Ultimate Notes: Damped & Forced Oscillators

Based on PHY F101 Course Material

Generated for Student Revision

Contents
1 Module 1: Damped Oscillators 2
1.1 The Differential Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Solutions by Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Case I: Underdamped (ω02 > γ 2 /4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Case II: Critically Damped (ω02 = γ 2 /4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.3 Case III: Overdamped (ω02 < γ 2 /4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Module 2: Forced Oscillators 3

2.1 Equation of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 The General Solution (Transient + Steady State) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3 Steady State Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3.1 Physical Interpretation of Phase Lag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.4 Amplitude Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.5 Power and Sharpness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

3 Solved Problems: Damped & Forced 5

3.1 Problem 1: Damped - Energy & SHM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2 Problem 2: Forced - The Driven Pendulum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.3 Problem 3: Forced - Seismograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

4 Summary Sheet (Cheat Sheet) 6

1
1 Module 1: Damped Oscillators
Real-world oscillators are rarely ideal; they experience dissipative forces (friction, air resistance)
that remove energy from the system over time.

1.1 The Differential Equation

We model the damping force as a viscous drag proportional to velocity but opposing motion:
Fd = −bv.
d2 x dx
m 2 +b + kx = 0
dt dt
Dividing by mass m, we define the canonical form:

d2 x dx
2
+γ + ω02 x = 0 (1)
dt dt

Key Definitions

- Natural Frequency (ω0 ): ω02 = k/m. Frequency without damping.

- Damping Parameter (γ): γ = b/m. Determines decay rate.

- Quality Factor (Q): Q = ω0 /γ. A measure of how many oscillations occur before
energy dissipates.

1.2 Solutions by Case

1.2.1 Case I: Underdamped (ω02 > γ 2 /4)

The system oscillates with decaying amplitude.

γt
x(t) = Ce− 2 cos(ω 0 t − φ)
q
γ2
- Damped Frequency: ω0 = ω02 − 4 .

- Amplitude Decay: The envelope is Ce−γt/2 .

- Energy Decay: E(t) = E0 e−γt .

1.2.2 Case II: Critically Damped (ω02 = γ 2 /4)

The fastest return to equilibrium without oscillation.

γt
x(t) = (A + Bt)e− 2

1.2.3 Case III: Overdamped (ω02 < γ 2 /4)

Slow, non-oscillatory return to equilibrium.

r
−( γ2 −β)t −( γ2 +β)t γ2
x(t) = A1 e + A2 e where β = − ω02
4

2
2 Module 2: Forced Oscillators
To sustain oscillations against damping, we apply an external driving force F (t). We consider a
harmonic driving force F (t) = F0 cos(ωt).

2.1 Equation of Motion

mẍ + bẋ + kx = F0 cos(ωt)
Dividing by m:
F0
ẍ + γ ẋ + ω02 x = cos(ωt) (2)
m

2.2 The General Solution (Transient + Steady State)

The total solution is the sum of the Complementary Function (Transient) and the Particular
Integral (Steady State).
x(t) = xtransient + xsteady

- Transient: This is the solution to the damped equation (e.g., Ce−γt/2 cos(ω 0 t + φ)). It de-
pends on initial conditions but dies out after t  1/γ.

- Steady State: This persists as long as the driver is active. It oscillates at the driving fre-
quency ω, not the natural frequency ω0 .

2.3 Steady State Analysis

We assume a solution x(t) = A(ω) cos(ωt−δ). Using the complex number method (z = Aei(ωt−δ) ),
we derive:

Steady State Formulas

Amplitude:
F0 /m
A(ω) = p 2 (3)
(ω0 − ω 2 )2 + γ 2 ω 2
Phase Lag (δ):
γω
tan δ = (4)
ω02 − ω2

2.3.1 Physical Interpretation of Phase Lag

- Low Freq (ω  ω0 ): δ ≈ 0. Displacement is in phase with force.

- Resonance (ω = ω0 ): δ = π/2. Displacement lags force by 90◦ .

- High Freq (ω  ω0 ): δ → π. Displacement opposes force.

3
2.4 Amplitude Resonance
Resonance occurs when the amplitude A(ω) is maximized. We find this by minimizing the de-
nominator.
d  2
(ω0 − ω 2 )2 + γ 2 ω 2 = 0

dω
This yields the Amplitude Resonance Frequency ωmax :
r
γ2
ωmax = ω02 − (5)
2
√
Note: Resonance only occurs if ω02 > γ 2 /2 (or Q > 1/ 2). If damping is too high, the max
amplitude is simply at ω = 0.
The Maximum Amplitude is:

F0 /k · Q F0
Amax ≈ q ≈ Q (for large Q)
1 − 4Q 1 k
2

2.5 Power and Sharpness

The average power delivered by the driving force is maximized exactly when ω = ω0 (Velocity
Resonance).
Average Power Function (Lorentzian):

F02 γ
P̄ (ω) =
2m 4(ω0 − ω)2 + γ 2

Sharpness (Bandwidth): The ”sharpness” is defined by the Full Width at Half Maximum
(FWHM) of the power curve.
ω0
FWHM = γ =
Q
High Q =⇒ Small γ =⇒ Sharp Resonance.

4
3 Solved Problems: Damped & Forced
3.1 Problem 1: Damped - Energy & SHM
Q: X(t) satisfies 4Ẋ 2 + 16X 2 = C. Show SHM and find ω0 . Sol: Differentiating w.r.t time: 8Ẋ Ẍ +
32X Ẋ = 0 =⇒ Ẍ + 4X = 0. Comparing to Ẍ + ω02 X = 0, we get ω0 = 2.

3.2 Problem 2: Forced - The Driven Pendulum

Q: A simple pendulum (length l) is driven by moving its suspension point horizontally: ξ =
ξ0 cos ωt. The damping causes amplitude to drop by factor e in 50 swings. (a) Derive the equation
of motion. (b) Find the steady state amplitude at resonance.
Solution: Part (a): Equation of Motion Let x be the bob’s position and ξ be the support’s
position. The angle is θ ≈ (x − ξ)/l. Restoring force (gravity): Fg ≈ −mgθ = − mg
l (x − ξ). Damping
force: Fd = −bẋ. Newton’s Law: mẍ = −bẋ − mg l (x − ξ). Rearranging:
mg mg
mẍ + bẋ + x= ξ
l l
Divide by m (with γ = b/m, ω02 = g/l):

ẍ + γ ẋ + ω02 x = ω02 ξ0 cos ωt

This is a forced oscillator where the effective force magnitude is F0 /m = ω02 ξ0 .

Part (b): Resonance Amplitude First, find Q. We are told amplitude drops by e in 50 swings.
Decay time t = 50 × T = 50 ω2π0 . Decay factor is e−γt/2 .
γt 2π
= 1 =⇒ γ(50 )/2 = 1
2 ω0
γ 1
50π = 1 =⇒ 50π = 1 =⇒ Q = 50π
ω0 Q
At exact resonance (ω = ω0 ), the term (ω02 − ω 2 ) is zero.

ω02 ξ0
 
F0 /m ω0
Ares = = = ξ0 = ξ0 Q
γω0 γω0 γ
Ares = ξ0 (50π) ≈ 157ξ0

3.3 Problem 3: Forced - Seismograph

Q: A mass m on a spring is attached to earth. Earth moves by η(t). Let y be displacement of
mass relative to earth. (a) Show ÿ + γ ẏ + ω02 y = −η̈. (b) Solve for y if η = C cos ωt.
Solution: Part (a): Pseudo Force Approach The frame (earth) is accelerating with af rame =
η̈. In the non-inertial frame, we add a pseudo-force −mη̈. Forces on m: Spring (−ky), Damping
(−bẏ), Pseudo (−mη̈).
mÿ = −ky − bẏ − mη̈
ÿ + γ ẏ + ω02 y = −η̈
Part (b): Solution If η = C cos ωt, then −η̈ = Cω 2 cos ωt. This acts as the driving force term
with magnitude Fef f /m = Cω 2 . Using the standard amplitude formula:

Cω 2
A(ω) = p 2
(ω0 − ω 2 )2 + γ 2 ω 2
Solution: y(t) = A(ω) cos(ωt − δ).

5
4 Summary Sheet (Cheat Sheet)

1. Damped Oscillators (ẍ + γ ẋ + ω02 x = 0)

p
- γ = b/m, ω0 = k/m, Q = ω0 /γ.

- Underdamped (ω0 > γ/2): x ∼ e−γt/2 cos(ω 0 t).

- Freq: ω 0 = ω02 − γ 2 /4.

p

- Energy: Decays as E0 e−γt (decay time 1/γ).

- Amplitude: Decays as e−γt/2 (decay time 2/γ).

F0
2. Forced Oscillators (ẍ + γ ẋ + ω02 x = m cos ωt)

- Steady State: x(t) = A(ω) cos(ωt − δ).

F0 /m
- Amplitude: A(ω) = q .
(ω02 −ω 2 )2 +γ 2 ω 2

γω
- Phase: tan δ = ω02 −ω 2
. Resonance phase δ = π/2.
p
- Amplitude Resonance: Peaks at ωmax = ω02 − γ 2 /2.

- Power Resonance: Peaks exactly at ω = ω0 .

- Bandwidth (FWHM): Width of power curve = γ = ω0 /Q.

- Low Freq Limit (ω → 0): A → F0 /k.

- High Freq Limit (ω → ∞): A → 0.