ETS GRE Math Review

Comprehensive Technical Study Notes & Formulary Matrix

This document serves as an exhaustive, highly detailed study reference companion text detailing every
major mathematical domain, theoretical property, core formulation, and core calculation protocol
verified across the Quantitative Reasoning measure of the GRE General Test.

1. Arithmetic
The Arithmetic module focuses heavily on structural number properties, operations on numbers,
absolute values, limits, ratios, and percentages. Success requires exact mastery over definitions rather
than just computational execution.

1.1 Integers, Divisibility, & Factorization

Integers comprise the infinite set {..., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}. It is highly critical to note that zero is an
even integer; it is neither positive nor negative. A non-zero integer 'a' is a divisor (factor) of an integer 'b'
if there exists an integer 'c' such that b = ac.

The Euclidean Division & Remainder Rule

Division Algorithm Equation: c = qd + r

Where 'c' is the dividend, 'd' is the positive divisor, 'q' is the unique integer quotient, and 'r' is the
unique integer remainder satisfying the constraint: 0 <= r < d.
Crucial Note on Negative Dividends: When dividing a negative number like -32 by 3, the greatest
multiple of 3 less than or equal to -32 is -33. Thus, -32 = (3 * -11) + 1. The remainder is 1, and the
quotient is -11.

Prime and Composite Properties:

 Prime Numbers: Integers strictly greater than 1 that possess exactly two distinct positive divisors (1
and itself). The number 2 is the only even prime number.
 Composite Numbers: Integers strictly greater than 1 that are not prime (possess more than two
distinct positive divisors). Note that 0 and 1 are neither prime nor composite.

Arithmetic Operational Rules

 Even/Odd Identities under Basic Operations:
• Even ± Even = Even; Odd ± Odd = Even; Even ± Odd = Odd
• Even × Even = Even; Odd × Odd = Odd; Even × Odd = Even
Least Common Multiple (LCM) & Greatest Common Divisor (GCD):
• To compute the GCD of two numbers, multiply the lowest power of all common prime factors
together.
• To compute the LCM of two numbers, multiply the highest power of all prime factors present in
either expansion together.

1.2 Fractions, Decimals, & Percent Changes

Fractions express a precise part-to-whole quotient. When resolving complex percentages on the GRE,
calculations always require evaluating the proper baseline reference point.

The Core Percentage Formula Matrix

Percent Increase/Decrease Formulation:

Percent Change = (|New Value - Original Base| / Original Base) × 100
• Pitfall Warning: The baseline denominator is ALWAYS the chronological initial asset level before the
transition occurred. For instance, if an asset value falls by 20% and then rises by 20%, the final value is
NOT the original value. (Initial value x 0.80 x 1.20 = 0.96 of the original level, reflecting a net 4% loss).

2. Algebra
GRE Algebra spans operations on polynomials, algebraic identity expansions, coordinate geometries,
and structured application word equations (work, rates, compound systems).

2.1 Foundational Identities & Exponent Mechanics

Manipulating variables accurately depends on applying factoring expansions and operational exponent
rules synchronously.

The Algebraic Identity & Exponent Rule Sheets

Core Polynomial Identities:

• (a + b)² = a² + 2ab + b²
• (a - b)² = a² - 2ab + b²
• a² - b² = (a - b)(a + b) [Difference of Squares]
Essential Rules of Exponents (Non-zero bases x, y):
 • x^a * x^b = x^(a+b) | x^a / x^b = x^(a-b) | (x^a)^b = x^(ab)
• x^-a = 1 / x^a | (xy)^a = x^a * y^a | x^0 = 1
Common Algebraic Trap:
• Remember that (x + y)^a IS NEVER EQUAL TO x^a + y^a for non-zero combinations.

2.2 Solving Quadratic Equations & Linear Inequalities

Quadratic functions must typically be transformed into standard form (ax² + bx + c = 0) before solving.

Quadratic & Inequality Resolutions

The Quadratic Formula:

x = [-b ± √(b² - 4ac)] / 2a
The Discriminant D = b² - 4ac establishes root properties:
• If D > 0, there are two distinct real root solutions.
• If D = 0, there is exactly one repeating real root solution.
• If D < 0, there are zero real root solutions.
Core Rule for Algebraic Inequalities:
• When multiplying or dividing both sides of an inequality by a NEGATIVE number, you must reverse
the direction of the inequality sign immediately.

2.3 Applied Word Problems: Work, Rates, & Graphs

Word problems require turning paragraphs into precise mathematical symbols.

Application Word Problem Matrix

Work-Rate Formula (Simultaneous Execution):

1/t_total = 1/t_1 + 1/t_2 => t_total = (t_1 * t_2) / (t_1 + t_2)
Distance, Rate, and Time Balance:
Distance = Rate × Time (d = rt)
Financial Balance Equations:
• Simple Interest: V = P * (1 + rt/100)
• Compound Interest (n periods per year): V = P * (1 + r/(100n))^(nt)
Coordinate Line Formula Matrix:
• Slope (m) = (y2 - y1) / (x2 - x1)
• Perpendicular Line Slopes: m_1 * m_2 = -1 (Negative Reciprocals)
• Coordinate Distance = √[(x2 - x1)² + (y2 - y1)²]
2.4 Graph Transformations
Given a base function y = f(x) and a positive scaling constant c > 0, the following shift coordinates map
horizontally and vertically across the axis system:
• f(x) + c : Shift vertical profile UP by c units
• f(x) - c : Shift vertical profile DOWN by c units
• f(x + c) : Shift horizontal profile LEFT by c units
• f(x - c) : Shift horizontal profile RIGHT by c units
• -f(x) : Reflect the entire geometric curve across the x-axis

3. Geometry
GRE geometry questions focus heavily on core geometric relationships, lines, multi-sided polygons,
triangles, circles, and 3D spatial solids. Figures are not necessarily drawn to scale, so conclusions must
rely entirely on verified mathematical theorems.

3.1 Triangles & Specialized Polygons

The interior angles of any polygon can be parsed using a universal formula based on the number of
component sides.

Polygons and Triangles Formula Compendium

Polygons with 'n' Sides:

• Sum of All Interior Angles = (n - 2) × 180°
• Measure of One Regular Interior Angle = [(n - 2) × 180°] / n
Triangle Constraints & Properties:
• Triangle Inequality Theorem: The length of any individual side of a triangle must be strictly less than
the sum of the remaining two sides (a < b + c).
• Right Triangle Pythagorean Theorem: a² + b² = c²
Special Right Triangle Standard Ratios:
• 45°-45°-90° (Isosceles Right): Side length ratio is 1 : 1 : √2
• 30°-60°-90° Triangle: Side length ratio is 1 : √3 : 2 (The side opposite the 30° angle is always half the
length of the hypotenuse).

3.2 Circles & Spatial Dimensions

Circular properties are derived from ratios based on the irrational constant Pi (π).

Circles & 3D Solids Formulation Matrix

 Circular Properties (Radius r):
• Area = πr² | Circumference = 2πr
• Arc Length along a sector angle θ = (θ / 360°) × 2πr
• Sector Area bounded by a sector angle θ = (θ / 360°) × πr²
• Geometric Tangent Property: A line tangent to a circle is strictly perpendicular to the radius drawn
to that point of tangency.
Three-Dimensional Solids (Volume and Surface Area):
• Rectangular Box: Volume = lwh | Surface Area = 2(lw + lh + wh)
• Cylinder: Volume = πr²h | Surface Area = 2πr² + 2πrh

4. Data Analysis
The Data Analysis section measures ability to process, describe, and model statistical records. This
includes central tendency metrics, dispersion metrics, advanced counting systems, probability sets, and
normal distribution patterns.

4.1 Statistical Tendency & Dispersion Measures

Central tendency models the center of a data set, while dispersion measures how spread out the
individual values are.

Advanced Data Dispersion Formularies

Measures of Dispersion:
• Range = Max Value - Min Value
• Interquartile Range (IQR) = Q3 - Q1 (Where Q1 is the median of the lower half of data, and Q3 is the
median of the upper half).
• Population Standard Deviation (σ) = √[ ∑(xi - μ)² / n ]
• Standardized Z-Score: z = (Value - Mean) / σ
Meaning of Standard Deviation Changes:
• If a constant value k is added to every data point in a set, the mean increases by k, but the standard
deviation remains completely UNCHANGED.
• If every data point is multiplied by a positive constant k, both the mean and the standard deviation
are multiplied by k.
4.2 Counting Rules & Combinatorics Matrix
Combinatorics helps calculate the total number of ways independent stages can configure or arrange.

Combinatorics & Arrangement Formulations

Fundamental Counting Principles:

• Sequential Multiplication Rule: If a compound process has m independent steps, and step 1 can
occur in k1 ways, step 2 in k2 ways, etc., the total number of distinct configuration combinations is: k1
× k2 × ... × km.
• Inclusion-Exclusion Principle (Set Union): |A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| - |A ∩ B|
Permutations (When sequence/order MATTERS):
• nPk = n! / (n - k)!
Combinations (When sequence/order DOES NOT MATTER):
• nCk = n! / [k!(n - k)!]

4.3 Core Probability Rules

Probability measures the likelihood of specific events occurring, scaled strictly from 0 (impossible) to 1
(certain).
• Complementary Event Rule: P(Not E) = 1 - P(E)
• General Addition Law: P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B)
• Independent Multiplicative Rule: P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B) [Valid only if the events share zero
dependency]
• Conditional Dependent Rule: P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B|A) [Where P(B|A) is the probability of B
occurring given that A has occurred]

4.4 The Continuous Normal Distribution Matrix

The continuous normal distribution forms a perfectly symmetrical bell-shaped density curve centered
entirely on its mean (μ).

Normal Curve Distribution Metrics

The Empirical Distribution Rule (68-95-99.7 Rule):

• Roughly 68.3% of all observed data points fall within 1 standard deviation of the mean: [μ - 1σ, μ +
1σ]
• Roughly 95.4% of all observed data points fall within 2 standard deviations of the mean: [μ - 2σ, μ +
2σ]
• Roughly 99.7% of all observed data points fall within 3 standard deviations of the mean: [μ - 3σ, μ +
3σ]
Symmetric Probability Proportions Breakdown:
• μ to μ + 1σ: ~34% | μ + 1σ to μ + 2σ: ~13.5% | μ + 2σ to μ + 3σ: ~2.1%