MODULE 3: FRICTION

In these module, you as a student will learn, review and be familiar with the
principles of friction and its application
This module describes the five models that will be used for the entire component
and are define below:

Engage: Apprehend interaction between surfaces

Explore: Analyze principles of friction between surfaces
Explain: Distinguish the forces of action and reaction between contacting surfaces
act normal to the surfaces
Elaborate: Recognize principles of friction and its types
Evaluate: Solve engineering problems adapting the fundamentals of force systems
inclusive the principles of friction

Introduction

In some types of machines and processes we want to minimize the retarding effect
of friction forces. Examples are bearings of all types, power screws, gears, the flow of fluids
in pipes, and the propulsion of aircraft and missiles through the atmosphere. In other
situations we wish to maximize the effects of friction, as in brakes, clutches, belt drives, and
wedges. Wheeled vehicles depend on friction for both starting and stopping, and ordinary
walking depends on friction between the shoe and the ground.

Friction forces are present throughout nature and exist in all machines no matter
how accurately constructed or carefully lubricated. A machine or process in which friction
is small enough to be neglected is said to be ideal. When friction must be taken into
account, the machine or process is termed real. In all cases where there is sliding motion
between parts, the friction forces result in a loss of energy which is dissipated in the form of
heat. Wear is another effect of friction.

Types of Friction

In this article we briefly discuss the types of frictional resistance encountered in

mechanics. The next article contains a more detailed account of the most common type
of friction, dry friction.

(a) Dry Friction. Dry friction occurs when the un-lubricated surfaces of two solids are
in contact under a condition of sliding or a tendency to slide. A friction force tangent to
the surfaces of contact occurs both during the interval leading up to impending slippage
and while slippage takes place. The direction of this friction force always opposes the
motion or impending motion. This type of friction is also called Coulomb friction. The
principles of dry or Coulomb friction were developed largely from the experiments of
Coulomb in 1781 and from the work of Morin from 1831 to 1834. Although we do not yet
have a comprehensive theory of dry friction, in Art. 6/3 we describe an analytical model

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 sufficient to handle the vast majority of problems involving dry friction. This model forms the
basis for most of this chapter.

(b) Fluid Friction. Fluid friction occurs when adjacent layers in a fluid (liquid or gas)
are moving at different velocities. This motion causes frictional forces between fluid
elements, and these forces depend on the relative velocity between layers. When there is
no relative velocity, there is no fluid friction. Fluid friction depends not only on the velocity
gradients within the fluid but also on the viscosity of the fluid, which is a measure of its
resistance to shearing action between fluid layers. Fluid friction is treated in the study of
fluid mechanics and will not be discussed further in this course.

(c) Internal Friction. Internal friction occurs in all solid materials which are subjected
to cyclical loading. For highly elastic materials the recovery from deformation occurs with
very little loss of energy due to internal friction. For materials which have low limits of
elasticity and which undergo appreciable plastic deformation during loading, a
considerable amount of internal friction may accompany this deformation. The
mechanism of internal friction is associated with the action of shear deformation, which is
discussed in references on materials science. Because this module deals primarily with the
external effects of forces, we will not discuss internal friction further.

Dry Friction

The remainder of this chapter describes the effects of dry friction acting on the
exterior surfaces of rigid bodies. We will now explain the mechanism of dry friction with the
aid of a very simple experiment.

Mechanism of Dry Friction

Consider a solid block of mass m resting on a horizontal surface, as shown in Fig.

6/1a. We assume that the contacting surfaces have some roughness. The experiment
involves the application of a horizontal force P which continuously increases from zero to a
value sufficient to move the block and give it an appreciable velocity. The free-body
diagram of the block for any value of P is shown in Fig. 6/1b, where the tangential friction
force exerted by the plane on the block is labeled F. This friction force acting on the body
will always be in a direction to oppose motion or the tendency toward motion of the body.
There is also a normal force N which in this case equals mg, and the total force R exerted
by the supporting surface on the block is the resultant of N and F.

A magnified view of the irregularities of the mating surfaces, Fig. 6/1c, helps us to
visualize the mechanical action of friction. Support is necessarily intermittent and exists at
the mating humps. The direction of each of the reactions on the block, R1, R2, R3, etc.
depends not only on the geometric profile of the irregularities but also on the extent of
local deformation at each contact point. The total normal force N is the sum of the n-
components of the R’s, and the total frictional force F is the sum of the t-components of the
R’s. When the surfaces are in relative motion, the contacts are more nearly along the tops
of the humps, and the t-components of the R’s are smaller than when the surfaces are at
rest relative to one another. This observation helps to explain the well-known fact that the

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 force P necessary to maintain motion is generally less than that required to start the block
when the irregularities are more nearly in mesh.

If we perform the experiment and record the friction force F as a function of P, we

obtain the relation shown in Fig. 6/1d. When P is zero, equilibrium requires that there be no
friction force. As P is increased, the friction force must be equal and opposite to P as long
as the block does not slip. During this period the block is in equilibrium, and all forces acting
on the block must satisfy the equilibrium equations. Finally, we reach a value of P which
causes the block to slip and to move in the direction of the applied force. At this same time
the friction force decreases slightly and abruptly. It then remains essentially constant for a
time but then decreases still more as the velocity increases.

Static Friction

The region in Fig. 6/1d up to the point of slippage or impending motion is called the
range of static friction, and in this range the value of the friction force is determined by the
equations of equilibrium. This friction force may have any value from zero up to and
including the maximum value. For a given pair of mating surfaces the experiment shows
that this maximum value of static friction Fmax is proportional to the normal force N. Thus,
we may write

Where µs is the proportionality constant, called the coefficient of static friction.

Be aware that Eq. 6/1 describes only the limiting or maximum value of the static
friction force and not any lesser value. Thus, the equation applies only to cases where
motion is impending with the friction force at its peak value. For a condition of static
equilibrium when motion is not impending, the static friction force is

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 Kinetic Friction

After slippage occurs, a condition of kinetic friction accompanies the ensuing

motion. Kinetic friction force is usually somewhat less than the maximum static friction
force. The kinetic friction force Fk is also proportional to the normal force. Thus,

where µk is the coefficient of kinetic friction. It follows that µk is generally less than µs. As the
velocity of the block increases, the kinetic friction decreases somewhat, and at high
velocities, this decrease may be significant. Coefficients of friction depend greatly on the
exact condition of the surfaces, as well as on the relative velocity, and are subject to
considerable uncertainty.

Because of the variability of the conditions governing the action of friction, in engineering
practice it is frequently difficult to distinguish between a static and a kinetic coefficient,
especially in the region of transition between impending motion and motion. Well-greased
screw threads under mild loads, for example, often exhibit comparable frictional resistance
whether they are on the verge of turning or whether they are in motion.

In the engineering literature we frequently find expressions for maximum static

friction and for kinetic friction written simply as F = µN. It is understood from the problem at
hand whether maximum static friction or kinetic friction is described. Although we will
frequently distinguish between the static and kinetic coefficients, in other cases no
distinction will be made, and the friction coefficient will be written simply as µ. In those
cases you must decide which of the friction conditions, maximum static friction for
impending motion or kinetic friction, is involved. We emphasize again that many problems
involve a static friction force which is less than the maximum value at impending motion,
and therefore under these conditions the friction relation.

Eq. 6/1 cannot be used. Figure 6/1c shows that rough surfaces are more likely to
have larger angles between the reactions and the n-direction than are smoother surfaces.
Thus, for a pair of mating surfaces, a friction coefficient reflects the roughness, which is a
geometric property of the surfaces. With this geometric model of friction, we describe
mating surfaces as “smooth” when the friction forces they can support are negligibly small.
It is meaningless to speak of a coefficient of friction for a single surface.

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Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 40
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 41