NUCLEI

Class 12 Physics – Detailed Notes

NCERT + Board Exams + JEE + NEET

1. THE ATOMIC NUCLEUS — BASICS

1.1 Composition of the Nucleus
The nucleus of an atom is located at its centre and contains protons and neutrons
(collectively called nucleons). It occupies an extremely small volume but contains
almost all the mass of the atom.
• Proton (p): Positively charged. Charge = +e = +1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C. Mass mₚ =
1.00728 u = 1.672 × 10⁻²⁷ kg.
• Neutron (n): Electrically neutral. Mass mₙ = 1.00867 u = 1.675 × 10⁻²⁷ kg.
• Nucleon: General term for protons and neutrons.

1.2 Nuclear Notation and Terminology

ᴬ_Z X e.g. ¹²_₆C, ²³⁸_₉₂U

Symbol Name Definition

Z Atomic number Number of protons in nucleus

N Neutron number Number of neutrons = A – Z
A Mass number Total nucleons = Z + N
X Chemical symbol Identifies the element

1.3 Isotopes, Isobars, and Isotones

Type Definition Same Example

Isotopes Same element, different Z (same) ¹H, ²H, ³H

mass (hydrogen)
Isobars Different elements, A (same) ¹⁴C and ¹⁴N
same A
Isotones Different elements, N (same) ¹⁴C and ¹⁵N
 same N (N=8)
Isodiaphers Same (A–2Z) or same N–Z ¹²C and ¹⁶O (N–
N–Z Z=0)
Mirror nuclei Z and N interchanged A (same) ¹¹B and ¹¹C

💡 Memory tip: Isotopes → same Z (same element). Isobars → same A (same

mass). Isotones → same N (same neutrons). ISO-topes same Z, ISO-bars same A,
ISO-tones same N.

1.4 Size of the Nucleus

R = R₀ A^(1/3) where R₀ = 1.2 × 10⁻¹⁵ m = 1.2 fm
• Nuclear radius ∝ A^(1/3)
• Nuclear volume ∝ A (V = (4/3)πR³ ∝ A)
• Nuclear density is constant (same for all nuclei):
ρ_nucleus ≈ 2.3 × 10¹⁷ kg/m³
💡 Why constant density? Since R ∝ A^(1/3), volume ∝ A, and mass ∝ A, density
= mass/volume = constant. This means nuclear matter is incompressible.
⚠️Scale: Nucleus is ~10⁻¹⁵ m. Atom is ~10⁻¹⁰ m. Nucleus is 10⁵ times smaller than
the atom! If the atom were the size of a football stadium, the nucleus would be a
marble.
2. ATOMIC MASS, MASS DEFECT, AND BINDING ENERGY
2.1 Atomic Mass Unit (u)
One unified atomic mass unit (u) is defined as exactly 1/12 of the mass of one neutral
carbon-12 atom.

1 u = 1.660539 × 10⁻²⁷ kg = 931.5 MeV/c²

Particle Mass (u) Mass (MeV/c²)

Proton 1.007276 u 938.272 MeV/c²

Neutron 1.008665 u 939.565 MeV/c²
Electron 0.000549 u 0.511 MeV/c²
Proton + Electron 1.007825 u 938.783 MeV/c²
(H atom)

2.2 Mass Defect (Δm)

The actual mass of a nucleus is always less than the sum of the masses of its
constituent free protons and neutrons. This difference is called the mass defect.

Δm = [Zmₚ + Nmₙ] – M_nucleus

where Z = number of protons, N = number of neutrons, M_nucleus = measured mass of
nucleus.
For atomic masses (including electrons):

Δm = [Z·M(H) + N·mₙ] – M(ᴬ_Z X)

where M(H) = mass of hydrogen atom = 1.007825 u.
💡 Physical meaning: Mass defect tells us how much mass was converted to
energy (binding energy) when the nucleus was formed. The missing mass is the
'glue' that holds the nucleus together.

2.3 Binding Energy (BE)

Binding energy is the energy equivalent of the mass defect. It is the energy required to
completely separate all nucleons in a nucleus into free protons and neutrons.

BE = Δm × c² = Δm × 931.5 MeV (when Δm is in u)

BE = Δm × c² (in SI: Δm in kg, BE in joules)
 • Higher BE → More stable nucleus (harder to break apart).
• BE is always positive.
• BE represents energy RELEASED when nucleus forms from free nucleons.

2.4 Binding Energy Per Nucleon (BE/A)

The average binding energy per nucleon is the most important measure of nuclear
stability.

BE/A = (Δm × c²) / A = Binding Energy / Mass number

• Unit: MeV per nucleon
• Higher BE/A → More stable nucleus
• Maximum BE/A ≈ 8.75 MeV at A ≈ 56 (iron — Fe, most stable element)

2.5 Binding Energy Curve (BE/A vs A)

The graph of binding energy per nucleon versus mass number is one of the most
important graphs in nuclear physics.

Region A range BE/A (MeV) Key Feature

Light nuclei A < 20 ~5–7 Low BE/A; fusion

possible
Peak region A ≈ 50–60 ~8.7–8.8 Most stable; Fe at
peak
Medium nuclei A = 20–100 ~7.5–8.7 Rising curve
Heavy nuclei A > 100 ~7.5 and falling Fission possible
Very heavy A > 200 ~7.3–7.6 Radioactive,
nuclei unstable

• ²H (deuterium): BE/A ≈ 1.1 MeV (very low — loosely bound)

• ⁴He (helium-4): BE/A ≈ 7.07 MeV (unusually stable — magic number)
• ⁵⁶Fe (iron-56): BE/A ≈ 8.79 MeV (HIGHEST — most stable nucleus)
• ²³⁸U (uranium-238): BE/A ≈ 7.57 MeV (lower — less stable)

✅ Key Insight: Nuclear fusion (combining light nuclei) and nuclear fission (splitting
heavy nuclei) BOTH release energy because both processes move toward the peak
of the BE/A curve (A ≈ 56, iron). Energy is released when BE/A increases.
3. NUCLEAR FORCES
3.1 The Strong Nuclear Force
The strong nuclear force (also called the strong interaction) is responsible for binding
protons and neutrons together in the nucleus, overcoming the strong electrostatic
repulsion between protons.

3.2 Properties of Nuclear Force

1. Short range: Effective only up to about 2–3 fm (femtometres). Beyond this, it
falls to zero very rapidly.
2. Charge independence: The nuclear force between p-p, n-n, and p-n pairs is
approximately the same (charge symmetric).
3. Strongest known force: Much stronger than electrostatic repulsion at nuclear
distances.
4. Spin dependent: Depends on the spin orientation of nucleons.
5. Non-central: Not directed along the line joining the two nucleons.
6. Saturating: Each nucleon interacts only with its nearest neighbours (explains
constant density).
7. Exchange force: Mediated by exchange of particles called pions (π mesons) —
Yukawa's hypothesis.

⚠️Important: Nuclear force has no classical analogue. It is NOT electrostatic or

gravitational. It is the strongest of the four fundamental forces but acts only over
nuclear distances (~10⁻¹⁵ m).

3.3 Comparison of Forces in Nucleus

Property Nuclear Force Electrostatic Gravitational
Force Force

Range ~2–3 fm (short) Long range (1/r²) Long range (1/r²)

Strength Strongest Strong Weakest
Acts between Nucleons only Charged particles All masses
Charge Charge Charge dependent No charge
dependence independent
Nature Always attractive Attractive/ Always attractive
Repulsive
4. RADIOACTIVITY
4.1 Discovery and Definition
• Discovered by: Henri Becquerel (1896) while studying uranium salts.
• Marie Curie and Pierre Curie: Identified polonium and radium as radioactive
elements.
• Definition: Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of an unstable
nucleus with the emission of radiation (α, β, or γ).
• Key property: Radioactive decay is a random, spontaneous process. It is not
affected by temperature, pressure, chemical state, or any external physical
conditions.

4.2 Alpha (α) Decay

Alpha decay is the emission of an alpha particle (⁴₂He nucleus — 2 protons + 2
neutrons) from a heavy nucleus.
ᴬ_Z X → ᴬ⁻⁴_Z₋₂ Y + ⁴_₂He + energy
Example: ²³⁸_₉₂U → ²³⁴_₉₀Th + ⁴_₂He
• Z decreases by 2, A decreases by 4.
• Daughter nucleus is a different element.
• Alpha particles are relatively slow and stopped by a sheet of paper.
• Alpha particles have the highest ionising power.
• Alpha particles are emitted with discrete energies (quantum levels).
💡 Why alpha? Alpha particle (⁴He nucleus) has an unusually high binding energy
per nucleon (~7 MeV), making it a very stable unit. Heavy nuclei prefer to emit
alphas because it's energetically favourable.

4.3 Beta (β) Decay

Beta-minus (β⁻) Decay
A neutron in the nucleus converts to a proton, emitting an electron (β⁻) and an
antineutrino (v̄ ₑ).
ᴬ_Z X → ᴬ_Z₊₁ Y + e⁻ + v̄ ₑ
n → p + e⁻ + v̄ ₑ (underlying process)
• A stays same, Z increases by 1.
• Occurs in neutron-rich nuclei.
• Example: ¹⁴_₆C → ¹⁴_₇N + e⁻ + v̄ ₑ (Carbon dating!)
Beta-plus (β⁺) Decay
A proton in the nucleus converts to a neutron, emitting a positron (e⁺, β⁺) and a neutrino
(νₑ).
ᴬ_Z X → ᴬ_Z₋₁ Y + e⁺ + νₑ
p → n + e⁺ + νₑ (underlying process)
• A stays same, Z decreases by 1.
• Occurs in proton-rich nuclei.

Electron Capture (K-capture)

An inner orbital electron (usually from K-shell) is captured by the nucleus, converting a
proton into a neutron.
ᴬ_Z X + e⁻ → ᴬ_Z₋₁ Y + νₑ

⚠️Beta spectrum: Unlike alpha particles, beta particles are emitted with a
CONTINUOUS range of energies (from 0 to E_max). This was puzzling until Pauli
proposed the neutrino hypothesis to account for the missing energy and momentum.

4.4 Gamma (γ) Decay

After alpha or beta decay, the daughter nucleus is often left in an excited state. It
returns to the ground state by emitting a high-energy photon called a gamma ray.
ᴬ_Z X* → ᴬ_Z X + γ
• No change in Z or A (same nucleus, just energy change).
• Gamma rays are high-energy electromagnetic radiation (E = 0.1 to 10 MeV).
• Gamma rays have the highest penetrating power (need several cm of lead
to stop).
• Gamma rays have the lowest ionising power.
• Gamma decay often accompanies alpha and beta decays.

4.5 Summary: Comparison of Alpha, Beta, Gamma Radiation

Property Alpha (α) Beta (β) Gamma (γ)

Nature ⁴He nucleus Electron/Positron EM radiation

(photon)
Charge +2e –e or +e Zero
Mass 4u ~0 (mₑ) Zero (photon)
Speed ~0.05c ~0.9c c
Ionising power Highest Medium Lowest
Penetrating Lowest (paper) Medium (Al sheet) Highest
power (Pb/concrete)
Range in air Few cm Few metres Very large
ΔZ –2 +1 (β⁻) or –1 (β⁺) 0
ΔA –4 0 0
Energy spectrum Discrete (line) Continuous Discrete (line)
Deflection by Deflected Deflected (more) Not deflected
field
5. LAWS OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY
5.1 Rutherford-Soddy Law of Radioactive Decay
The rate of radioactive decay of a sample is proportional to the number of undecayed
nuclei present at that instant. Radioactive decay is a random, statistical process.

dN/dt = –λN
where N = number of undecayed nuclei, λ = decay constant (disintegration constant),
negative sign indicates decrease.

5.2 Exponential Decay Law

Solving the differential equation:

N(t) = N₀ e^(–λt)
where N₀ = initial number of nuclei at t = 0, t = time elapsed.
• Activity also decays exponentially: A(t) = A₀ e^(–λt)
• Mass decays exponentially: m(t) = m₀ e^(–λt)

5.3 Activity (A)

Activity is the rate of decay — the number of disintegrations per second.

A = –dN/dt = λN = λN₀ e^(–λt) = A₀ e^(–λt)

• Unit of activity: Becquerel (Bq) = 1 disintegration per second (SI unit)
• Old unit: Curie (Ci) = 3.7 × 10¹⁰ disintegrations per second
• 1 Ci = 3.7 × 10¹⁰ Bq (activity of 1 gram of radium)
• Another unit: Rutherford (Rd) = 10⁶ disintegrations per second

5.4 Decay Constant (λ)

• λ = probability of decay of a nucleus per unit time.
• Higher λ → faster decay → less stable nucleus.
• Unit: s⁻¹ (per second)
• λ is characteristic of the nuclide — does not depend on quantity or external
conditions.

5.5 Half-Life (T½)

The half-life is the time in which exactly half the nuclei in a sample decay.

T½ = ln2/λ = 0.693/λ
After n half-lives, the number of remaining nuclei:

N = N₀ × (1/2)ⁿ = N₀ / 2ⁿ
where n = t/T½ (number of half-lives elapsed).
• After 1 T½: N = N₀/2 (50% remains)
• After 2 T½: N = N₀/4 (25% remains)
• After 3 T½: N = N₀/8 (12.5% remains)
• After 10 T½: N = N₀/1024 ≈ 0.1% remains
💡 Key property: Half-life is CONSTANT for a given nuclide — it does NOT depend
on the amount of sample, temperature, pressure, or any external physical/chemical
condition.

5.6 Mean Life (τ)

The mean life (average life) is the average time a nucleus survives before decaying.

τ = 1/λ = T½/ln2 = T½/0.693 = 1.443 × T½

💡 Relation: τ = 1/λ, T½ = 0.693/λ, τ = 1.443 T½. Mean life is always greater than
half-life. After time t = τ, N = N₀/e ≈ 0.368 N₀ (36.8% remains).

5.7 Useful Decay Formulae

Quantity Formula

Number remaining after time t N = N₀ e^(–λt)

Number remaining after n half-lives N = N₀/2ⁿ
Number decayed after time t ΔN = N₀(1 – e^(–λt))
Activity at time t A = λN = A₀ e^(–λt)
Half-life T½ = 0.693/λ
Mean life τ = 1/λ = 1.443 T½
Fraction remaining after t N/N₀ = e^(–λt) = (1/2)^(t/T½)
Fraction decayed after t 1 – e^(–λt)
N from activity A N = A/λ
Number of atoms from mass m N = (m/M) × Nₐ (M = molar mass)
6. NUCLEAR REACTIONS
6.1 General Nuclear Reaction
ᵃ_x A + ᵇ_y B → ᶜ_w C + ᵈ_z D + Q
where Q = energy released (Q-value). Conservation laws that always apply:
8. Conservation of mass number (A): Total A before = Total A after.
9. Conservation of charge (Z): Total Z before = Total Z after.
10. Conservation of energy: Total energy (including mass energy) is conserved.
11. Conservation of momentum: Total linear and angular momentum conserved.
12. Conservation of baryon number: Total number of nucleons conserved.

6.2 Q-Value of a Nuclear Reaction

The Q-value is the energy released (or absorbed) in a nuclear reaction.

Q = (m_reactants – m_products) × c²
Q = (Δm) × 931.5 MeV (when masses in u)
• Q > 0: Exothermic (energy released — reaction occurs spontaneously)
• Q < 0: Endothermic (energy absorbed — threshold energy required)
7. NUCLEAR FISSION
7.1 Definition and Discovery
Nuclear fission is the splitting of a heavy nucleus (A > 200) into two smaller fragments of
comparable masses, accompanied by release of a large amount of energy and 2–3
neutrons.
• Discovered by: Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann (1939). Explained by Lise
Meitner and Otto Frisch.

7.2 The Fission Reaction (Uranium)

²³⁵_₉₂U + ¹_₀n → [²³⁶_₉₂U]* → ¹⁴¹_₅₆Ba + ⁹²_₃₆Kr + 3¹_₀n + Q

or alternatively:
²³⁵_₉₂U + ¹_₀n → ¹⁴⁰_₅₄Xe + ⁹⁴_₃₈Sr + 2¹_₀n + Q

• Energy released per fission event: Q ≈ 200 MeV ≈ 3.2 × 10 ⁻¹¹ J

• Compare: chemical reaction (combustion) releases ~few eV per molecule.
• Fission releases ~10 million times more energy than chemical burning!

7.3 Chain Reaction

Each fission of ²³⁵U releases 2–3 neutrons, each of which can trigger further fissions —
creating a self-sustaining chain reaction.
• Uncontrolled chain reaction: Exponentially growing fissions → atomic bomb
(explosive energy release).
• Controlled chain reaction: Rate is maintained constant → nuclear reactor
(sustained energy for power).
Critical Mass
The minimum mass of fissile material required to sustain a chain reaction is called
critical mass.
• Subcritical: chain reaction dies out (k < 1)
• Critical: self-sustaining chain reaction (k = 1)
• Supercritical: explosive chain reaction (k > 1)
💡 Multiplication factor k: k = (neutrons produced in a generation)/(neutrons in
previous generation). For controlled reactor: k = 1. For bomb: k >> 1.

7.4 Nuclear Reactor

A nuclear reactor is a device that initiates and controls a self-sustaining nuclear chain
reaction for the purpose of generating heat (electricity).
 Component Material Used Function

Fuel ²³⁵U or ²³⁹Pu Fissile material; source of

energy
Moderator Heavy water (D₂O), graphite Slows down fast neutrons to
thermal neutrons
Control rods Cadmium (Cd) or Boron (B) Absorbs neutrons; controls
reaction rate
Coolant Water, CO₂, liquid Na Removes heat from reactor
core
Reflector Graphite, beryllium Reflects neutrons back into
core
Shielding Thick concrete + lead Protects from radiation

💡 Why moderator? ²³⁵U fissions best with slow (thermal) neutrons. Fast neutrons
from fission (energy ~2 MeV) need to be slowed to ~0.025 eV (room temperature).
Moderator does this by elastic collisions.
8. NUCLEAR FUSION
8.1 Definition
Nuclear fusion is the combining of two light nuclei to form a heavier nucleus, releasing a
large amount of energy. It is the process that powers the sun and stars.

8.2 Fusion Reactions

²_₁H + ²_₁H → ³_₂He + ¹_₀n + 3.27 MeV
²_₁H + ³_₁H → ⁴_₂He + ¹_₀n + 17.6 MeV

The D-T (deuterium-tritium) reaction releases 17.6 MeV and is the most promising for
fusion reactors.

8.3 Conditions Required for Fusion

• Very high temperature: ~10⁷ to 10⁸ K (to overcome Coulomb repulsion between
nuclei).
• Very high pressure/density: To ensure frequent collisions between nuclei.
• Confinement: Hot plasma must be confined long enough for fusion to occur.
💡 Why high temperature? Positively charged nuclei repel each other (Coulomb
barrier). Only at extremely high temperatures do nuclei have enough kinetic energy
to overcome this repulsion and come close enough for the strong nuclear force to
take over.

8.4 Fusion vs Fission — Comparison

Feature Fission Fusion

Process Heavy nucleus splits Light nuclei combine

Fuel ²³⁵U, ²³⁹Pu ²H (deuterium), ³H (tritium)
Trigger Slow neutron Extremely high temp (~10⁸
K)
Energy per nucleon ~1 MeV ~3–4 MeV (higher!)
Radioactive waste Yes (long-lived) Minimal (He is safe)
Controllability Controlled in reactors Not yet controlled (research
ongoing)
Application Nuclear power plants, bomb H-bomb, Sun's energy
(natural)
Fuel availability Limited (uranium) Virtually unlimited (sea
 water)

✅ Fusion advantages: Fusion produces more energy per nucleon, has abundant
fuel (deuterium from seawater), and produces far less radioactive waste than fission.
It is the goal of current nuclear energy research (ITER project).

8.5 Stellar Energy — The Proton-Proton Chain

The energy of the sun comes from the proton-proton (p-p) fusion chain reaction:
4¹_₁H → ⁴_₂He + 2e⁺ + 2νₑ + 6γ + 26.7 MeV

The sun converts about 4 million tonnes of mass to energy every second via this
process.
• Sun's luminosity: ~3.8 × 10²⁶ W
• Estimated lifespan of sun: ~10 billion years
9. RADIOACTIVE SERIES AND CARBON DATING
9.1 Radioactive Decay Series
Heavy radioactive nuclei decay through a series of alpha and beta decays until a stable
nucleus is reached. Four naturally occurring decay series:

Series Parent Stable End Name

4n ²³²Th ²⁰⁸Pb Thorium series

4n+1 ²³⁷Np ²⁰⁹Bi Neptunium series
(artificial)
4n+2 ²³⁸U ²⁰⁶Pb Uranium series
4n+3 ²³⁵U ²⁰⁷Pb Actinium series

9.2 Radiocarbon Dating (Carbon-14 Dating)

Carbon-14 (¹⁴C) is a radioactive isotope of carbon with T½ = 5730 years. It is produced
in the upper atmosphere by cosmic ray neutrons bombarding nitrogen:
¹⁴_₇N + ¹_₀n → ¹⁴_₆C + ¹_₁H
Living organisms continuously exchange carbon with the environment, maintaining a
constant ratio of ¹⁴C/¹²C. After death, ¹⁴C decays without replenishment:
¹⁴_₆C → ¹⁴_₇N + e⁻ + v̄ ₑ (T½ = 5730 years)
By measuring the current ¹⁴C/¹²C ratio and comparing to the original ratio, the age of
organic samples can be determined.
Age t = T½/ln2 × ln(A₀/A) = 1.443 T½ × ln(N₀/N)
💡 Applications: Carbon dating is used to date ancient wood, bones, cloth,
charcoal, and other organic materials up to ~50,000 years old. For older samples,
other isotopes (K-Ar, U-Pb) are used.
10. IMPORTANT CONSTANTS AND VALUES
Constant / Quantity Value

1 atomic mass unit (u) 1.660539 × 10⁻²⁷ kg = 931.5 MeV/c²

Mass of proton (mₚ) 1.007276 u = 938.272 MeV/c² = 1.672 × 10⁻²⁷
kg
Mass of neutron (mₙ) 1.008665 u = 939.565 MeV/c² = 1.675 × 10⁻²⁷
kg
Mass of electron (mₑ) 0.000549 u = 0.511 MeV/c² = 9.1 × 10⁻³¹ kg
Mass of ¹H atom 1.007825 u
Avogadro's number (Nₐ) 6.022 × 10²³ mol⁻¹
R₀ (nuclear radius constant) 1.2 × 10⁻¹⁵ m = 1.2 fm
Nuclear density (ρ) ≈ 2.3 × 10¹⁷ kg/m³
1 Curie (Ci) 3.7 × 10¹⁰ Bq (disintegrations/s)
Energy per fission (²³⁵U) ≈ 200 MeV ≈ 3.2 × 10⁻¹¹ J
Energy per D-T fusion 17.6 MeV
T½ of ¹⁴C (carbon-14) 5730 years
T½ of ²³⁸U (uranium-238) 4.47 × 10⁹ years
T½ of ²²⁶Ra (radium-226) 1600 years
Boltzmann constant (k) 1.38 × 10⁻²³ J/K
11. COMPLETE FORMULA REFERENCE
Topic / Quantity Formula

Nuclear radius R = R₀A^(1/3), R₀ = 1.2 fm

Mass defect Δm = [ZmH + Nmₙ] – M(nucleus)
Binding energy BE = Δm × c² = Δm × 931.5 MeV (Δm in u)
Binding energy per nucleon BE/A = Binding energy / Mass number
Q-value Q = (m_reactants – m_products) × 931.5
MeV
Radioactive decay law dN/dt = –λN
Exponential decay (nuclei) N(t) = N₀ e^(–λt)
After n half-lives N = N₀/2ⁿ (n = t/T½)
Activity A = λN = A₀ e^(–λt)
Half-life T½ = ln2/λ = 0.693/λ
Mean life τ = 1/λ = T½/ln2 = 1.443 T½
Number from mass N = (m × Nₐ)/M
α-decay change Z → Z–2, A → A–4
β⁻-decay change Z → Z+1, A → A (same)
β⁺-decay change Z → Z–1, A → A (same)
γ-decay change Z → Z (same), A → A (same)
Carbon dating age t = 1.443 T½ × ln(A₀/A)
N remaining at t = τ N = N₀/e ≈ 0.368 N₀
12. JEE / NEET EXAM TIPS
12.1 High-Priority Topics
• Mass defect and binding energy calculations.
• BE/A vs A graph — shape, peak, fission/fusion regions.
• Radioactive decay law — N, A, and mass calculations after time t.
• Half-life problems — finding N, A, T½, λ from given data.
• Balancing nuclear reactions (α and β decay chains).
• Q-value calculations for nuclear reactions.
• Nuclear fission — energy released, chain reaction, critical mass.
• Carbon dating — age determination problems.

12.2 Problem-Solving Strategies

13. Half-life problems: Find n = t/T½. Then N = N₀/2ⁿ. If t/T½ is not integer, use N =
N₀ e^(–λt).
14. Activity problems: A = λN. Find λ from T½ first: λ = 0.693/T½.
15. Mass defect: Always use atomic masses (not nuclear masses) in u, then Δm =
ZM(H) + Nmₙ – M(atom).
16. Nuclear reactions: Check Z and A balance on both sides. Use Q = Δm × 931.5
MeV.
17. Decay chain: Apply successive α and β decay rules. Count Z and A changes
cumulatively.

12.3 Conceptual Tips

✓ Mass defect: ALWAYS positive (bound nucleus weighs less than free nucleons).
✓ BE/A graph peak is at ⁵⁶Fe (Iron). Both fission and fusion move nuclei toward
iron.
✓ After n half-lives: N = N₀/2ⁿ; fraction decayed = 1 – 1/2ⁿ; fraction remaining =
1/2ⁿ.
✓ Mean life τ = 1.443 T½. At t = τ, N = N₀/e ≈ 36.8% remains.
✓ γ-decay: no change in Z or A — only energy changes. Often follows α or β decay.
✓ Beta spectrum is continuous; alpha and gamma spectra are discrete. Key for
identifying type.
✓ 1 Curie = 3.7 × 10¹⁰ Bq (activity of 1 g of radium — historical definition).
✓ Nuclear density is constant for all nuclei (~2.3 × 10¹⁷ kg/m³) — extremely dense!
✓ Number of atoms: N = (m/M) × Nₐ. Use molar mass M (in grams) and Nₐ = 6.022
× 10²³.
 ✓ Q > 0 → exothermic (energy released). Q < 0 → endothermic (energy needed to
initiate).

12.4 Frequently Made Errors

18. Using nuclear masses instead of atomic masses in mass defect calculation —
always use atomic masses to avoid electron mass errors.
19. Confusing half-life with mean life — T½ = 0.693τ (half-life is shorter than mean
life).
20. Assuming activity stays constant over time — activity ALSO decays
exponentially.
21. Getting α/β decay rules wrong — α: A decreases by 4, Z by 2; β⁻: Z increases by
1, A unchanged.
22. Using wrong units: 1 u = 931.5 MeV/c², NOT 931.5 MeV (include /c²).
23. Forgetting that γ-decay does NOT change Z or A.
24. Thinking fusion is impossible to control (it is currently uncontrolled in reactors but
research is ongoing).
25. Confusing fission fuel (heavy, e.g., ²³⁵U) with fusion fuel (light, e.g., ²H, ³H).
13. PRACTICE PROBLEMS
13.1 Board Level
Problem 1: Calculate the mass defect and binding energy of ⁴₂He. Given: M(He) =
4.002602 u, mₚ = 1.007825 u (H atom mass), mₙ = 1.008665 u.
Solution: Δm = 2×1.007825 + 2×1.008665 – 4.002602 = 2.01565 + 2.01733 –
4.002602 = 0.030378 u. BE = 0.030378 × 931.5 = 28.3 MeV. BE/A = 28.3/4 = 7.07
MeV/nucleon.
Problem 2: A radioactive sample has a half-life of 20 days. Find the fraction remaining
after 80 days.
Solution: n = 80/20 = 4 half-lives. N/N₀ = (1/2)⁴ = 1/16. Fraction remaining = 6.25%.
Problem 3: The activity of a radioactive sample is 1.2 × 10⁷ disintegrations/s. If T½ =
2.6 × 10³ s, find the number of radioactive atoms.
Solution: λ = 0.693/T½ = 0.693/(2.6×10³) = 2.66×10⁻⁴ s⁻¹. N = A/λ =
1.2×10⁷/2.66×10⁻⁴ = 4.5 × 10¹⁰ atoms.

13.2 JEE / NEET Level

Problem 4: In alpha decay of ²³⁸_₉₂U, find the daughter nucleus. If mass of ²³⁸U =
238.0508 u, ²³⁴Th = 234.0436 u, ⁴He = 4.0026 u, find Q-value.
Solution: Daughter: Z=90, A=234 → ²³⁴_₉₀Th. Δm = 238.0508 – (234.0436 +
4.0026) = 238.0508 – 238.0462 = 0.0046 u. Q = 0.0046 × 931.5 = 4.28 MeV.
Problem 5: A radioactive element has a decay constant of 4.33 × 10⁻² per day. Find its
half-life and mean life.
Solution: T½ = 0.693/λ = 0.693/(4.33×10⁻²) = 16 days. τ = 1/λ = 1/(4.33×10 ⁻²) =
23.1 days. Check: τ = 1.443 × T½ = 1.443 × 16 = 23.1 days. ✓
Problem 6: ²³⁵U undergoes fission releasing 200 MeV per fission. Find the energy
released by complete fission of 1 kg of ²³⁵U. Also find equivalent mass of coal (1 kg coal
= 3 × 10⁷ J).
Solution: Number of atoms = (1000/235) × 6.022×10²³ = 2.56×10²⁴. Energy =
2.56×10²⁴ × 200 MeV = 2.56×10²⁴ × 200 × 1.6×10⁻¹³ J = 8.2×10¹³ J. Coal equivalent
= 8.2×10¹³/(3×10⁷) ≈ 2.7 × 10⁶ kg of coal!
Problem 7: A wooden artifact has a ¹⁴C activity of 5 dps/g. Living wood has an activity
of 15.3 dps/g. T½ of ¹⁴C = 5730 years. Find age of artifact.
Solution: A/A₀ = 5/15.3 = 0.327. t = 1.443 × T½ × ln(A₀/A) = 1.443 × 5730 ×
ln(15.3/5) = 8267 × ln(3.06) = 8267 × 1.119 ≈ 9250 years.
14. CHAPTER SUMMARY
The chapter on Nuclei covers the composition, properties, and behaviour of atomic
nuclei. Key takeaways:
• Nucleus contains protons (Z) and neutrons (N); A = Z + N; R = R₀A^(1/3).
• Nuclear density is constant (~2.3×10¹⁷ kg/m³) for all nuclei.
• Isotopes (same Z), isobars (same A), isotones (same N).
• Mass defect Δm = sum of free nucleon masses – actual nuclear mass.
• Binding energy BE = Δm × 931.5 MeV; BE/A peaks at ⁵⁶Fe (~8.75 MeV).
• Nuclear force: strongest, short range (~2-3 fm), charge independent.
• Alpha decay: Z–2, A–4. Beta⁻: Z+1, A unchanged. Gamma: no change.
• Radioactive decay: N = N₀e^(–λt); T½ = 0.693/λ; τ = 1/λ = 1.443 T½.
• Activity A = λN; units: Becquerel (Bq) and Curie (Ci = 3.7×10¹⁰ Bq).
• Fission: heavy nucleus splits → ~200 MeV per event; chain reaction; nuclear
reactor.
• Fusion: light nuclei combine → ~17.6 MeV (D-T); powers stars; needs ~10⁸ K.
• Carbon-14 dating: T½ = 5730 yr; used to date organic samples up to ~50,000
years.

End of Notes
From nuclear forces to fission and fusion — you've cracked the nucleus!
Keep it up — you're doing brilliantly!