ready for recording periods Ti and
micrometer arrangement for fine T2: Suspend the pendulum about the knife-edge k and
adjustment. The pendulum is made to carefully record the time for 50 oscillations. Repeat the
oscillate about one of the knife-edges from a
process 5 times. Then suspend the pendulum about the knife
rigid support. vk edge k and make 5 observations with 50 osciluations each
Procedure : () Suspend the pendulum from a time. The mean time-period about kj is Ti and that ubout k is
rigid support about the knife-edge kj. so that T2
the weight W is in downward position. (vii) Carefully remove the pendulum from the support without
(i) Focus the cross-wires of the telescope and disturbing any of the weights, Place the rod system on the
rotate the collar of the tube till the
cross- wedge and find out the C. G. of the system. Measure accurately
wires fom a distinct cross. Next the distance l of k from C. G. and lh of k from C. G. Hence the
place
the
telescope at a distance of about one melre distance between the two knife-edges is l+lh.
from the pendulum and focus it on the lower. Then calculate 'g' from the relation given in the
eqn. (2) in the
tail t of the pendulum (or theory.
chalk line marked along the
alternatively on a Results:
lengh of the
pendulum) so that the vertical line of the (A) Recording of time for 10, 15, 20, etc. oscillations
crosswire or the point of intersection of the successive adjustments.
after
crosswires (when none of them is vertica1)
coincides vith the tail t or the chalk mark.
(1i) Displace the pendulum
release it. The
slightly and A k2
pendulum will begin to
oscillate. Note the time for 10 No. of
complete
oscillations (the amplitude of oscillations
Time Time
obs. about knife-cdge k,
should be small) with an about knife-edge k,
watch. Repeat the same for accurate stop-
the knife-edge k2.
The two times will
generally differ.
(iv) Slide the heavier
direction and notc the weight w1
in one
ne for 10 oscilla- etc.
ons about
k and k. I the difference Fig. 2.21
between these two
times decreases, then the weight wj
be slided in the
same direct+on in subsequent sh uld
adjustments But
(B) actical Physic for Degree Students
Recording of time for 50 75
Siner adjustment. oscillations after
successive (E) Measurement of l and

No. of
Time sor 50
obs. oscil'ations No. ofReadng at Mean Readtng Mean Reading Mean Mean Mean
about knise-edges lanise-edge (a at C.G. (b) krlse edge lc)
lengthlength
CTn
Cn

2 .CIn ** CIs Ca

etc.

T2-T,2
(C) Recording of the periods Ti g
and T2 or,g . cm/sec2
Discussions () The are of swing should be small.
Time sor 50 (1i) The support should be rigid and should not
Time for 50 move when the
No. of pendulum oscillates.
oscillations Mean oscillations (1ii) Telescope may not be used in the
obs. Mean
about the earlier part of the
knise edge k,
T about the adjustments.
knife-edge k Oral guestions and their Answers.
. What is compound pendulum ?
a

See theory of
Expt. No. 10.
Which is
superior-compound
The ideal conditions of a
pendulum or a simple pendulum ?
in practice. In a
simple pendulun cannot be attained
compound pendulum the length of an
equivalent simple pendulum can be determined and
T and T2 should be neary equal. value of 'g can be hence the
(D) accurately found out. The commpound pendulum
Distance betuween the two knife-edges. oscillates as a whole and due to its heavy mass. goes on
oscillating for a long time. Hence compound
superior simple pendulum.
to pendulum is
o. 3.
Reading at Mcan Reading at What do you mean
Mean Mcan distance
by centre of suspension and centre oj
obe
(a) K
oscillation ?
-a-b It is
possible to find out two points on the
. Cm
centre of opposite sides of the
Cm
gravity of the pendulum such that the periods of
* Cn Cn
Oscillation of the
one point is
pendulum about these points are equal and
called the centre of
is called the suspension and the other point
centre of oscillation.
 What is he al Physics
length
th of ithe
The distance betwveen the equ lent súmple for Degree Students
oscillation is
centre of pendulum ?
suspension 77
called the
pendulum. length of the and the centre of Hence weight of the liquid column
What are the equivalent simple Since the column
=
rr2 (h +) Pg.
defects of the compound pendulum surface tension must
is in
equilibriun the upward force due to
G) The
compound
this increases thependulum tends to
? support the weight of the liquid colurnn.
Hence. for equilibrium,
effective mass drag
some air
with it and
inertia of the moving and hence T cos 9
the x 2rr nr (h
inite which needs some
system. ii) The
amplitude
of
of moment '

For water e is zero and

=
+zr)°g
correction. oscillation is hence cose is
unity. So the above
EXPT. 12. TO relation gives
DETERMINE THE SURFACE
BYCAPILLARY TUBE METHOD. TENSION OF WATER T-h 3) dynes/ cm.
Theory : The surface tension of
liquid is the force acting
a
Apparatus: Capillary tubes of
perpendicular to each
centimetre of the varying bores, travelling
microscope, needle, beaker, clamp. stand, etc.
plane the surface. If one end of a cleanimaginary
of
fine
line in the
Procedure : (i) Take a few
dipped in a liquid, the liquid rises up the tube capillary tube is Clean the bore of the tubes
capillary tubes of different bores.
h (Fig. 2.22). through a height carefully with
and then with caustic soda and hydrochloric acid
finally wash
by passing water
The through it.
surface tension T acts i1) ke the base and the axis of a
upwards along the tangent to the horizontal by using a travelling microscope
meniscus. The component of T spirit
the microscope sharply.
level. Also focus the cross-wires of

acting vertically upwards is (ii) Take some water in a clean beaker.

Hold a glass plate G in
Tcose and the total force acting a clamp and attach
two capillary tubes A and B to it with
wax
or rubber bands
upwards is T cos 6. 2tr, r being (Fig. 2.23a). Put the glass plate G in such a
the internal radius of the position that the capillary tubes are vertical and their ends
well in the water. Water will rise in dip
capillary tabe. This is the upward the tubes.
(iv) Place the needle N,
force due to surface tension of the horizon'ally on the base of the
microscope and take readings at ihe two ends of the needle.
liquid. The difference of these
the iquid column
readings will give the length t of the
The weight of needle. Place the needle by the
side of the tubes and its adjust
acting downwards is equal to v xe position such that its lower point is just above the water
Xg where P is the density of the surface in the beaker. If it
dips water, water will rise along
in
its sidesS.
liquid and g is the acceleration
Fg. 2.22 due to graity. ( Focus the microscope on the needle and adjust it such that
The volume V h +volume of the meniscus for the horizontal cross-wire coincides with the top of the needle.
=nr2 a
tube or Read the vertical scale of the microscope.
unifom bore. If the radius r is small, the meniscus volume ool
=

vi Adjust the height of the microscope such that its

a cylinder of radius r and
height h volume of
radius r. This can be written as
-

hemisphere horizontal cross-wire just touches the lower meniscus in tube

A (See Fig. 2. 23b) It will look inverted: read the
Volume of meniscus tr3- '=gn
= microscope
Scale. Take the difference of this reading and the reading in

Therefore V = nr2h + 3=Tr2 (h*g) above. If the top of the needle stands above the water meniscus
 ractical Phystcs for Degree Students
19
Results:
(A) Data for the length of the needle.
FIELD OF VIEW OF Vernier constant of the
microscope (horizontal scale) = ... cm

MICROSCOPE Table 1
N G N
8A
No. of Reading in cm at
N Difference of (a) and (b) Mean
obs. Left end Right end= length l CIn
length
(a) (b)

a
in
Fig. 2.23
the tube,
subtract this difference from the
needle t0 get the length of the (B) Readings Jor the needle head.
height h. If the top stands below the meniscuus,
add th:s difference to
the length of the needle to Vemier constant of the
get h. microscope scale (vertical) =
cm.
vi Now break the tube at the level of the meniscus
. .

with a file Table 2

and hold it
horizontally. By moving the microscope
horizontally, make the vertical cross-wire
tangential to the
lelt side of the bore.
Read the horizontal scale of the
microscope. Shift the microscope horizontally until the No. of
vertical cross-wire is Main| V.S. V.C. value of Total Mean
Kead the
tangential to the right
side of the bore.
obs.
microscope again. Difference of these two readings S.R R V.R.
gives the diameter of the
R
bore. Similarly. by the vertical Cim Cm
movement of the Cm .Cm .CIm
microscope, determine the diameter
in the
perpendicular position. Take the mean of these two diametersS
and then find out the
radius.
(vil Repeat the experiment with two other capillary tubes of
different bores.
ix) With a
thermometer take [Link] of water at the
begining and end of the
experiment.
 for Degree Studernts

60 Practical Pnysics
Cm
C) Readings Jor the water meniscus in the tubes. Mean radius,
r
=. .
Table 3. of the liquid.
(E) Temperature
C. C

No. of M.S. V.S. V.C. Initial temperature of water, 0,

Tube Value of| Total Mean experiment, 02 C... C
Temperature at the end of the
obs R R V.R.
R during the éxperiment
Mean temp. of water
A . Cm . CIn .Cm CIm . cm
=eC. C
2 = .gm/c.c
Densityof water at eC=P
Calculation: T=th+)=...dynes
/ cm.
B . cm used be and not distilled
cIm Cm Cm cm water should
(i) Tap
.

Discussions
2 water. For this
water should be
free from grease.
The surface of
(ii) acid before it is used
washed with
3 beaker should be
purpose the
for the experiment.
be vertical.
Diference of readings at needle head and water meniscus in (ii) The tubes should mneniscus.
should be taken at the lower
(iv) Reading above the
tubeAX =
(R1 ~R2) cm needle should not touch the water but be just
(v) The
Height h of the water meniscus in tube A = (l +X) cm surface.
merniscus.
For height h of the water meniscus in tube B, use the same at the level of the
(vi) The tube should be broken
method.
tubes. Oral guestions and their Answers.
(D) Measurement of radius r of the
Table 4
1. What is surface tension ? What is its unit ?

DAller- Mean| See theory. In.C.G.S. system its unit is dynes/cm.

n ens for the bare
Tube Drec Readtngs
nce
2. Define (a) angle of contact, (b) cohesive and adhesive forces.
No. don o
D
RLght or upper end
See any textbook.
obs. Left or lower end
-D 3. What is the effect of temperature on surface tension ?
V.c. Value |Mean M.S. [Link] Mean &Y|
M.S| V.S. of V.R Surface tension decreases with the increase of temperature.
R R ofV.R R
R Surface tension vanishes at a temperature called the critical
Hortzo temperature.
nual 4. Why should water be free from grease ?
When grease is present, we get surface tension of the film of
Vertical grease and not of water.
5. does the surface tension of a liquid
| Hortso On whatfactors ?
(a) On the nature of he liquid. (b) On the nature of surface in
depend
contact e.g. surface tension of water in contact with air is 74
dynes/cm while that of water in contact with its vapour is 71.4
 83
actical Physics Tor Degree Students
mes/cm. nearly. (C) On the temperature of the T being
the s u r f a c e
the lemp. less the surface tension. liquid, hidhe from left to right, the portlon
igher exerts a force Tô acting
force act parallel
to HK o n

will the liquid overflow f the tube be

of tnsuficient tension. Since no other

height ? geh2o T
of the slice, TÕ
The angle of contact 0 will change to 0 such that _h CDLKH
=

cose cose
Why should distilled water not be used ?
During distillation process, vapour of water comes in contact
with various tube joints having wax
contaminated.
sealing and is thereby

EXPT. 13. TO DETERMINE

THE SURFACE TENSION
OF
MERCURY AND THE ANGLE OF CONTACT BY
QUINCKE'S
METHOD.
Fig. 2.24b.
Theory: Let a drop ofmercury be supported on a clean glass and the
c o n t a c t between
the glass plate
of
plate. Let the drop be so large that it is flat. Let an imaginary If 6 be the angle be shown that
the total height, it
can

vertical plane divide the drop into two halves at the section AB liquid and h',
and a thin slice be cut from one half of the drop by two parallel 6h'
sin 2h
and vertical planes CD and EF perpendicular to the plane AB screws. travellirng
Apparatus:
Plane glass plate. levelling
and a distance ð apart (Fig. 2.24a). Let a horizontal plane HKL microscope, mercury,
lycopodium powder.
soda and nitric
Procedure (i) Clean plate with caustic
a glass
distilled water and dry it.
acid and finally with
the levelling s c r e w s .
Carefully make it
3 (ii) Support it o n level. Pour mercury, free
from
horizontal by m e a n s
of a spirit
on it s o a s to form
a large circular drop.
any impurity, nicroscope so
c r o s s - w i r e s of the traveling
(iii) Arrange the
that one of them is vertical in the eye-piece.
the
the edge of the drop. Adjust
iv) Focus the microscope on cross-wire is tangential at
vertical
microscope such that the
the mercury drop and put
the point of maximum curvature of vertical
intersection of the cross-wires at this point by
the
on the vertical
movement of the microscope. Note the reading
Fig. 2.24.a scale of the microscope.
surface is vertical of the drop. Raise
be drawn through the point H at which the
of the (v) Sprinkle some lycopodium dust on the top
to the right surface of the drop
h. Then the liquid the [Link] move it towards the flat
ig. 2.24b). Let FK
=
varying irom horizontal cross-wire
vertical plane FL exert a hydrostatic
pressure
Hence the
and adjust the microscope such i at the
the reading on
zero at F to geh at K (P being
the density of mercury). Coincides with upper surface of the drop. Note
and since the of this
o n the plane FL
is geh/2 the vertical scale of the microscope. The difference
average pressure exerted
on it from right to reading and that of operation (iv) gives h.
a r e a of the plane is hö, the total
force acting of separation
(vi Lower the microscope and focus it on the line
the section FD of the glass plate and mercury. Note the reading on
the vertical
left is equal to The surface to the rlght of
 Practic Physic
n-T Curve lor Degree Studernls 167

EXPT. 28., TO VERIFY THE LAWS OF TRANSVERSE VIBRA-

n Curuve TION OF A STRETCHED STRING BY SONOMETER.

Theory: It has already been shown (see theory of expt 26.) that

the frequency n
of avibrating string is given by n= V
where l, t and m have the same meanings as in the theory of
expt 26. From this relation one obtains the laws of transverse
vibration of a string which are
(a) If the tension applied to the string and the mass per
unit length of the string are kept constant, then the frequency
(n) of a tuning fork is inversely proportional to the length ( of
the vibrating segment, i.e.

no or nl = constant

(b) If the vibrating length (0 and the mass per unit length
of the string are kept constant, then the frequency is directly
proportional to the square root of the tension applied. This
means that for a constant frequency fork, the
square root of
the tension applied should be
Fig. 4.4
inversely to the proportional
length of the vibrating segment i.e., vt
The value of the unknown frequency as obtained from the o
T
vibrations per second. (c) If the length (0 of the
graph =
bea
vibrating segment and the
Note: On being worked out, the frequency may turn out to tension applied () are kept constant, then the frequency (n) is
fraction. In that always take the nearest integer.
case inversely proportional to the square root of the mass per unit
Discussions: (i) The wire should be
stretched horizontally i.e., length of the string. This means that for a constant frequency
must all lie in one plane. fork, the square root of the mass per unit
B. B and the pulley length of the string is
resined bow across it or by
(ii) Pluck the wire by drawing a
directly proportional to the length of the
padded hammer. Do not use finger nails,
i . . .Vm o
vibrating segment,
giving it a blow with a
that the
Pluck it in such a way
otherwise overtones may occur.

emitted by the fork and the string Apparatus:Sonometer,

different frequencies, etc.
'set of weights. tuning forks of
intensity of the sound
should be of the same order.
on a surface. It Description of the apparatus :
be struck
(i) The tuning fork should
never
stroke and Sonometer: See expt. 26.
each time by a single
should be set into vibration Procedure
not by successive strokes.
with the (a) To show that the
be put into
resonance
to the frequerncy is inversely
proporlional
(iv) The fork should always that the length of the vibrating
() First determine the segment of
sure the
shortest possible length of the string.
This makes
fundamental
string
tension to be applied to the
and the string
resonance has occured between the fork so that the fork with the
lowest frequency vibrates in unison
tone of the string. with the sonometer wire with the
bridges widely spaced. This
 169
168 Practical Physics for Degree Studentls

graph of l against vm. This should yield a

tension should be kept constant throughout the rest of the (11) Plot a
line which proves that
the frequency is proportional
experiment. straight reciprocal of the mass per unit length.
(ii) Determine the resonating lengths of the string for to the square
root of
each of the given. tuning forks in the manner described in
operations (ii) and (ii) of expt. 26. Result
(ii) Plot the n - tor n curves with n as the abscissa and (a)nT
Make a table similar to one shown in page.
o r a s the ordinate. The first should be a rectangular
hyperbola (Fig. 4.3.) and the second should be a straight line
b) Vt T
fork ... vibrations / sec.
Frequency of the chosen
=

(Fig. 4.4)
(b) To show that the frequency is proportional to the
No. of TensionResonating Mean T
square root of the tension.
obs. applied length resonating const.
(i) Apply maximum possible tension to the wire. Choose a cms length
suitable fork and determine the resonating length with this
maximum tension in the manner described in operations (i)
and (ii) of expt. . The frequency of the chosen fork should be
such that a resonating length is obtained with the bridges
widely spaced.
3
(i) Reduce the tensionin steps and for each tension
determine the corresponding resoriating lengths for the elc.

chosen fork.
(ii) Plot a graph ofT against Vt. This should yield a Page-174

straight line which proves that the frequency is proportional c)m

Frequency of the chosen fork = ...
vibration / sec
to the square root of the tension.
c) To show that the frequency is proportional to the No. of Mass per Resonating Mean
obs. unit length length inn resonating
square root of the reciprocal of the mass per unit length. = Const.
of the chosen cms length
(i) Select a number of wires of different diameters and wire
dilferent materials. In each case take a piece of the sample
wire. Measure its length (L) and determine its mass (M)
accurately. In this manner find the mass per unit length of
each wire. 2

i) Select a fork of suitable frequency. Place the wires in

tum on the sonometer and 3
subject each of them to the same
tension. For each wire determine the
resonating length for the
given fork in the manner described in and
operations (i) (i) etc.
of expt. 26.