Chapter - 2

Communication
Instructor: Atiq Ahmed Nabil
• [Link]. in CSE (National University)
• [Link]. in Software Engineering (Data Science
Major)
(Daffodil International University)
• Certified Web Engineer (Creative IT Institute)
• Department Head of Computer Science & IT
(Rosedale International School & College)
• Examiner of IT & Computer Science (Khulna)
(Cambridge International Education)
Overview of Networking
History:
• The concept of networking started in 1960s with the
development of ARPANet (1969) by the U.S. Department of
Defense.
• ARPANet was the first network to use packet switching, allowing
computers to communicate over long distances.
• ARPANet refers as Advance Research Project Agency Network
Network:
A network is a system of interconnected devices (such as
computers, servers, and smartphones) that communicate
and share data using wired or wireless connections.

Networking:
Networking is the process of connecting computers and
devices to share data, resources, and communication. It
enables devices to communicate locally (LAN) or globally
(Internet).
Types of Network
PAN (Personal Area Network):
It is a small network that connects devices within a short
range, typically around an individual. It is used for personal
or limited-area communication.

Features:
• Covers a small area (usually within 10 meters).
• Connects personal devices like smartphones, laptops, and
smartwatches.
• Can use Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, or USB cables.
• Designed for efficiency and minimal energy usage.
Diagram
Uses:
• Connecting personal gadgets like smartphones, headphones,
smartwatches.
• Wireless file transfer via Bluetooth etc.
• Tethering devices like sharing mobile internet with a laptop.
• Health monitoring like fitness bands, medical devices etc.
LAN (Local Area Network):
It is a network that connects computers and devices within
a limited geographical area, such as a home, office, or
school, to share resources and data.

Features:
• Covers a small area, usually 10-100 meters (e.g., a building
or campus,).
• Provides fast communication (up to 10 Gbps).
• Allows sharing of files, printers, and internet.
• Can use Ethernet cables or Wi-Fi for connectivity.
Diagram
Uses:
• Office networking like connecting multiple workstations.
• Educational institutions which shared access to learning
materials.
• Gaming and entertainment such as multiplayer gaming,
media streaming.
• Data and resource sharing like printers, storage, internet
access.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):
It is a network that spans a city or large campus, connecting
multiple LANs for efficient data communication over a
medium-sized geographical area.

Features:
• Coverage area larger than LAN but smaller than WAN,
typically up to 100 kilometers.
• Faster than WAN but may be slower than LAN.
• Uses Fiber-Optics & wireless that relies on advanced
communication technologies.
• Often maintained by telecom providers or local
governments.
Diagram
Uses:
• City-wide internet access as public Wi-Fi, broadband.
• Interconnecting business branches like corporate networks.
• Cable TV and telecom services as fiber optic networks.
• Educational networks which connecting universities,
colleges, and libraries.
WAN (Wide Area Network):
It is a large-scale network that connects multiple LANs and
MANs across cities, countries, or even globally using public
or private communication links like fiber optics, satellites, or
the internet.

Features:
• Large coverage which spans cities, countries, or the entire world.
• Slower speed than LAN due to long-distance data transmission.
• Uses public & private networks includes leased lines, satellites,
and fiber optics.
• More expensive Higher cost due to infrastructure and
maintenance.
Diagram
Uses:
• Internet backbone which connects networks worldwide.
• Business communication like corporate branch connectivity.
• Banking networks such as ATMs, financial transactions.
• Government & military operations which secure large-scale
communication.
WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network):
It is a type of Local Area Network (LAN) that connects
devices wirelessly using Wi-Fi instead of physical cables.

Features:
• Wireless communication which uses radio waves (called Wi-Fi).
• Flexible connectivity in which devices can connect without
physical restrictions.
• Multiple device support, can handle many users at once.
• Security measures which uses encryption for data protection.
Diagram
Uses:
• Home and office Wi-Fi networks which provides wireless
internet access.
• Public Wi-Fi hotspots which found in cafes, airports, and
malls.
• Smart home automation which connects IoT (Internet of
Things) devices like smart TVs and thermostats.
• Enterprise and educational networks which is used in schools,
universities, and businesses.
Network Topology
A network topology is the physical or logical arrangement of
devices (nodes) and connections (links) in a computer network,
showing how computers are connected and how data travels
between them.

Types:
• Bus Topology
• Star Topology
• Mesh Topology
• Hybrid Topology
Bus Topology:
In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a single main
cable (backbone). Data travels along this cable and each
device checks whether the data is meant for it.
Features:
• Uses one main communication cable.
• Signals travel in both directions along the bus.
• Terminators are used at the ends to stop signal reflection.
Pros:
• Cheap and easy to install.
• Requires less cable.
• Suitable for small networks.

Cons:
• If the main cable fails, the whole network stops.
• Difficult to troubleshoot.
• Performance decreases with many devices.
Start Topology:
In a star topology, all devices connect to a central hub or
switch, and all communication passes through this central
device.
Features:
• Central device controls communication.
• Most common topology in modern LANs.
Pros:
• Easy to manage and expand.
• Failure of one cable does not affect others.
• Easy to detect faults.

Cons:
• If the hub/switch fails, the entire network stops.
• More cabling required.
Mesh Topology:
In a mesh topology, devices are connected to many or all
other devices in the network, creating multiple paths for data.
Features:
• Provides redundancy (backup paths).
• Very reliable network structure.
Pros:
• Very reliable and fault tolerant.
• If one link fails, data can take another path.
• High security and privacy.

Cons:
• Expensive to install.
• Requires lots of cables and ports.
• Complex to manage.
Hybrid Topology:
A hybrid topology combines two or more different topologies
(e.g., star + bus or star + ring).
Features:
• Used in large real-world networks.
• Flexible design.
Pros:
• Highly flexible.
• Reliable and scalable.

Cons:
• Complex design.
• Expensive to implement.
Network Hardware
Router:
It is a networking device that directs data between different
networks, connecting local devices to the internet or other
networks.
Features:
• Directs data packets between devices and networks.
• Assigns and manages IP addresses.
• Uses firewalls, encryption, and filtering for network protection.
• Optimizes bandwidth usage and prioritizes traffic.
• Connecting Multiple Networks like LAN, WAN, and WLAN networks
efficiently.
Diagram (Router Connectivity)
Uses:
• Provides internet access which connects homes, offices, and
businesses to the internet.
• Manages wireless networks which distributes Wi-Fi signals to
multiple devices.
• Enables remote access which supports VPN for secure
remote connectivity.
Switch:
It is a networking device that connects multiple devices
within a local network (LAN) and efficiently directs data to
the correct destination.

Features:
• Connects multiple devices in a network.
• Sends data only to the intended recipient using MAC addresses.
• Reduces network congestion by dividing traffic.
• Improves speed and efficiency in data transmission.
Diagram (Switch Connectivity)
Uses:
• Creates LAN networks in homes, offices, and businesses.
• Improves network efficiency by reducing collisions.
• Connects multiple devices like computers, printers, and
servers.
• Supports VLANs for better network segmentation and
security.
Hub:
It is a basic networking device that connects multiple
devices in a LAN and broadcasts data to all connected
devices.

Features:
• Links multiple computers and devices in a network.
• Sends data to all connected devices, regardless of the destination.
• Strengthens signals to extend network range.
• Can adds more devices to a network easily.
Diagram (Hub Connectivity)
Uses:
• Small LAN networks where security and efficiency are not a
priority.
• Extending network coverage by amplifying signals.
• Connecting multiple devices in simple network setups.
Bridge:
It is a networking device that connects two or more LANs
and helps control data traffic by filtering and forwarding
data based on MAC addresses.

Features:
• Divides a large network into smaller sections for better
performance.
• Allows only necessary data to pass between network segments.
• Stores and uses MAC addresses to forward data efficiently
Diagram (Bridge Connectivity)
Uses:
• Connecting different LANs while maintaining network
integrity.
• Reducing network congestion by filtering traffic.
• Enhancing network security by controlling data flow.
• Extending networks without merging all traffic into one
broadcast domain.
Gateway:
It is a networking device that connects different networks
using different communication protocols, allowing seamless
data transfer between them.

Features:
• Translates data between different network protocols.
• Connects networks using different architectures (e.g., LAN to
WAN).
• Directs data between internal and external networks.
• Acts as a firewall or proxy to manage network access.
Diagram (Gateway Connectivity)
Uses:
• Connecting different networks (e.g., enterprise network to
the internet).
• Enabling communication between devices using different
protocols.
• Securing data exchange by filtering unauthorized traffic.
• Facilitating cloud computing by linking local networks to
cloud services.
Modem:
It (Modulator-Demodulator) is a device that converts digital
signals from a computer into analog signals for transmission
over telephone lines and vice versa.

Features:
• Converts digital data to analog for transmission and back to
digital for reception.
• Connects a computer or network to the internet via an ISP.
• Reduces data size for faster transmission.
• Identifies and corrects transmission errors for reliable
communication.
Diagram (Modem Connectivity)
Uses:
• Providing internet access for homes and businesses.
• Enabling remote communication over telephone or cable
lines.
• Facilitating data transfer between networks using different
signal types.
• Supporting VoIP services for internet-based voice
communication.
Repeater:
It is a network device that amplifies and regenerates signals
to extend the transmission range over long distances without
signal degradation.

Features:
• Strengthens weak signals to maintain data integrity.
• Increases the reach of wired and wireless networks.
• Regenerates signals to prevent data loss.
• Expands Wi-Fi signal in large areas.
Diagram (Repeater Connectivity)
Uses:
• Enhancing wired and wireless network coverage.
• Improving data transmission over long distances.
• Connecting network segments with weak signals.
• Ensuring strong communication in large buildings.
NIC (Network Interface Card):
It is a hardware component that enables a computer or
device to connect to a network for communication and
data transfer.

Features:
• Network Connectivity – Provides a physical or wireless connection
to a network.
• Data Transmission & Reception – Sends and receives data packets.
• MAC Address Assignment – Identifies the device uniquely in a
network.
• Speed & Performance Management – Determines network speed
(e.g., 100Mbps, 1Gbps).
Diagram (NIC)
Uses:
• Connecting computers to LAN, WAN, or WLAN.
• Enabling wired (Ethernet) or wireless (Wi-Fi) communication.
• Facilitating internet access for devices.
• Supporting data transfer between networked systems.
Comparison Between Router & Gateway:

Router Gateway

Connects multiple networks and Acts as a bridge between different

forwards data packets network protocols

Converts data between different

Does not translate protocols
protocols

Used in LAN, WAN, and internet Connects different networks (e.g.,

networks VoIP to PSTN)

Example: Home/office Wi-Fi Example: ISP gateway connecting

router home network to the internet
Comparison Between Hub & Switch:

Hub Switch

Sends data only to the intended

Broadcasts data to all devices
device

Less intelligent, does not filter or Smarter, filters and manages traffic
manage traffic using MAC addresses

Slower and causes network Faster and reduces network

congestion congestion

Used in small networks with fewer Used in larger networks for better
devices efficiency
Client Server Model
The Client-Server Model is a network architecture where a client
(user device) requests services or resources from a server (central
system) that processes the request and provides the desired
service or data.

Features:
• Separation of Roles – Clients request services, servers provide
them.
• Centralized Resources – Servers store and manage data.
• Communication – Clients and servers communicate over a
network.
• Scalability – Servers can handle multiple client requests.
• Security – Servers enforce security and access control.
Diagram
Uses:
• Web Browsing – Clients (browsers) request web pages from
servers.
• Email Systems – Clients send and receive emails from mail
servers.
• Database Access – Clients request data from centralized
databases.
Advantage:
• Centralized Management – Easy to manage data and services.
• Scalability – Easy to add more clients or servers.
• Security Control – Centralized security policies.

Disadvantage:
• Server Dependency – If the server fails, clients cannot access
services.
• Cost – Servers can be expensive to maintain and scale.
• Network Bottlenecks – Heavy client requests can overload the
server.
Peer to Peer Model
The Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Model is a network architecture where
each device (peer) acts as both a client and a server, sharing
resources and services directly with other peers without the need
for a central server.

Features:
• Decentralized – No central server; each peer shares resources.
• Direct Communication – Peers communicate directly with each
other.
• Resource Sharing – Each peer can provide and access resources.
• Scalable – Can easily add more peers without major changes.
• Fault Tolerance – No single point of failure; peers can still function
independently.
Diagram
Uses:
• File Sharing – P2P networks like BitTorrent for sharing large
files.
• Messaging Systems – Decentralized chat applications.
• Blockchain – Peer-based systems like cryptocurrencies.
Advantage:
• Cost-Effective – No need for expensive centralized servers.
• Scalability – Easy to expand as each new peer contributes
resources.
• Fault Tolerance – No single point of failure, reducing downtime.

Disadvantage:
• Security Risks – Vulnerable to malicious peers and attacks.
• Limited Control – Difficult to manage peers and ensure resource
consistency.
• Performance Issues – Can be slower due to resource sharing and
network congestion.
Comparison Between Client-Server Model & P2P Model:

Client Server Model P2P Model

It has centralized server It is decentralized

It managed by a server It has no central control

High security provided by server Lower security as no central control

It has faster speed It has slower speed

Server failure affects all clients If one peer fails, others continue
Types of Client
Thick Client:
It is a type of client in a client-server architecture that
performs most of the processing locally, rather than relying
on a central server.

Features:
• Local Processing – Performs most tasks without server interaction.
• Independent – Can operate offline or with minimal server
connection.
• Heavy Software – Requires more powerful hardware and software.
• Data Storage – Stores data locally, reducing server load.
• Complex Setup – Needs installation and maintenance on
individual machines.
Uses:
• Desktop Applications – Software like Microsoft Office,
Photoshop.
• Gaming – Video games with significant offline processing.
• Data-Intensive Apps – Applications requiring heavy
computation (e.g., video editing).
Advantage:
• Performance – Fast processing as tasks are handled locally.
• Offline Capability – Can work without constant server access.
• Reduced Server Load – Less dependency on the server for
processing.

Disadvantage:
• High Hardware Requirements – Requires powerful local machines.
• Maintenance – Each client needs individual updates and
maintenance.
• Data Synchronization – Challenging to keep data consistent
across clients.
Diagram (Thick Client vs Thin Client)
Thin Client:
It is a lightweight client in a client-server architecture that
relies on a central server for most processing, with minimal
local resources and storage.

Features:
• Minimal Local Resources – Limited processing and storage capacity.
• Server Dependency – Relies heavily on a central server for tasks and
data.
• Low Maintenance – Fewer updates required on individual clients.
• Centralized Control – Easier to manage and secure from a central point.
• Network Reliant – Requires a stable network connection to function
properly.
Uses:
• Virtual Desktops – Used in virtual desktop infrastructure
(VDI).
• Web Applications – Clients for cloud-based apps.
• Point-of-Sale (POS) – Retail systems that depend on central
servers.
Advantage:
• Cost-Effective – Requires less powerful hardware.
• Centralized Management – Easier to update and secure from the
server.
• Energy Efficient – Consumes less power than thick clients.

Disadvantage:
• Network Dependency – Requires constant network access to
function.
• Limited Functionality – Can’t perform heavy tasks locally.
• Performance Issues – Slower if the server or network is
overloaded.
Comparison Between Thick Client & Thin Client:

Thick Client Thin Client

Performs processing locally Relies on server for processing

Requires powerful hardware Requires minimal hardware

Needs a stable network

Can operate offline
connection

Centralized updates, easier

Requires individual updates
maintenance

More expensive due to high More cost-effective, lower

hardware needs hardware cost
Ethernet
Ethernet is a technology used to connect computers and devices
in a local area network (LAN) so they can communicate and
share data.

Features:
• 📶 It uses wired connections (usually via Ethernet cables).
• 💻 Common in homes, offices, and schools.
• ⚡ Provides fast and stable internet or network connection.
• 🌐 Uses Ethernet ports and network interface cards (NICs).
Conflicts:
Conflict means a problem that happens when two or more
things try to do the same task at the same time, causing an
error or issue.

Types with Description:

• IP Address Conflict – Two devices have the same IP on a network.
• Software Conflict– Two programs interfere with each other.
• Hardware Conflict – Two devices use the same system resources.
• Version Conflict – Different software versions cause errors.
Collision:
A collision happens when two devices send data at the
same time on the same network channel, causing the
data to interfere and get corrupted.

Where It Happens:
• Common in older Ethernet networks using shared hubs (not
switches).
• Happens in half-duplex communication, where devices can’t
send and receive at the same time.

How It’s Handled: Networks use methods like CSMA/CD (Carrier

Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) to detect and
recover from collisions.
Working Process of CSMA/CD:
• Listen to check if the network is idle.
• If idle, start transmitting data.
• Keep monitoring for a collision.
• If collision occurs, stop transmission.
• Send jam signal and wait random backoff time.
• Retry transmission after waiting.
Flow Diagram of CSMA/CD:
Bit Stream
Bit streaming is the process of transmitting data continuously as a
stream of bits (0s and 1s), often in real time.

Features:
• 🔁 Continuous Transmission – Data is sent as a steady stream of bits.
• ⏱broadcasts.
Real-Time Capable – Supports live content like video calls or live

• 📺Netflix,
Used in Media Streaming – Ideal for audio/video platforms (e.g.,
YouTube).
• ⏩ Low Latency – Delivers data quickly with minimal delay.
• 💾 No Need to Download Entire File – Starts playing as data arrives.
Categories of Bit-Streaming

On-Demand Bit-Streaming:
• ✅ Content is pre-recorded.
• 📥 User can start, pause, rewind anytime.
• 🌐 Buffering occurs before playback for smooth performance.
• 🕐 Delivered when the user requests it.
• 📌 Example: Watching a movie on Netflix or YouTube.
Categories of Bit-Streaming

Real Time Bit-Streaming:

• 🔴 Content is live.
• 🚫 Cannot pause or rewind while watching.
• 🌐 Requires stable connection for low-latency delivery.
• 🕐 Delivered as it is being broadcasted.
• 📌 Example: Live sports events or webinars.
Advantage:
• ⚡ Instant access – no full download needed
• ⏱ Real-time data delivery
• 📉 Saves storage space
• 📡 Ideal for live events and broadcasts
Disadvantage:
• 🌐 Needs stable and high speed internet
• 🛑 Quality drops with slow connection
• 📶 Buffering may occur
• 🚫 Not usable offline
Internet & WWW
Internet: The Internet is a global network of interconnected
computers that communicate and share information using
standard protocols, mainly TCP/IP.

Features:
• 🌍 Connects users and systems worldwide.
• 🔗 Enables access to vast amounts of data (websites, files, emails).
• 📡 Supports instant messaging, video calls, and online collaboration.
WWW: The World Wide Web (WWW) is a system of interlinked web
pages and multimedia content accessed via the Internet using
web browsers.

Features:
• 🌐clickable
Allows users to navigate between web pages through
links.
• 📄 Supports text, images, audio, video, and interactive elements.
• 🔍Firefox,
Available 24/7 globally through browsers like Chrome,
etc.
Comparison Between Internet & WWW:

Internet World Wide Web (www)

Global network of connected Collection of web pages on the

computers Internet

Focuses on websites and web

Supports email, FTP, VoIP, web, etc.
content

Uses TCP/IP protocol Uses HTTP/HTTPS protocol

Accessed via many tools and apps Accessed mainly via web browsers
Hardware Need to Support Internet:
• Modem/Router – Connects to the internet service provider.
• Network Interface Card (NIC) – Enables devices to connect to the
internet.
• Cables (Ethernet/Fiber Optic) – Transfers data between devices and
network.
• Server Machines – Host websites, applications, and data.
• Client Devices – Computers, smartphones, tablets that access the
internet.
• Switches & Hubs – Manage and distribute network traffic internally.
• Wi-Fi Access Points – Provide wireless internet access.
Software Need to Support Internet:
• Operating System – Manages device hardware and runs networking
features.
• Web Browsers – Access and view websites (e.g., Chrome, Firefox).
• Network Protocols – TCP/IP, HTTP/HTTPS for communication.
• Security Software – Firewalls, antivirus, and encryption for protection.
• Web Server Software – Hosts websites (e.g., Apache, Nginx).
• Email Clients – Manage sending and receiving emails.
• Drivers & Utilities – Ensure hardware like NIC and modem function
correctly.
PSTN
Public Switch Telephone Network (PSTN): PSTN is the traditional
telephone network that uses copper wires to connect landline
phones worldwide. It works by switching voice signals through a
series of exchanges to make a call from one phone to another.

Key Terms:
• Full form: Public Switched Telephone Network
• Used for: Landline voice communication
• Based on: Circuit switching
• Physical medium: Copper wires & telephone lines
• Now often replaced by: VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) and
mobile networks
Cellular Networks & Satellites
How Cellular Networks and Satellites Work Together for
Communication:

• Mobile phones connect to nearby towers run by mobile

providers (like Grameenphone, Robi).
• For long-distance or remote areas, networks use satellites.
• Satellites carry signals where towers or cables can’t reach.
• Example:
You call → phone connects to tower → tower sends data to
satellite (if needed) → satellite forwards to another tower →
reaches the other phone.
GEO (Geostationary Earth Orbit) Satellite:
• Altitude: ~35,786 km
• Orbit: Stays fixed above one point on Earth
• Latency: High (~600ms)

✅ Uses:
• Satellite TV, voice and data communication
• Emergency and disaster recovery communications
MEO (Medium Earth Orbit) Satellite:
• Altitude: ~2,000 – 35,786 km
• Orbit: Moves relative to Earth
• Latency: Medium (~150–300ms)

✅ Uses:
• Navigation systems (e.g., GPS, Galileo, GLONASS)
• Used in hybrid satellite-cellular networks
LEO (Low Earth Orbit) Satellite:
• Altitude: ~160 – 2,000 km
• Orbit: Rapid movement, covers Earth in 90 minutes
• Latency: Low (~20–40ms)

✅ Uses:
• Internet and voice services (e.g., Starlink, OneWeb)
• Direct-to-device satellite cellular services (5G from space)
IP Addresses
IP Address: An IP address is a unique identifier assigned to each
device connected to a computer network that uses the Internet
Protocol for communication.

Key Terms:
• Acts like a home address for your device on the internet.
• Used to send and receive data between devices.
• Two main types:
- IPv4: e.g., [Link] (32-bit)
- IPv6: e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e :0370:7334 (128-bit)
• Can be static (fixed) or dynamic (changes over time).
Classes of IP:
Starting Range (1st
Class Default Subnet Mask Purpose
Bits Value)

A 0 1 - 127 [Link] Large networks

B 10 128 - 191 [Link] Medium networks

C 110 192 - 223 [Link] Small networks

D 1110 224 - 239 N/A Multicast (no host use)

E 1111 240 - 255 N/A Reserved (experimental use)

Classless Inter Domain Routine (CIDR):
CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing) is a method used to
allocate IP addresses and route Internet traffic more
efficiently. by allowing flexible subnetting instead of fixed
class-based IP ranges.

Key Terms:
• Saves IP addresses by allowing flexible subnet sizes.
• Improves routing efficiency and reduces Internet routing
table size.
IPv4 Addressing (Concepts):
What is IPv4:
• IPv4 stands for Internet Protocol version 4
• 32-bit address (4 octets)
• Example: [Link]

IPv4 Address Format:

• Written as: A.B.C.D (decimal)
• Each octet: 8 bits
• Total: 32 bits → 2³² possible addresses
Parts of an IPv4 Address:
• Network Portion: Identifies network
• Host Portion: Identifies host in that network

Subnet Mask:
• Defines which part is network & which is host
• Example: [Link] for Class C

CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing):

• Removes fixed classes
• Flexible subnetting: [Link]/24
Why Subnetting?
• Efficient IP usage
• Smaller, manageable networks
• Better security & performance

Important Terms:
• Network Address: Start of network
• Broadcast Address: Last address for all hosts
• Host Address: Usable IPs between network & broadcast
IPv6 Addressing (Concepts):
󾠮 Uses 128-bit addresses → allows trillions of unique IPs.
󾠯 Written in hexadecimal, divided into 8 blocks
(hextets) — e.g. 2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0370:7334.
󾠰 Provides better routing & no need for NAT (Network
Address
Translation).
󾠱 Supports auto-configuration and built-in security (IPSec).
󾠲 Replaces IPv4 to solve address exhaustion problem.
Subnetting:
󾠮 Subnetting is dividing a large IP network into smaller,
manageable sub-networks (subnets).
󾠯 It improves network performance, security, and efficient IP
address use.
󾠰 Subnetting uses subnet masks to identify the network and
host parts of an IP address.
URL (Uniform Resource Locator)
URL: A URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is the address used to find a
resource on the internet. It tells the browser where to find a
webpage, file, or service.

Structure: protocol://website address/path/filename

Explanation:
󾠮󾠯 Domain Host → www

󾠰󾠱 Domain
Scheme/Protocol → http, https, ftp
name → website’s name, e.g., [Link]

󾠲 Domain Type → .com, .info, .net etc.

Path → specific page or file, e.g., /folder/[Link]
DNS (Domain Name Service)
DNS: DNS (Domain Name System) is the system that translates
human-friendly domain names (like [Link]) into IP
addresses (like [Link]), so computers can locate and
communicate with each other on the internet.
Retrieving Website From Server Using DNS:
󾠮 User enters a website URL in the browser’s address bar.
󾠯 Browser checks its local DNS cache; if not found, it asks the
DNS resolver.
󾠰 The resolver contacts a root DNS server to find the right top-
level domain (TLD) server.
󾠱 The resolver queries the TLD server (like .com) to get the
authoritative server for that domain.
󾠲 The resolver gets the IP address from the authoritative server
and sends it to the browser, which uses it to load the website.