Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
A bridge is a structure built to span a physical obstacle such as a body of water, valley, road, or
railway without blocking the way underneath. It is constructed for the purpose of providing
passage over the obstacle, which is usually something that is otherwise difficult or impossible to
cross.
1.1 Historical Development of the bridges
1.1.1 Early Bridges
→ The history of development of bridge construction is closely linked with the history of
human civilization ,The efficiency and sophistication of design and the ingenious
construction procedures kept pace with the advances in science, materials and
technology.
→ Nature fashioned the first bridges the tree fallen accidentally across a stream was the
earliest example of a beam type bridge Similarly, the natural rock arch formed by erosion
of the loose soil below and the creepers hanging from tree to tree allowing monkeys to
cross from one bank to the other were the earliest forebears of the arch and the
suspension bridges, respectively
→ The primitive man imitated nature and learned to build beam and suspension bridges. The
ancient who felled a tree deliberately so that it fell across a stream and afforded him a
crossing was the first bridge builders.
→ Around 4000 BC, men were settling down to community life and were giving more
thought for permanence of bridges. The lake dwellers in Switzerland pioneered the
timber trestle construction which led later to timber bridges.
→ The modern suspension bridge was developed in India and China,India was also the
birthplace of the cantilever bridge.
→ The Mesopotamians developed the true arch bridge,the arch rib being made up of bricks
or stones on [Link] oldest bridge still standing is pedestrian stone slab bridge across the
Meles River in Smyrna,Turkey.
1.1.2 Stone Masonry Bridges
→ The Romans were the pioneers in the art of bridge building. They introduced four
significant developments:a) the discovery and use of natural cement, b) the development
of the cofferdam c)widespread use of semi-circular masonry arch, and d) the concept of
public works.
→ Between 200 BC and 260 AD, the Romans built many magnificent stone arch bridges. The
arches were semi-circular using massive piers, so that, if one span got damaged in war the
others would remain standing One famous bridge of this period is the Ponte Milvio across
the Tiber river in Rome built in 109 BC and still in use.
→ The Chinese were building stone arch bridges since 250 BC The Zhaozhou Bridge (also
known as the Anji bridge) built in 605 AD it is a stone arch bridge of a single span of 37.6
m arid rise of 7.2 m, with a roadway width of 9 m. Two small arches of 3.8 m and 2 85 m
clear span penetrate each of the spandrels, and these serve to drain flood waters and also to
reduce the bridge weight. The secret of its longevity was that the voussoirs were dressed
exactly to match and there was no mortar joint.
→ In the middle ages Medieval bridges adopted the pointed arch. With the pointed arch, the
tendency to sag at the crown is less dangerous and the horizontal thrust at the springing is
less.
→ Segmental curves were first used in Europe in the Ponte Vecchio Bridge, built at Florence,
Italy in 1345.
→ Bridges were regarded as civic works of art and the bridge builder was recognised as a
leader in progress and a creator of monuments. Stone masonry segmental arches were
predominantly used in bridges.
→ Khaju bridge at Isfahan in Iran (1667) with eighteen pointed arches is combined
architecture and engineering in perfect harmony,it also served as dam and cool rooms for
travelers.
→ Many masonary arch bridges have been built in india adopting small spans,mainly for the
railways ,e.g. Thane railway bridge(1853).
1.1.3 Timber Bridges
→ Timber bridges served as an economic alternative during the years prior to the twentieth
century, and were built adopting several structural types.
→ The 400 m long timber trestle bridge across the Rhine built by Julius Caesar in 55 BC
within a time span of ten days was a masterpiece of bold design and efficient site
organization.
→ The wooden arches of Japan e.g. Kintaiko bridge, 1673 are examples of the primitive
ingenuity and craft technology.
→ Timber bridges have been used in Kashmir as cantilever bridges. Covered timber bridges,
covered for protection of the timber from the weather, were popular during the late
eighteenth century
→ Timber bridge the 'Colossus' bridge over the Schuylkill river at Fairmount, Pennsylvania,
with an arch span of 104 m. This fine bridge, built in 1812 by Louis Wernwag, was
destroyed by fire in 1838.
1.1.4 Iron Bridges
→ The Industrial Revolution ushered in the use of iron , The first iron bridge was built at
Coalbrookdale in 1779 over the Severn in England by Abraham Darby and John Wilkinson.
It consisted of five semicircular arch ribs in cast iron, joined together side by side to form
a single arch span of 30 m.
→ Wrought iron replaced cast iron in bridge construction during the period 1800-90. Wrought
iron was ductile, malleable and strong in tension.
→ Wrought iron chains were used for a suspension bridge built by Thomas Telford across the
Menai Straits in Wales in 1826 with a record-breaking span of 177 m. The Menai Straits
bridge was the world's first iron suspension bridge for vehicles and also the world's first
iron suspension bridge over sea water.
→ George Stephenson built the first iron railway bridge, the Gauntlet Viaduct, in 1823 on the
Stockton-Darlington railway.
→ The most remembered failures are those of the Ashtabula, Ohio Howe truss bridge in 1876
killing 65 people and the Firth of Tay lattice girder bridge in Scotland in 1879 resulting in
the death of 75 [Link] Ashtabula bridge collapsed due to derailment in a snow
storm,The Tay bridge disaster was attributed to poor quality castings, unsuitable joints and
inadequate wind resistance. These failures highlighted the inadequacy of wrought iron for
bridges and led to a new era in bridge building, an era of specialization, research, careful
detailing, thorough inspection and a more durable and stronger material - steel.
1.1.5 Steel Arch and Truss Bridges
→ Steel was first used extensively in the Eads Bridge at St. Louis, Missouri, built in 1874 by
[Link] as a steel arch bridge of three spans of 153, 158 and 153 [Link] is the first
bridge to make extensive use of cantilever method of erection, and the first to specify and
test for elastic limit and ultimate strength for steel.
→ The first all-steel bridge was built at Glasgow, South Dakota in 1878. Steel was also used
in the cables and spans of Brooklyn bridge during 1869-83.
→ The Henry Hudson bridge built in 1936 with a span of 244 m and the Rainbow bridge at
Niagara Falls built in 1941 with a span of 290 m are outstanding examples of beautiful
steel arch bridges.
→ The Lupu bridge in Shanghai, built in 2004 with a span of 550 m, is the world's longest
steel arch span bridge, the Lupu bridge adopted a combination of construction techniques
of the arch bridge, the cable stayed bridge and the suspension bridge.
→ In India, many major bridges were built with steel decks in the late nineteenth century and
early twentieth century to carry the railway tracks across the major [Link] sone
railway bridge in 1899.
→ Truss bridges have been used economically in the span range of 100 to 200 m mainly for
railway bridges. The world's longest simple steel truss bridge span is the suspended span
of J.J. Barry bridge across Delaware river in USA built in 1973 with a span of 251 m.
1.1.6 Cantilever bridges
→ The world's first modern cantilever bridge was built in 1867 by Heinrich Gerber across the
river Main at Hassfurt, Germany, with a main span of 129 m. The world's most famous
cantilever bridge is the Firth of Forth bridge in Scotland, built in 1889 with two main spans
of 521 m.
→ The world's longest span cantilever bridge was built in 1917 at Quebec, over the St.
Lawrence river, with a main span of 549 m. The first attempt to construct this bridge ended
in failure due to miscalculation of the dead load and buckling of the web plates of the
compression chord members near the south pier. The design was then revised and the
structure was rebuilt.
→ The Howrah bridge over the Hooghly river at Kolkata, built in 1943 with a main span of
457 m, has elegant aesthetics and possesses pleasing proportions among the suspended
span, cantilever arms and the anchor spans.
→ In view of the larger weight and labour involved compared with a cable stayed bridge of
the same clear span, the cantilever bridge is not very popular at present.
1.1.7 Box Girder Bridges
→ Developments in welding technology and precision gas cutting techniques facilitated the
economical fabrication of monolithic structural steel box girders characterized by the use
of thin stiffened plates and the closed form of cross section.
→ The Cologne Deutz bridge built in 1952 was the world's first slender steel box girder bridge.
Box girder bridges have exceptional torsional rigidity resulting in better transverse load
distribution. Hence box girder steel bridges were constructed in many parts of the world.
→ However, three major failures occurred under construction during 1970-71: at Milford
Haven, UK and Melbourne, Australia in 1970 and at Koblenz, Germany in 1971. These
collapses were attributable more to inefficient detailing of steelwork than to incorrect
design of the effective section.
→ The Rio-Niteroi bridge in Brazil (1976) with 200-300- 200 m spans is a record-span steel
box girder bridge.
1.1.8 Reinforced Concrete Bridges
→ Concrete was used in 1840 for a 12 m span bridge across the Garoyne Canal at Grisoles in
France. The first reinforced concrete bridge was built by Adair in 1871 as a 15 m span
bridge across the Waveney at Homersfield, England.
→ The adaptability of reinforced concrete to any architectural form and the increased
efficiency in concrete construction resulted in its widespread use in bridge building.
→ Robert Maillart in Switzerland produced fine arch bridges in reinforced concrete, utilizing
the integrated structural action of thin arch slabs with monolithically cast stiffening beams,
e.g. Salginatobel bridge and Schwandbach bridge (1930 and 1933, respectively).These
bridges by Maillart are classical examples of structural art, exemplifying the design criteria:
efficient use of materials, economy in cost and enhanced aesthetic expression.
→ The longest span concrete arch bridge is the Wanxiang bridge in China built in 1996 with
span of 420m.
→ The Dum Dum bridge at Kolkata, built in 1926 with two arches of 24 m each, is the first
major reinforced concrete arch bridge in India. The Coronation bridge (1941) across Teesta
river in Bengal is a particularly elegant structure. The Third Godavari Railway bridge built
in 1996 with 28 spans of 97.5 m is a recent example of elegant concrete bowstring girder
bridges.
1.1.9 Prestessed Concrete Bridges
→ The application of prestressing to concrete was pioneered by Eugene Freyssinet in France,
He demonstrated the concept of artificial introduction of beneficial stresses in concrete
members by the use of high strength steel tendons.
→ The first prestressed concrete (PSC) bridge in USA was the Walnut Lane bridge (22.6 +
48.8 + 22.6 m spans) in Philadelphia, PA built in 1949 while the first PSC bridge in Canada
was the Mosquitto Creek bridge in Vancouver, BC, constructed in 1952.
→ The first prestressed concrete highway bridge built in India was the Palar bridge near
Chingleput, built in 1954 with 23 spans of 27 m each
→ The adoption of segmental cantilever construction facilitated the construction of girder
bridges of longer spans and slender sections. e.g. the Barak bridge (1961) with a clear span
of 122 m and the Ganga bridge at Patna (1982) with 45 spans of 121 m each and two end
spans of 63.5 m.
→ The incremental launching method has been used successfully in 1994 in the case of the
Panvel Viaduct on the Konkan railway and later for the Yamuna bridge on the Delhi Metro.
1.1.10 Cable Stayed Bridges
→ The cable stayed bridge is specially suited in the span range of 200 to 900 m and thus
provides a transition between the continuous box girder bridge and the suspension bridge.
→ cable stayed bridges are economical and also they are aesthetically attractive.
→ The Stromsund bridge in Sweden, built in 1957 with a main span of 183 m, and the
Dusseldorf North bridge built in 1958 with a span of 260 m are early examples.
→ The Dames Point bridge at Jacksonville, Florida, built in 1987 with a span of 390 m is the
longest cable stayed bridge in USA. The Tatara bridge in Japan (1999) with a span of 890m
is the longest cable stayed bridge in the world.
→ India's first cable stayed vehicular bridge is the Akkar bridge in Sikkim completed in 1988
with two spans of 76.2 m each, The Second Hooghly bridge (Vidyasagar Setu), completed
in 1992.
1.1.11 Suspension Bridges
→ The concept of suspension bridges has originated from India and China. the modern
suspension bridges are mostly in USA, Europe, Japan and China.
→ The Tacoma Narrows bridge at Puget Sound, Washington, with a span of 853 m and
stiffening plate girders only 2.4 m deep. The bridge collapsed the same year during a 68
km/h gale due to aerodynamic instability. This failure forcefully brought home the need
for consideration of aerodynamic effects on suspension bridges.
→ The Wheeling bridge across the Ohio river in USA built by Charles Ellet in 1849 with a
span of 308 m was the first long span wrought iron wire cable suspension bridge in the
world.
→ The Brooklyn bridge with a main span of 486 m, designed by John Roebling and completed
in 1886 by Washington Roebling and Emily Warren-Roebling, was the first steel wire cable
suspension bridge in the world.
→ The Severn bridge (1966) with a span of 988 m became a land mark in bridge construction.
Its deck consisted of an all-welded steel stiffened box girder, streamlined and tapered at
the edges. The shape was obtained after extensive wind-tunnel tests.e.g. Bosporus bridge
(1973) at Istanbul and the Humber Estuary bridge at Humber, England (1981).
1.2 Site investigation
The extent,nature,and quality of investigations andd analysis of data help in ensuring safety
and cost-effectiveness of the [Link] best design and technologically superior option
emerges only if investigations have been concluded with the utmost accuracy and
completeness.(IRC:SP:54-2000)
1.2.1 Need for Investigation
→ The aim of the investigation is to select a suitable site at which a bridge can be built
economically, at the same time satisfying the demands of traffic, the stream, safety and
aesthetics.
→ Before a bridge can be built at a particular site, it is essential to consider many factors, such
as the need for a bridge, the present and future traffic, stream characteristics, subsoil
conditions, alternative sites, aesthetics and cost.
1.2.2 Selection of Bridge Site
→ For selecting a suitable site for a major bridge, the investigating engineer should make a
reconnaissance survey for about one km on the upstream side and one km on the
downstream side of the proposed bridge site and should journey along the road for about
one km on either side of the road from the bridge site in order to form a general impression
of the landscape and to decide on the type of structure best suited to the site.
→ Investigate a number of probable alternative sites and then decide on the site which is likely
to serve the needs of the bridge at the least cost.
1.2.3 Data to be Collected
1. Maps, plans and topographical features
2. Traffic data
3. River cross-section for a bridge project
4. Hydrologic data and river characteristics
5. Catchment area characteristics
6. River/Channel characteristics
7. Flood flow data
8. Sub-soil data
9. Meteorological data
10. Construction materials
11. Environmental data
12. Special design requirements
13. Existing services
14. Labour accommodation
15. Other authorities
16. Data regarding existing bridges
References
[Link] victor ,“Essentials of Bridge engineering”,6th edition
[Link] Raju, “Design of Bridges”,5th edition
[Link]-2015
[Link]:SP:54-2000