CHAPTER 9 RAY OPTICS

SYLLABUS (2024-25): - Reflection of light, spherical mirrors, mirror formula, refraction of light, total
internal reflection and optical fibers, refraction at spherical surfaces, lenses, thin lens formula, lens
maker’s formula, magnification, power of a lens, combination of thin lenses in contact, refraction of light
through a prism. Optical instruments: Microscopes and astronomical telescopes (reflecting and refracting)
and their magnifying powers.

OPTICS: - Optics is the branch of physics that studies the behaviour and properties of light,
including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it.

LIGHT: - Light is a form of energy, which produces the sensation of vision. It travels along
straight line with speed in vacuum is c = 2.99792458 x 108 m/s = 3 x 108 m/s.
OPTICAL SURFACE: - A surface at which different phenomenon of light is described is known as
optical surface. As reflection, refraction, dispersion etc.

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RAY: - An imaginary line drawn in the direction in which light is travelling.
BEAM OF LIGHT: - A beam of light is a collection of rays.
(i) Parallel beam: The source at a very large distance like sun gives a parallel beam.
(ii) Divergent beam: The rays going out from a point source form a divergent beam.
(iii) Convergent beam: A beam of light that is going to meet (or converge) at a point.

SPHERICAL MIRROR;
(i) Spherical Mirrors: A spherical mirror is a part of a hollow
sphere or a spherical surface. They are classified as concave or
convex.

(ii) Pole or Vertex: The geometrical centre of the spherical mirror.

(iii) Centre of curvature: The centre C of the sphere of which the

spherical mirror is a part of.
(iv) Radius of curvature: The radius R of the sphere of which the
mirror forms a part.

(v) Principal axis: The line joining the pole and the centre of
curvature.

(v) Focus (F): Rays parallel and close to the principal axis after
reflection converge or appear to converge at a point is called
the focus of the spherical mirror.

(vi) Focal Length (f): The distance between the pole P and
focus F.
(vii) Aperture: The width of a spherical mirror.

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SIGN CONVENTION: - All distances shall be
measured from pole of the optical surface.
Pole is considered as origin. All
measurements in the direction of incident
light is taken positive. All measurements in
the direction opposite to incident light is
taken negative. All measurements in the
direction up the principal axis is taken as
taken positive. All measurements in the
direction below the principal axis is taken
as taken negative.
REFLECTION OF LIGHT: - Bending of a ray in the same medium after striking from a reflecting
surface.

Angle of incidence(i): The angle between incident ray and normal at the point of incidence.
Angle of reflection(r): The angle between reflected ray and normal at the point of incidence.
Glancing angle: The angle between incident ray and the plane reflecting surface. g= 90° - i
LAWS OF REFLECTION: - (i) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the reflecting
surface at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane. (ii) The angle of incidence is equal to
the angle of reflection, i.e.,  i =  r
What is the relation between R and f?
MCP = θ and MFP = 2θ
𝑀𝑃 𝑀𝑃
tanθ = and tan2θ =
𝐶𝐷 𝐹𝐷

For paraxial rays, tanθ ≈ θ,

tan2θ ≈ 2θ
𝑀𝑃 𝑀𝑃
=2
𝐶𝐷 𝐹𝐷
𝐶𝐷
FD = , for small θ, D is very close to P. Therefore, FD = f and CD = R.
2
𝑹
f=
𝟐

3
The Mirror Equation: -
Relation between the object distance (u), image distance
(v) and the focal length (f).
From Fig, triangles (⊿) A’B’F and MPF are similar.
A’B’ B’F
=
MP FP
A’B’ B’F
= (∵PM = AB, For paraxial rays)
AB FP

∵ ∠ APB =∠ A’PB’ the (⊿) triangles A’B’P and ABP are

also similar. Therefore,
A’B’ B’P
=
AB BP
B’F B’P B’F B’P−FP B’P
Comparing both; = = =
FP BP FP FP BP

Appling sign convention; B’P = –v, FP = – f, BP = – u

−𝑣−(−𝑓) −𝑣 𝑣−𝑓 𝑣 𝑣−𝑓 1
= −𝑢 =𝑢 =𝑢
−𝑓 𝑓 𝑣𝑓
𝑣 𝑓 1 1 1 1 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
- = - = + =
𝑣𝑓 𝑣𝑓 𝑢 𝑓 𝑣 𝑢 𝒖 𝒗 𝒇

linear magnification (m) is defined as the ratio of the height of the image (h’) to the height
of the object (h):
ℎ’ ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒
m= =
ℎ ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡

As A’B’P and ABP are also similar triangles. Therefore,

A’B’ B’P
=
AB BP
− ℎ’ −𝑣 𝒉’ 𝒗 v f −v f
= m= =- m= = =
f −u
ℎ −𝑢 𝒉 𝒖 u f

[for virtual & erect images, m = +ve and real & inverted images m = -ve]
REFRACTION: - The phenomenon of entering light from one medium to
another is called refraction.
When light goes from one medium to another, the frequency and phase
do not change. However, the velocity and wavelength changes.

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LAW OF REFRACTION: -
(a) The incident ray, refracted ray and normal to the interface, all lie in the same plane.
(b) The sine angle of incidence is directly proportional to the sine angle of refraction.
Sin i ∝ sin r
Sin i = µ sin r (µ = prop. const. and is know as refractive index of the medium)
sin i
µ = . This is called Snell’s law.
sin r
Refractive index is the ratio of speed of light in vacuum/air to the speed of light in medium.
speed of light in air/vacuum µ2
µ= (1µ2 = is read as refractive index of 2nd medium [Link] first)
speed of light in medium µ1

Two types of
medium and are
Refractive index of air, comparative
speed of light in air/vacuum terms.
µa = = 1.
speed of light in air
a µg
µg = = µg
µa

Light through different media, (air to glass,

glass to air)
a 1
µg x gµa = 1 a
µg = g
µa

Light through different media (air to glass, glass to water, water to air)
a
µg x gµw x wµa = 1

When light travels from rarer to denser When light travels from denser to rarer
medium, it bends towards the normal medium, it bends away from the normal
and angle of refraction is found smaller and angle of refraction is found greater
than angle of incidence. (i < r) than angle of incidence. (i > r)

When light travels from a glass slab r2 = i1, Another observation is that the bottom of a
and emergent ray is parallel to the tank filled with water appears to be raised for
incident ray. There is no deviation, but viewing near the normal direction, it can be
Real depth
lateral displacement/shift [Link] the shown; µ =
Apparent depth
incident ray.

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 Apparent shift (OI)
1
= t – t/ = t [1– ]


CRITICAL ANGLE: - When a ray of light goes from a denser medium to a rarer medium, the angle
of refraction is greater than the angle of incidence. If the angle of incidence is increased, the
angle of refraction may eventually become 90°. Critical angle is the angle of incidence whose
corresponding angle of refraction is 90°.
µ2 sin i
Using Snell’s law, 1µ2 = =
µ1 sin r
µR sinC µR sinC
= ⟹ = (if rarer medium is air, µR =1)
µD sin90° µD 1
1 1
sinC = ⟹ C = sin−1 ( ).
µ µ
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION: - When angle of incidence in denser medium is greater than
critical angle, light returns in the same medium.
this phenomenon is called total internal
reflection. There are two essential conditions for
TIR.
(i) light should travel from denser to rarer
medium.
(ii) angle of incidence should be greater than
angle of refraction.

Application of TIR;
(i) Prism: - Prisms designed to bend light by 90°
or by 180° make use of total internal reflection. It is used to invert images without changing
their size.

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(ii) Optical fibres: - Optical fibres are used for
transmitting audio and video signals through long
distances. Optical fibres are fabricated with high
quality composite glass/quartz fibres. Each fibre
consists of a core and cladding. The refractive index of the core is higher than that of the
cladding.
When a light signal enters the fiber at a suitable angle, it undergoes repeated total internal
reflections along the length of the fiber and finally comes out of the fiber at the other end.
Since in TIR there is no appreciable loss in the intensity of the light signal, these are called as
light pipes.

REFRACTION AT A SPHERICAL SURFACES: -

Convex (real image) (rarer to denser)
A point object O lying on principal axis of the surface as
shown. After refraction real image is obtained in denser
medium at point I.
If α, β and 𝛾 are small angles then,

AM AM AM
tanα ≈ α = ,β= ,𝜸= .
OM MI CM

AM AM AM
α= ,β= ,𝜸= .(M is nearer to P).
OP PI PC

In ∆AOC, i = α + 𝛾 (external angle of a triangle is equal to sum of internal opposite angles)

In ∆AIC, 𝜸 = β + r, r = 𝜸 - β
µ2 sin i i α+𝜸
According to Snell's law, 1µ2 = = = = ⇒ µ1(α + 𝛾) = µ2(𝛾 - β)
µ1 sin r r 𝜸-β

AM AM AM AM 1 1 1 1 µ1 µ2 µ2 -µ1
µ1 ( + )= µ2 ( PC - ) ⇒ µ1 ( + )= µ2 ( - )⇒ + =
OP PC PI OP PC PC PI OP PI PC

Using, sign convention, OP = -u, PI = + v and PC = R. µ1 µ2 µ2 -µ1

+ =
-u + v R
µ2 µ1 µ1 -µ2
Similarly, (denser to rarer) + +v =
-u R
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Lenses: - A lens is a portion of a transparent medium bound by two refracting surfaces out of
which atleast one is curved.
(1) concave lens or diverging lens (2) convex lens or converging lens

LENS MAKER’S FORMULA (CONVEX LENS): - A convex lens is made up of two convex spherical
refracting surfaces. The final
image is formed after two
refractions.
At surface XP1Y, Light is passing
from rarer to denser medium,
µ1 µ2 µ2 -µ1 µ1 µ2
+ = + =
OC CI 1 P 1C 1 -u + v'
µ2 -µ1
----------(1)
R1
At surface XP2Y, Light is passing from denser to rarer medium (I1 acts as virtual object, whose
real image is formed at I).
µ2 µ1 µ1 -µ2
+ = ----------(2)
-v' v R2
Adding both equations, we get,
µ1 µ2 µ2 µ1 µ2 -µ1 µ1 -µ2
+ + + = +
-u + v' -v' v R1 R2
µ1 µ1 µ2 -µ1 µ2 -µ1 1 1
+ = - = (µ2 -µ1) (R - )
-u v R1 R2 1 R2
1 1 1 1
µ1 ( + )= (µ2 -µ1) ( - )(If for air (µ1 =1) and lens is of refracting index µ2 =µ).
-u v R1 R2
1 1 1 1
(-u + v)= (µ -1) (R - )(If object is kept at infinity i.e. u = ∞, then v= f
1 R2

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 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
( + )= (µ -1) ( - ) = (µ -1) ( - )
-∞ f R1 R2 f R1 R2
(for double convex lens R1 is positive, R2 is negative and f is positive, where is for double
concave lens R1 is negative, R2 is positive and f is negative)
The focus on the side of the source is the first focal point, other is the second focal point.

LENS FORMULA: - AB is an object held perpendicular

to principal axis whose real magnified image is
obtained as A’B’.
From Fig, triangles ABC and A’B’C are similar.
A’B’ A’C
= ------ (i) Sign convention,
AB AC CA = - u, CA’ = + v, CF = + f
Triangles A’B’F and CDF are also similar. Therefore,
A’B’ A’F
= (AB = CD)
CD CF
A’B’ A’F CA’− CF
= = ------ (ii)
AB CF CF
A’C CA’− CF
Comparing both; =
AC CF
v v−f 1 v−f 1 1 1 1 1
Using sign convention, = ⟹ = = - ⟹ - =
−u f −u vf f v v u f
POWER OF A LENS: - Power of a lens is a measure of the convergence or divergence of light. A
lens of shorter focal length bends the incident light more.
It is defined as the tangent of the angle by which it converges or diverges a beam of light
parallel to the principal axis falling at unit distance from the optical center
h 1
tan𝛿 = (if h = 1m), tan𝛿 =
f f
1 1
𝛿 = , for small angles P =
f f
1 1 1
As we have, = (µ -1) ( - )
f R1 R2
1 1
Hence, P = (µ -1) ( - )
R1 R2

For converging(convex) power is +ve and for diverging(concave) power is –ve.

Its SI unit is dioptre(D).
1 100
P(dioptre) = P(dioptre) =
f(meter) f(centimeter)

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COMBINATION OF TWO LENSES: - Let us consider two convex lenses L1 and L2 are kept in
contact with common principle axis, having optical centres C1 and C2, focal lengths f1 and f2
respectively. Let ‘O’ be the object on common principle axis, whose final image is obtained as
‘I’ after two successive refractions.

OC1 = u, C1I1= v’
C2I1 = v’ (image of lens L1 is
virtual object for lens L2),
C2I = v (final image)

1 1 1
For lens L1, using lens formula for lens L1, + = --------(i)
v' -u f1
1 1 1
For lens L2, + = --------(ii)
v -v' f2

Adding (i) and (ii), we get,

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + = + + = + ------------(iii)
v' -u v -v' f1 f2 -u v f1 f2
1 1 1
If an equivalent lens having focal length F then, + = ---------------(iv)
v -u F
1 1 1 f1xf2
From (iii) and (iv), = + F= .
F f1 f2 f1 + f2
1 1 1 1 1
If several lenses are in contact, = + + + ------------
F f1 f2 f3 f4

Power, P = P1 + P2 +P3 +P4 + ---------

𝑖𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
1 1 1 d
= + - P = P1 + P2 - dP1P2
F f1 f2 f1f2
1 1 1 f1xf2
If L1is convex and L2 is concave then, = - F=
F f1 f2 f2 - f1

Here, three cases arise,

(a) If f2 = f1, then F = ∞, the combination would behave like a plane glass plate.
(b) If f2 > f1, then F = +𝑣𝑒, the combination would behave like a converging lens.
(c) If f1 > f2, then F = −𝑣𝑒, the combination would behave like a diverging lens.

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REFRACTION THROUGH A PRISM (calculation of angle of deviation): - A prism is a portion of a
transparent medium bounded by two plane faces inclined to each other at a suitable angle is
known as refracting angle or angle of prism. When a ray of light passes through a prism after
two refractions it deviates through a certain angle from its original path.
In quadrilateral APOQ, A + O = 180° ---(i)
In triangle OPQ, r1 + r2 + O = 180° ---(ii)
From (i) & (ii), A = r1 + r2

∠ APQ = i - 𝑟1 and ∠ AQP = e - 𝑟2

𝛿 = ∠ APQ + ∠ AQP = i - 𝑟1 + e - 𝑟2 = i + e – (𝑟1 - 𝑟2 )
𝛿 = (i + e) – A.
For thin prism,
sin i i
µ= = (for small angles using Snell's law)
sin r r

i = µr hence, i = µr1 and e = µr2

Now, 𝛿 = (µr1 + µr2) – A
𝛿 =µ (r1 + r2) – A = µA– A
𝛿 =(µ-1) A (for A<10°).
Angle of minimum deviation (&prism formula): - When angle of incidence increases, the
angle of deviation decreases. At a particular value of angle of incidence, the angle of deviation
becomes minimum and is called ‘angle of minimum deviation’.
At δmin, i = e and r1 = r2 = r (say)[After minimum deviation, angle of deviation increases with
angle of incidence.]
A
As we have, A = r1 + r2, hence, A = 2r ⟹ r =( )
2
A + δmin
i + e = A + δ, ⟹ 2 i = A + δmin ⟹ i = ( )
2

Now according to Snell's law,

A + δmin A + δmin
sin i sin( ) sin( )
2 2
µ= = A , µ= A
sin r sin(2 ) sin(2 )

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 OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
Near point (least distance of distinct vision): - it is the minimum distance of an object which
can be seen distinctly without any external pressure on human eye is known near point.
For normal eye, D = 25 cm.
Far point: - it is the maximum distance of an object which can be seen distinctly without any
external pressure on human eye is called far point.
For normal eye, far point = ∞.
Magnifying power/Angular magnification: - it is the ratio of angle made by image(β) to the
β tanβ
angle made by object(α). M = ≈
α tanα

Simple microscope: - It is used to observe

magnified images of tiny objects (magnifying
glass). A virtual erect and magnified image of
the image is obtained at near point.
β tanβ
m= ≈
α tanα
AB
In triangle ABC, tanβ = , in triangle A1B’C,
CB
A1B' AB
tanα = =
CB’ CB'
AB CB' CB' -v v
Now, from (1) m = x = = =
CB AB CB -u u
1 1 1 v v v v
Using lens formula, - = , multiplying both sides by v, 1 - = , =1 -
v u f u f u f
d
For image to be formed at near point, v = -d, m = (1 + )
f

It is used by watch makers and jewelers, by students in lab to take readings of Vernier Callipers
or screw gauge.
d
For image to be formed at far point, u = f, m = ( ).
f

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COMPOUND MICROSCOPE: - To observe highly magnified images of tiny objects. It consists of
two co-axial convex lenses. A lens of small focal length is fixed towards object is objective(O),
whereas, another lens of large focal length is fixed towards eye is eyepiece(E).
β tanβ
m= ≈ ---(1)
α tanα

𝐴𝐵 𝐴1𝐵 𝐴𝐵
in △ ABE, tanβ = and in △ A1BE tan𝛼 = =
𝐵𝐸 𝐵𝐸 𝐵𝐸
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐸 𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵
m= x = = x
𝐵𝐸 𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵

m = me x mo
𝑑 𝐴𝐵 𝑢𝑜
me = (1 + ) and mo = =
𝑓𝑒 𝐴𝐵 −𝑉𝑜
𝑢 𝑑
m = −𝑉𝑜 (1 + 𝑓 )
𝑜 𝑒

ℎ 𝐿 𝑑
when image is formed at far point, mo = = and me = 𝑓
ℎ 𝑓𝑜 𝑒

𝐿 𝑑
m= ( ).
𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒

13
ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE: - It
is used to see distant objects
distinctly. The objective has a
large focal length and a much
larger aperture than the eyepiece.
β ℎ 𝑓𝑜 𝑓
m≈ = 𝑥 = 𝑓𝑜 .
α 𝑓 𝑒 ℎ 𝑒
Length of telescope tube = 𝑓𝑜 + 𝑓𝑒

REFLECTING TELESCOPE: -
It is an improvement over the refracting type
telescope. In this telescope objective lens is replaced
by a concave parabolic mirror of large aperture,
which is free from achromatic and spherical
aberrations.
The image formed is much brighter and higher
resolving power in compared to refracting telescope.
Such type of telescope is known as Cassegrainian
telescope.
It is initially designed by Newton for observing distant stars, after several modifications by
Guilluaume Cassegrainian.
A concave reflector of about 200-inch aperture with a narrow hole at the center. Parallel rays
from a distant star entering the telescope in a direction parallel to principal axis of the mirror
tend to collect at the focus of the mirror. But these reflected rays encounter a secondary
convex mirror before meeting at the focus. The convex mirror reflects them into the eyepiece.
The largest telescope in India is in Kawaloor, Tamil Nadu. It is a 2.34 m diameter reflecting
telescope (Cassegrain), used by the Indian Institute of Astrophysics, Bangalore. The largest
reflecting telescopes in the world are the pair of Keck telescopes in Hawaii, USA, with a
reflector of 10 metre in diameter.

Advantages: -
(1) There is no chromatic aberration as the objective is a mirror.
(2) Spherical aberration is reduced using mirror objective in the form of a paraboloid.
(3) Image is brighter compared to that in a refracting type telescope.
(4) Mirror requires grindings and polishing of any one side.
(5) High resolution is achieved by using a mirror of large aperture.
(6) A mirror weighs much less than a lens of equivalent optical quality. Therefore, mechanical
support of mirror is much less of a problem compared to the support required for lens, further
mirror can be supported over its entire back surface unlike the lens which is supported over
rim only.
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9.1 A small candle, 2.5 cm in size is placed at 27 cm in front of a concave mirror of radius of
curvature 36 cm. At what distance from the mirror should a screen be placed in order to
obtain a sharp image? Describe the nature and size of the image. If the candle is moved closer
to the mirror, how would the screen have to be moved?
Given, u = −27 cm, R = −36 cm, f = R/2 = -18 cm, v =?
Using mirror formula,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -3 +2 -1
+ = ⟹ + = ⟹ = + = = ⟹ v = - 54 cm
v u f v -27 -18 v -18 27 54 54
ℎ’ 𝑣 ℎ’ −54 ℎ’
Magnification, m = =- ⟹ =- ⟹
2.5
= - 2 ⟹ h’ = - 5 cm (real and inverted)
ℎ 𝑢 2.5 − 27
If the candle is moved closer to the mirror, then the screen will have to be moved away.
9.2 A 4.5 cm needle is placed 12 cm away from a convex mirror of focal length 15 cm. Give the
location of the image and the magnification. Describe what happens as the needle is moved
farther from the mirror.
Given, u = −12 cm, f = 15 cm, v =?
Using mirror formula,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4+5 9
+ = ⟹ + = ⟹ = + = = ⟹ v = 6.7 cm
v u f v -12 15 v 15 12 60 60
ℎ’ 𝑣 ℎ’ 6.7
Magnification, m = =- ⟹ =- ⟹h’ = 2. 5 cm (virtual and erect)
ℎ 𝑢 4.5 −12
If the needle is moved farther from the mirror, the image will also move further from the
mirror, and the size of the image will reduce gradually.
9.3 A tank is filled with water to a height of 12.5 cm. The apparent depth of a needle lying at
the bottom of the tank is measured by a microscope to be 9.4 cm. What is the refractive index
of water? If water is replaced by a liquid of refractive index 1.63 up to the same height, by
what distance would the microscope have to be moved to focus on the needle again?
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 12.5
As we have, µw = = = 1.33
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 9.4
12.5 12.5
µ’ = 1.63 = ⟹y= = 7.67 cm
𝑦 1.63
Microscope should be moved up by = 9.4− 7.67 = 1.73 cm
9.4 Figures show refraction of a ray in air incident at 60° with the normal to a glass-air and
water-air interface, respectively. Predict the angle of refraction in glass when the angle of
incidence in water is 45° with the normal to a water-glass interface.

𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛60 0.8660
1. At air-glass interface, 𝜇𝑎 = = = 1.51
𝑠𝑖𝑛35 0.5736
15
 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛60 0.8660
2. At air-water interface, 𝜇𝑤 = = = 1.184
𝑠𝑖𝑛47 0.7314
𝑔
𝑔 𝜇𝑎 1.51 𝑠𝑖𝑛45
3. At water-glass interface, 𝜇𝑤 = 𝑤 = = 1.275 =
𝜇𝑎 1.184 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟

0.707
sinr = = 0.5546 ⟹ r = sin−1 (0.5546) ⟹ r = 38.68°.
1.275

9.5 A small bulb is placed at the bottom of a tank containing water to a depth of 80cm. What is
the area of the surface of water through which light from the bulb can emerge out? Refractive
index of water is 1.33. (Consider the bulb to be a point source.)
1
C = sin−1 ( )
1.33
C = 48.75
𝑂𝐴
tanC =
𝑂𝐵
radius = OA = tan48.75 x 0.8
r = 0.91 m
∴r = tan 48.75° × 0.8 = 0.91 m
∴Area of the surface of water = πr2 = π (0.91)2 =
2.61 m2.

9.6 A prism is made of glass of unknown refractive index. A parallel beam of light is incident on
a face of the prism. The angle of minimum deviation is measured to be 40°. What is the
refractive index of the material of the prism? The refracting angle of the prism is 60°. If the
prism is placed in water (refractive index 1.33), predict the new angle of minimum deviation of
a parallel beam of light.
A + δmin 60 + 40
sin( ) sin( ) sin50
2 2
µ= A = 60 = = 1.532.
sin( ) sin( ) sin30
2 2
A + δ’min 60 + δ’min
𝑤
𝜇𝑎 sin( ) 1.33 sin( ) 60 + δ’min
𝜇𝑔𝑤 = 𝑔 = 2
A ⟹ 1.532 = 2
60 ⟹ 0.868 x sin30 = sin ( )
𝜇𝑎 sin( ) sin( ) 2
2 2

60 + δ'min
⟹ 0.868 x 0.5 = sin ( )
2
60 + δ'min 60 + δ'min
⟹ 0.434 = sin ( )⟹ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (0.434 ) = 35.16°
2 2
δ'min = 70.32 – 60 = 10.32°
9.7 Double-convex lenses are to be manufactured from a glass of refractive index 1.55, with
both faces of the same radius of curvature. What is the radius of curvature required if the focal
length is to be 20cm?
Given, µ = 1.55, f = 20 cm, R1 = +R and R2 = -R
1 1 1
= (µ -1) ( - )
f R1 R2
16
 1 1 1 1 1
= (1.55 -1) ( - ) = (0.55) (2R ) = 20 x 0.55 = 11⟹ R = 22 cm.
20 R -R 2R
9.8 A beam of light converges at a point P. Now a lens is placed in the path of the convergent
beam 12cm from P. At what point does the beam converge if the lens is (a) a convex lens of
focal length 20cm, and (b) a concave lens of focal length 16cm?

(a) Convex lens; u = 12 cm, f = 20 cm (b) Concave lens; u = 12 cm, f = - 16 cm

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + ⟹ = + = + ⟹ = +
v f u v 20 12 v f u v −16 12
1 3+5 8 1 -3 + 5 2
= = ⟹ v = 7.5 cm = = ⟹ v = 24 cm
v 60 60 v 48 48

9.9 An object of size 3.0cm is placed 14cm in front of a concave lens of focal length 21cm.
Describe the image produced by the lens. What happens if the object is moved further away
from the lens?
Height of object = 3 cm, u = −14 cm, f = -21 cm, v =?
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -2-3 -5
Using lens formula, = + ⟹ = + ⟹ = = ⟹ v = - 8.4 cm
v f u v −21 - 14 v 42 42
Size of the image,
ℎ’ 𝑣 ℎ’ − 8.4
Magnification, m = =- ⟹ = ⟹h’ = 1.8 cm (virtual and erect)
ℎ 𝑢 3 −14
9.10 What is the focal length of a convex lens of focal length 30 cm in contact with a concave
lens of focal length 20cm? Is the system a converging or a diverging lens? Ignore thickness of
the lenses.
Given, f1 = 30 cm and f2 = - 20 cm
1 1 1 f1xf2
As, = + or F =
F f1 f2 f1 + f2
30 x - 20
F= = - 60 cm (diverging).
30 + (-20)
9.11 A compound microscope consists of an objective lens of focal length 2.0cm and an
eyepiece of focal length 6.25cm separated by a distance of 15cm. How far from the objective
should an object be placed in order to obtain the final image at (a) the least distance of
distinct vision (25cm), and (b) at infinity? What is the magnifying power of the microscope in
each case?
(a) the least distance of distinct vision (25cm) ve = - 25 cm, fe = 6.25 cm, ue =?
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 -1 - 4
= - ⟹ = - = - = ⟹ ue = - 5 cm
𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑒 𝑢𝑒 −25 6.25 −25 25 25
17
Now, image distance for objective should be 15 -5 = 10 cm
1 1 1 1 1 1 1-5
= - ⟹ = - = ⟹ uo = - 2.5 cm
𝑢𝑜 𝑣𝑜 𝑓𝑜 𝑢𝑜 10 2 10

𝑣 𝑑 10 25
m = |−𝑢𝑜 | (1 + 𝑓 ) = 2.5 (1 + 6.25 ) = 5
𝑜 𝑒

(b) at infinity, fe = ue = - 6.25 cm, vo = 15 – 6.25 = 8.75 cm

Object distance for the objective lens = 𝑢𝑜
1 1 1 1 1 1
= - ⟹ = - ⟹ uo = - 2.59 cm
𝑢𝑜 𝑣𝑜 𝑓𝑜 𝑢𝑜 8.75 2

𝑣0 𝑑 8.75 25
m= ( )= ( )= 13.51
|−𝑢𝑜 | 𝑓𝑒 2.59 6.25

9.12 A person with a normal near point (25cm) using a compound microscope with objective
of focal length 8.0 mm and an eyepiece of focal length 2.5cm can bring an object placed at
9.0mm from the objective in sharp focus. What is the separation between the two lenses?
Calculate the magnifying power of the microscope.
For eyepiece, the least distance of distinct vision (25cm) ve = - 25 cm,
fe = 2.5 cm, ue =?
1 1 1 1 1 1 -1 - 10
= - ⟹ = - = ⟹ ue = - 2.27 cm
𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑒 𝑢𝑒 −25 2.5 25
For objective, uo = 9 mm = 0.9 cm,
1 1 1 1 1 1 - 0.8+0.9 0.1
= + ⟹
𝑣𝑜
= + = = ⟹ vo = 7.2 cm
𝑣𝑜 𝑢𝑜 𝑓𝑜 −0.9 0.8 0.72 0.72

Distance between objective and eyepiece = ue + 𝑣𝑜 = 2.27 + 7.2 cm = 9.47 cm

𝑣 𝑑 7.2 25
m = |−𝑢𝑜 | (1 + 𝑓 ) = 0.9 (1 + 2.5 ) = 88.
𝑜 𝑒
9.13 A small telescope has an objective lens of focal length 144cm and an eyepiece of focal
length 6.0cm. What is the magnifying power of the telescope? What is the separation between
the objective and the eyepiece?
𝑓 144
m= 𝑜= = 24.
𝑓𝑒 6
L = 𝑓𝑜 + 𝑓𝑒 = 144 + 6 = 150 𝑐𝑚

18
9.14 (a) A giant refracting telescope at an observatory has an objective lens of focal length
15m. If an eyepiece of focal length 1.0cm is used, what is the angular magnification of the
telescope? (b) If this telescope is used to view the moon, what is the diameter of the image of
the moon formed by the objective lens? The diameter of the moon is 3.48 × 106m, and the
radius of lunar orbit is 3.8 × 108m. 108
𝑓 1500
(a) m = 𝑜 = 𝑓𝑒
= 1500.
1

𝑑 𝑑′ 3.48 × 106 m 𝑑′
(b) = ⟹ = 15
𝑅 𝑅′ 3.8 × 108

3.48
d' = x 15 x 10−2 = 13.74 cm
3.8

9.15 Use the mirror equation to deduce that:

(a) an object placed between f and 2f of a concave mirror produces a real image beyond 2f.
(b) a convex mirror always produces a virtual image independent of the location of the object.
(c) the virtual image produced by a convex mirror is always diminished in size and is located
between the focus and the pole.
(d) an object placed between the pole and focus of a concave mirror produces a virtual and
enlarged image.

9.16. A small pin fixed on a table top is viewed from above from a distance of 50cm. By what
distance would the pin appear to be raised if it is viewed from the same point through a 15cm
thick glass slab held parallel to the table? Refractive index of glass = 1.5. Does the answer
depend on the location of the slab?
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 15
µ= , apparent depth = = = 10 cm
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ µ 1.5
pin appears to be raised by 15 – 10 = 5 cm.

9.17 (a) Figure shows a cross-section of a ‘light pipe’ made of a glass fibre of refractive index
1.68. The outer covering of the pipe is made of a material of refractive index 1.44. What is the
range of the angles of the incident rays with the axis of the pipe for which total reflections
inside the pipe take place, as shown in the figure.

19
9.18 The image of a small electric bulb fixed on the wall of a room is to be obtained on the
opposite wall 3m away by means of a large convex lens. What is the maximum possible focal
length of the lens required for the purpose?
𝑑 3
Fmax = = = 0.75 m
4 4

9.19 A screen is placed 90cm from an object. The image of the object on the screen is formed
by a convex lens at two different locations separated by 20cm. Determine the focal length of
the lens. 𝐷2
𝐷2 − 𝑑 2 902 − 202 8100−400 770
F= = = = = 21.39 cm
4𝐷 4 x 90 360 36

9.20 (a) Determine the ‘effective focal length’ of the combination of the two lenses in Exercise
9.10, if they are placed 8.0cm apart with their principal axes coincident. Does the answer
depend on which side of the combination a beam of parallel light is incident? Is the notion of
effective focal length of this system useful at all?
Given, f1 = 30 cm and f2 = - 20 cm

1 1 1 d 1 1 8 1 1 1 5-7.5+2.0 0.5
As, = + - = + - = - + = =- cm
F f1 f2 f1f2 30 −20 30(-20) 30 20 75 150 150
F = 300 cm.

(b) An object 1.5 cm in size is placed on the side of the convex lens in the arrangement (a)
above. The distance between the object and the convex lens is 40cm. Determine the
magnification produced by the two-lens system, and the size of the image.

9.21 At what angle should a ray of light be incident on the face of a prism of refracting angle
60° so that it just suffers total internal reflection at the other face? The refractive index of the
material of the prism is 1.524.
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛90 1
At emergent face, µ = ⟹1.542 = ⟹s𝑖𝑛𝑟2 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟2 1.542

sin𝑟2 = 0.6562 ⟹ 𝑟2 = 41°

As we have, A = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 ⟹ 𝑟1 = 60-41 = 19°

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖1
At emergent face, µ = ⟹ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖1 = µs𝑖𝑛𝑟1 = 1.254 x sin19 = 1.542 x 0.1498 = 0.496
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟1
𝑖1 = 29.75°.
9.22 A card sheet divided into squares each of size 1 mm2 is being viewed at a distance of 9 cm
through a magnifying glass (a converging lens of focal length 9 cm) held close to the eye.
(a) What is the magnification produced by the lens? How much is the area of each square in
the virtual image?
20
(b) What is the angular magnification (magnifying power) of the lens?
(c) Is the magnification in (a) equal to the magnifying power in (b)? Explain.
(a) A = 1mm2
1 1 1
F = 10 cm, u = - 9 cm = +
v f u
1 1 1 1
= - =
9 10 90
v
v = 90 cm
𝑣 90
m = = = 10.
𝑢 9
Area of image, (10 x10) 1mm2 = 100 mm2.
d 25
(b) magnifying power = = = 2.8.
u 9
(c) No, they will be equal when the image is formed at the near point (25 cm)
9.23 (a) At what distance should the lens be held from the card sheet in Exercise 9.22 in order
to view the squares distinctly with the maximum possible magnifying power?
(b) What is the magnification in this case?
(c) Is the magnification equal to the magnifying power in this case? Explain.
(a) For maximum possible magnification, v = d = -25 cm
1 1 1 1 1 -2-5 -7
f = 10 cm, = - = - = =
u v f -25 10 50 50
-50
u= = - 7.14.
7
25
(b) magnification = 50 = 3.5.
7
d 25
(c) Angular magnification, = 50 = 3.5.
u
7
Since, the image is formed at the near point (25 cm), the magnifying power is equal to the
magnitude of magnification

9.24 What should be the distance between the object in Exercise 9.23 and the magnifying
glass if the virtual image of each square in the figure is to have an area of 6.25 mm2. Would
you be able to see the squares distinctly with your eyes very close to the magnifier?
𝐴 6.25 v
m=√ =√ = 2.5 =
𝐴𝑜 1 u
v = 2.5u
1 1 1 1 1 1-2.5
= - = - =
f v u 2.5u u 2.5u

1 1-2.5
= u = - 6 cm Hence, v = 15 cm
10 2.5u

The virtual image is formed at a distance of 15 cm, which is less than the near point (i.e.,
25 cm) of a normal eye. Hence, it cannot be seen by the eyes distinctly.

21
9.25 Answer the following questions:
(a) The angle subtended at the eye by an object is equal to the angle subtended at the eye by
the virtual image produced by a magnifying glass. In what sense then does a magnifying glass
provide angular magnification?
A closer object causes a larger angular size. A magnifying glass provides angular magnification. Without
magnification, the object cannot be placed closer to the eye.
(b) In viewing through a magnifying glass, one usually positions one’s eyes very close to the
lens. Does angular magnification change if the eye is moved back?
Yes, the angular magnification changes. When the distance between the eye and a
magnifying glass is increased, the angular magnification decreases a little. This is because
the angle subtended at the eye is slightly less than the angle subtended at the lens. Image
distance does not have any effect on angular magnification.
(c) Magnifying power of a simple microscope is inversely proportional to the focal length of
the lens. What then stops us from using a convex lens of smaller and smaller focal length and
achieving greater and greater magnifying power?

(d) Why must both the objective and the eyepiece of a compound microscope have short focal
lengths?

(e) When viewing through a compound microscope, our eyes should be positioned not on the
eyepiece but a short distance away from it for best viewing. Why? How much should be that
short distance between the eye and eyepiece?

9.26 An angular magnification (magnifying power) of 30X is desired using an objective of focal
length 1.25cm and an eyepiece of focal length 5cm. How will you set up the compound
microscope?
9.27 A small telescope has an objective lens of focal length 140cm and an eyepiece of focal
length 5.0cm. What is the magnifying power of the telescope for viewing distant objects when
(a) the telescope is in normal adjustment (i.e., when the final image is at infinity)?
(b) the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision (25cm)?

9.28 (a) For the telescope described in Exercise 9.27 (a), what is the separation between the
objective lens and the eyepiece?
(b) If this telescope is used to view a 100 m tall tower 3 km away, what is the height of the
image of the tower formed by the objective lens?
(c) What is the height of the final image of the tower if it is formed at 25cm?

9.29 A Cassegrain telescope uses two mirrors as shown in Fig. 9.26. Such a telescope is built
with the mirrors 20mm apart. If the radius of curvature of the large mirror is 220mm and the
small mirror is 140mm, where will the final image of an object at infinity be?

22
9.30 Light incident normally on a plane mirror attached to a galvanometer coil retraces
backwards as shown in Fig. 9.29. A current in the coil produces a deflection of 3.5o of the
mirror. What is the displacement of the reflected spot of light on a screen placed 1.5 m away?

9.31 Figure 9.30 shows an equiconvex lens (of refractive index 1.50) in contact with a liquid
layer on top of a plane mirror. A small needle with its tip on the principal axis is moved along
the axis until its inverted image is found at the position of the needle. The distance of the
needle from the lens is measured to be 45.0cm. The liquid is removed and the experiment is
repeated. The new distance is measured to be 30.0cm. What is the refractive index of the
liquid?

23