Institute Level Optional Course

–I:

Disaster Management
and Mitigation Measures
(ILOC7017)
MODULE 2:
Natural Disaster and Manmade disasters:
2.1 Natural Disaster: Meaning and nature of natural disaster, Flood, Flash flood, drought, cloud
burst, Earthquake, Landslides, Avalanches, Volcanic eruptions, Mudflow, Cyclone, Storm,
Storm Surge, climate change, global warming, sea level rise, ozone depletion
2.2 Manmade Disasters: Chemical, Industrial, Nuclear and Fire Hazards. Role of growing
population and subsequent industrialization, urbanization and changing lifestyle of human beings
in frequent occurrences of manmade disasters.
2.1 Natural Disaster
The discussion on various terminologies has helped us in having a basic understanding
of disaster management. However, each hazard has its own characteristics. To
understand the significance and implications of various types of hazards we must have a
basic understanding about the nature, causes and effects of each hazard type and the
mitigation measures that need to be taken up. In this chapter, we would discuss the
following hazards namely earthquake, tsunami, landslide, flood, cyclone and drought
that we normally face in our country.

2.1.1 Earthquake
Earthquake is one of the most destructive natural hazard. They may occur at any time of
the year, day or night, with sudden impact and little warning. They can destroy
buildings and infrastructure in seconds, killing or injuring the inhabitants. Earthquakes
not only destroy the entire habitation but may de-stabilize the government, economy
and social structure of the country. But what is an earthquake? It is the sudden shaking
of the earth crust. The impact of an earthquake is sudden and there is hardly any
warning, making it impossible to predict.
Cause of Earthquake :
The earth’s crust is a rocky layer of varying thickness ranging from a depth of about 10
kilometers under the sea to 65 kilometers under the continents. The crust is not one
piece but consists of portions called ‘plates’ which vary in size from a few hundred to
thousands of kilometers. The ‘theory of plate tectonics’ holds that the plates ride up on
the more mobile mantle, and are driven by some yet unconfirmed mechanisms, perhaps
thermal convection currents. When these plates contact each other, stress arises in the
crust
These stresses can be classified according to the type of movement along the plate’s
boundaries:
a) pulling away from each other,
b) pushing against one another and
c) sliding sideways relative to each other.
All these movements are associated with earthquakes.
The areas of stress at plate boundaries which release accumulated energy by slipping or
rupturing are known as 'faults'. The theory of 'elasticity' says that the crust is
continuously stressed by the movement of the tectonic plates; it eventually reaches a
point of maximum supportable strain. A rupture then occurs along the fault and the
rock rebounds under its own elastic stresses until the strain is relieved. The fault rupture
generates vibration called seismic (from the Greek 'seismos' meaning shock or
earthquake) waves, which radiates from the focus in all directions.
The point of rupture is called the 'focus' and may be located near the surface or deep
below it. The point on the surface directly above the focus is termed as the 'epicenter' of
the earthquake
General characteristics:
Earthquake vibrations occur in a variety of frequencies and velocities. The actual
rupture process may last for a few seconds to as long as one minute for a major
earthquake. The ground shaking is caused by ‘body waves’ and ‘surface wave’
♦ Deep:- 300 to 700 kms from the earth surface
♦ Medium:- 60 to 300 kms
♦ Shallow: less than 60 kms
The deep focus earthquakes are rarely destructive because by the time the waves reach
the surface the impact reduces. Shallow focus earthquakes are more common and are
extremely damaging because of their proximity to the surface.

Measuring Earthquakes: Earthquakes can be described by the use of two

distinctively different scales of measurement demonstrating magnitude and intensity.
Earthquake magnitude or amount of energy released is determined by the use of a
seismograph’ which is an instrument that continuously records ground vibration. The
scale was developed by a seismologist named Charles Richter. An earthquake with a
magnitude 7.5 on the Richter scale releases 30 times the energy than one with 6.5
magnitudes. An earthquake of magnitude 3 is the smallest normally felt by humans. The
largest earthquake that has been recorded with this system is 9.25 (Alaska, 1969 and
Chile, 1960). The second type of scale, the earthquake intensity scale measures the
effects of an earthquake where it occurs. The most widely used scale of this type was
developed in 1902 by Mercalli an Italian seismologist. The scale was extended and
modified to suit the modern times. It is called the Modified Mercalli Scale, which
expresses the intensity of earthquake effect on people, structure and the earth’s surface
in values from I to XII. With an intensity of VI and below most of the people can feel the
shake and there are cracks on the walls, but with an intensity of XII there is general
panic with buildings collapsing totally and there is a total disruption in normal life.
Predictability: Although some scientists claim ability to predict earthquakes, the
methods are controversial. Accurate and exact predictions of such sudden incidents are
still not possible

Typical adverse effects:

1. Physical damage:
Damage occurs to human settlement, buildings, structures and infrastructure, especially
bridges, elevated roads, railways, water towers, pipelines, electrical generating facilities.
Aftershocks of an earthquake can cause much greater damage to already weakened
structures. Secondary effects include fires, dam failure and landslides which may block
water ways and also cause flooding. Damage may occur to facilities using or
manufacturing dangerous materials resulting in possible chemical spills. There may also
be a break down of communication facilities. The effect of an earthquake is diverse.
There are large number of casualties because of the poor engineering design of the
buildings and close proximity of the people. About 95 per cent of the people who are
killed or who are affected by the earthquake is because of the building collapse. There is
also a huge loss to the public health system, transport and communication and water
supply in the affected areas.
Possible risk reduction measures:
Community preparedness: Community preparedness is vital for mitigating earthquake
impact. The most effective way to save you even in a slightest shaking is 'DROP, COVER
and HOLD'. Planning: The Bureau of Indian Standards has published building codes
and guidelines for safe construction of buildings against earthquakes. Before the
buildings are constructed the building plans have to be checked by the Municipality,
according to the laid down bylaws. Many existing lifeline buildings such as hospitals,
schools and fire stations may not be built with earthquake safety measures. Their
earthquake safety needs to be upgraded by retrofitting techniques. Public education is
educating the public on causes and characteristics of an earthquake and preparedness
measures. It can be created through sensitization and training programme for
community, architects, engineers, builders, masons, teachers, government functionaries
teachers and students. Engineered structures: Buildings need to be designed and
constructed as per the building by laws to withstand ground shaking. Architectural and
engineering inputs need to be put together to improve building design and construction
practices. The soil type needs to be analyzed before construction. Building structures on
soft soil should be avoided. Buildings on soft soil are more likely to get damaged even if
the magnitude of the earthquake is not strong as shown in Figure 2.1.7. Similar
problems persist in the buildings constructed on the river banks which have alluvial soil.

2.1. 2 Tsunami
The term Tsunami has been derived from a Japanese term Tsu meaning 'harbor' and
nami meaning 'waves'. Tsunamis are popularly called tidal waves but they actually have
nothing to do with the tides. These waves which often affect distant shores, originate by
rapid displacement of water from the lake or the sea either by seismic activity,
landslides, volcanic eruptions or large meteoroid impacts. What ever the cause may be
sea water is displaced with a violent motion and swells up, ultimately surging over land
with great destructive power. The effects of a tsunami can be unnoticeable or even
destructive.
Causes of a Tsunami
The geological movements that cause tsunamis are produced in three major ways:
The most common of these are fault movements on the sea floor, accompanied by an
earth-quake. They release huge amount of energy and have the capacity to cross oceans.
The degree of movement depends on how fast the earthquake occurs and how much
water is displaced.
The second most common cause of the tsunami is a landslide either occurring under
water or originating above the sea and then plunging into the water
The third major cause of tsunami is volcanic activity. The flank of a volcano located near
the shore or under water may be uplifted or depressed similar to the action of a fault, or,
the volcano may actually explode.
Predictability:
There are two distinct types of tsunami warning: a) International tsunami warning
systems and b) Regional warning systems.
Tsunamis have occurred in all the oceans and in the Mediterranean Sea, but the great
majority of them have occurred in the Pacific Ocean. Since scientists cannot exactly
predict earthquakes, they also cannot exactly predict when a tsunami will be generated.
a) International Tsunami Warning Systems: Shortly after the Hilo Tsunami (1946), the
Pacific Tsunami Warning System (PTWS) was developed with its operational center at
the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) near Honolulu, Hawaii. The PTWC is able
to alert countries several hours before the tsunami strikes. The warning includes
predicted arrival time at selected coastal communities where the tsunami could travel in
few hours. A tsunami watch is issued with subsequent arrival time to other geographic
areas.
b) Regional Warning Systems usually use seismic data about nearby earthquakes to
determine if there is a possible local threat of a tsunami. Such systems are capable
enough to provide warnings to the general public in less than 15 minutes.
Typical adverse effects:
Local tsunami events or those less than 30 minutes from the source cause the
majority of damage. The force of the water can raze everything in its path. It is normally
the flooding affect of the tsunami that causes major destruction to the human
settlements, roads and infrastructure thereby disrupting the normal functioning of the
society. Withdrawal of the tsunami causes major damage. As the waves withdraw
towards the ocean they sweep out the foundations of the buildings, the beaches get
destroyed and the houses carried out to sea. Damage to ports and airports may prevent
importation of needed food and medical supplies. Apart from the physical damage,
there is a huge impact on the public health system. Deaths mainly occur because of
drowning as water inundates homes. Many people get washed away or crushed by the
giant waves and some are crushed by the debris, causes.
There are very few evidences which show that tsunami flooding has caused large
scale health problem. Availability of drinking water has always been a major problem in
areas affected by a disaster. Sewage pipes may be damaged causing major sewage
disposal problems. Open wells and other ground water may be contaminated by salt
water and debris and sewage. Flooding in the locality may lead to crop loss, loss of
livelihood like boats and nets, environmental degradation etc.
Possible risk reduction measures:
While it is of course not possible to prevent a tsunami, in certain tsunami prone
countries some measures have been taken to reduce the damage caused on shore. Japan
has implemented an extensive programme of building tsunami walls of up to 4.5m (13.5
ft) high in front of populated coastal areas. Other localities have built flood gates and
channels to redirect the water from incoming tsunamis. However, framed structures in
the area. The wall may have succeeded in slowing down and moderating the height of
the tsunami but it did not prevent major destruction and loss of life.
Some other systematic measures to protect coastlines against tsunamis include:
Site Planning and Land Management:
Within the broader framework of a comprehensive plan, site planning determines
the location, configuration, and density of development on particular sites and is,
therefore, an important tool in reducing tsunami risk.
In areas where it is not feasible to restrict land to open-space uses, other land use
planning measures can be used. These include strategically controlling the type of
development and uses allowed in hazard areas, and avoiding high-value and
highoccupancy uses to the greatest degree possible.
Engineering structures – Most of the habitation of the fishing community is seen
in the coastal areas. The houses constructed by them are mainly of light weight
materials without any engineering inputs. Therefore there is an urgent need to educate
the community about the good construction practices that they should adopt such as:
1. Site selection – Avoid building or living in buildings within several hundred feet
of the coastline as these areas are more likely to experience damage from tsunamis.
 2. Construct the structure on a higher ground level with respect to mean sea level.
3. Elevate coastal homes: Most tsunami waves are less than 3 meters in height.
Elevating house will help reduce damage to property from most tsunamis.
4. Construction of water breakers to reduce the velocity of waves.
5 . Use of water and corrosion resistant materials for construction.
6. Construction of community halls at higher locations, which can act as shelters
at the time of a disaster.
2.1. 3 CYCLONE
What is a Cyclone?
Cyclone is a region of low atmospheric pressure surrounded by high atmospheric
pressure resulting in swirling atmospheric disturbance accompanied by powerful winds
blowing in anticlockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and in the clockwise
direction in the Southern Hemisphere. They occur mainly in the tropical and temperate
regions of the world. Cyclones are called by various names in different parts of the world
as mentioned in box on the next page.
General Characteristics:
Cyclones in India are moderate in nature. Some of the general characteristics of a
cyclone are:
1. Strong winds
2. Exceptional rain
3. Storm surge Cyclones are generally accompanied by strong winds which cause
a lot of destruction.
In some cases it is accompanied by heavy downpour and also the rise in the sea which
intrudes inland there by causing floods.
a) Formation and initial development state: Four atmospheric/ oceanic conditions are
necessary for the formation of a cyclone namely:
♦ A warm sea temperature in excess of 26 degree centigrade, to a depth of 60 meters, which
provides abundant water vapour in the air by evaporation.
♦ High relative humidity (degree to which the air is saturated by water vapor) of the atmosphere
to a height of about 7000 meters, facilitates condensation of water vapor into droplets and
clouds, releases heat energy and induces drop in pressure.
♦ Atmospheric instability (an above average decrease of temperature with altitude) encourages
considerable vertical cumulus cloud convection when condensation of rising air occurs.
♦ A location of at least 4-5 latitude degrees from the Equator allow the influence of the force due
to the earth’s rotation (Coriolis force) to take effect in inducing cyclonic wind circulation around
low pressure centers.
b) Fully matured: The main feature of a fully mature tropical cyclone is a spiral pattern
of highly turbulent giant cumulus thundercloud bands. These bands spiral inwards and
form a dense highly active central cloud core which raps around a relatively calm zone.
This is called the “eye” of a cyclone. The eye looks like a black hole or a dot surrounded
by thick clouds. The outer circumference of the thick cloud is called the ‘eye wall’.
c) Weakening or decay: A tropical cyclone begins to weaken as soon as its source of
warm moist air is abruptly cut off. This is possible when the cyclone hits the land, on the
cyclone moves to a higher altitude or when there is the interference of another low
pressure. Depending on their track on the warm tropical sea and proximity to land a
cyclone may last for less than 24 hours to more than 3 weeks. On an average the life
cycle of a cyclone (a cyclone to complete these three stages mentioned above) takes six
days. The longest cyclone is typhoon John which lasted for 31 days (August to
September, 1994 in the north east and north west pacific basins).
Warning: Low pressure and the development can be detected hours or days before it
causes especially those in the sea, port authorities, commercial aviation and the
government machinery.
Typical Adverse effect:
Water supplies – Ground and pipe water supply may get contaminated by flood waters.
Crops and food supplies – high winds and rains ruin the standing crop and food stock
lying in low lying areas. Plantation type crops such as banana and coconut are extremely
vulnerable. Salt from the sea water may get deposited on the agricultural land and
increase the salinity. The loss of the crop may lead to acute food shortage.
Communication – severe disruption in the communication links as the wind may bring
down the electricity and communication towers, telephone poles, telephone lines,
antennas and satellite disk and broadcasting services. Transport lines (road and rail)
may be curtailed, Lack of proper communication affects effective distribution of relief
materials.
Physical damage – structures will be damaged or destroyed by the wind force, flooding
and storm surge. Light pitched roofs of most structures especially the ones fitted on to
industrial buildings will suffer severe damage.
Casualties and public heath – caused by flooding and flying elements, contamination of
water supplies may lead to viral outbreaks, diarrhea, and malaria.
Possible Risk Reduction Measures:
Coastal belt plantation - green belt plantation along the coastal line in a scientific
interweaving pattern can reduce the effect of the hazard. Providing a cover through
green belt sustains less damage. Forests act as a wide buffer zone against strong winds
and flash floods. Without the forest the cyclone travel freely inland. The lack of
protective forest cover allows water to inundate large areas and cause destruction. With
the loss of the forest cover each consecutive cyclone can penetrate further inland.
Hazard mapping – Meteorological records of the wind speed and the directions give the
probability of the winds in the region. Cyclones can be predicted several days in
advance. The onset is extensive and often very destructive.
Engineered structures – structures need to be built to withstand wind forces. Good site
selection is also important. Majority of the buildings in coastal areas are built with
locally available materials and have no engineering inputs. Good construction practice
should be adopted such as: -
Cyclonic wind storms inundate the coastal areas. It is advised to construct on stilts or on
earth mound. - Houses can be strengthened to resist wind and flood damage. All
elements holding the structures need to be properly anchored to resist the uplift or
flying off of the objects. For example, avoid large overhangs of roofs, and the projections
should be tied down.
Flood management – Torrential rains, strong wind and storm range leads to flooding in
the cyclone affected areas. There are possibilities of landslides too. Flood mitigation
measures could be incorporated (see section on floods for additional information).
Improving vegetation cover – The roots of the plants and trees keep the soil intact and
prevent erosion and slow runoff to prevent or lessen flooding. The use of tree planted in
rows will act as a windbreak. Coastal shelterbelt plantations can be developed to break
severe wind speeds. It minimizes devastating effects. The Orissa calamity has also
highlighted the need for urgent measures like shelterbelt plantation along cyclone-prone
coastal areas. Species chosen for this purpose should not only be able to withstand the
impact of strong cyclonic winds, but also check soil erosion.
2.1.4 FLOOD
Flood is a state of high water level along a river channel or on the coast that leads to
inundation of land, which is not usually submerged. Floods may happen gradually and
also may take hours or even happen suddenly without any warning due to breach in the
embankment, spill over, heavy rains etc. There are different types of floods namely:
flash flood, riverine flood, urban flood, etc. Flash floods can be defined as floods which
occur within six hours of the beginning of heavy rainfall, and are usually associated with
cloud bursts, storms and cyclones requiring rapid localized warnings and immediate
response to reduce damage. Wireless network and telephone connections are used to
monitor flood conditions. In case of flash floods, warnings for timely evacuation may not
always be possible.
Causes: There are several causes of floods and differ from region to region. The causes
may vary from a rural area to an urban area.
Some of the major causes are:
a. Heavy rainfall
b. Heavy siltation of the river bed reduces the water carrying capacity of the
rivers/stream.
c. Blockage in the drains lead to flooding of the area.
d. Landslides blocking the flow of the stream.
e. Construction of dams and reservoirs
f. In areas prone to cyclone, strong winds accompanied by heavy down pour along with
storm surge leads to flooding.
Typical Adverse Effects:
The most important consequence of floods is the loss of life and property. Structures like
houses, bridges; roads etc. get damaged by the gushing water, landslides triggered on
account of water getting saturated, boats and fishing nets get damaged. There is huge
loss to life and livestock caused by drowning.
Lack of proper drinking water facilities, contamination of water (well, ground water,
piped water supply) leads to outbreak of epidemics, diarrhoea, viral infection, malaria
and many other infectious diseases.
Flooding also leads to a large area of agricultural land getting inundated as a result
there is a huge crop loss. This results in shortage of food, and animal fodder. Floods may
also affect the soil characteristics. The land may be rendered infertile due to erosion of
top layer or may turn saline if sea water floods the area.
Possible Risk Reduction Measures:
Mapping of the flood prone areas is a primary step involved in reducing the risk of the
region. Historical records give the indication of the flood inundation areas and the
period of occurrence and the extent of the coverage.
Warning can be issued looking into the earlier marked heights of the water levels in case
of potential threat. In the coastal areas the tide levels and the land characteristics will
determine the submergence areas.
Flood hazard mapping will give the proper indication of water flow during floods.
Land use control will reduce danger of life and property when waters inundate the
floodplains and the coastal areas. The number of casualties is related to the population
in the area at risk. In areas where people already have built their settlements, measures
should be taken to relocate to better sites so as to reduce vulnerability.
No major development should be permitted in the areas which are subjected to high
flooding. Important facilities like hospitals, schools should be built in safe areas. In
urban areas, water holding areas can be created like ponds, lakes or low-lying areas.
Construction of engineered structures in the flood plains and strengthening of
structures to withstand flood forces and seepage. The buildings should be constructed
on an elevated area. If necessary build on stilts or platform.
Flood Control aims to reduce flood damage. This can be done by decreasing the amount
of runoff with the help of reforestation (to increase absorption could be a mitigation
strategy in certain areas), protection of vegetation, clearing of debris from streams and
other water holding areas, conservation of ponds and lakes etc. Flood Diversion include
levees, embankments, dams and channel improvement. Dams can store water and can
release water at a manageable rate. But failure of dams in earthquakes and operation of
releasing the water can cause floods in the lower areas. Flood Proofing reduces the risk
of damage. Measures include use of sand bags to keep flood water away, blocking or
sealing of doors and windows of houses etc.
2.1.6 DROUGHT
What is Drought?
Drought is either absence or deficiency of rainfall from its normal pattern in a region for
an extended period of time leading to general suffering in the society. It is interplay
between demand that people place on natural supply of water and natural event that
provides the water in a given geographical region. The state of Kerala which receives
more than 3000 mm of rainfall every year is declared drought affected as it is
insufficient to have two good crops. The more the imbalance in supply the higher is the
drought.
The following will help explaining this general definition of the drought further.
♦ It is a slow on-set disaster and it is difficult to demarcate the time of its onset and the end.
♦ Any unusual dry period which results in a shortage of useful water.
♦ Drought is a normal, recurrent feature of climate. Climate is expected to show some
aberrations and drought is just a part of it.
♦ Drought can occur by improper distribution of rain in time and space, and not just by its
amount.
♦ Drought is negative balance between precipitation and water use (through evaporation,
transpiration by plants, domestic and industrial uses etc) in a geographical region.
Causes of Drought Can you think of what causes drought?
Though drought is basically caused by deficit rainfall, which is a meteorological
phenomenon, it manifests into different spheres because of various vulnerability factors
associated with them (see the box). Some of these factors are human induced.
Though drought is a natural disaster, its effects are made worst in developing countries
by over population, over grazing, deforestation, soil erosion, excessive use of ground and
surface water for growing crops, loss of biodiversity.
Typical adverse effects Drought, different from any other natural disaster, does not
cause any structural damages. As the meteorological drought turns into hydrological
drought, the impacts start appearing first in agriculture which is most dependant on the
soil moisture. Irrigated areas are affected much later than the rainfed areas. However,
regions surrounding perennial rivers tend to continue normal life even when drought
conditions are prevailing around. The impacts slowly spread into social fabric as the
availability of drinking water diminishes, reduction in energy production, ground water
depletion, food shortage, health reduction and loss of life, increased poverty, reduced
quality of life and social unrest leading to migration.
Possible Risk Reduction Measures:
There are various mitigation strategies to cope up with drought.
1. Public Awareness and education: If the community is aware of the do’s and don’ts,
then half of the problem is solved. This includes awareness on the availability of safe
drinking water, water conservation techniques, agricultural drought management
strategies like crop contingency plans, construction of rain water harvesting structure.
Awareness can be generated by the print, electronic and folk media.
2. Drought Monitoring: It is continuous observation of the rainfall situation, availability
of water in the reservoirs, lakes, rivers etc and comparing with the existing water needs
in various sectors of the society.
3. Water supply augmentation and conservation through rainwater harvesting in houses
and farmers’ fields increases the content of water available. Water harvesting by either
allowing the runoff water from all the fields to a common point (e.g. Farm ponds, see the
picture) or allowing it to infiltrate into the soil where it has fallen (in situ) (e.g. contour
bunds, contour cultivation, raised bed planting etc) helps increase water availability for
sustained agricultural production
4. Expansion of irrigation facilities reduces the drought vulnerability. Land use based on
its capability helps in optimum use of land and water and can avoid the undue demand
created due to their misuse.
5. Livelihood planning identifies those livelihoods which are least affected by the
drought. Some of such livelihoods include increased off-farm employment
opportunities, collection of non-timber forest produce from the community forests,
raising goats, carpentry etc.
6. Drought planning: the basic goal of drought planning is to improve the effectiveness
of preparedness and response efforts by enhancing monitoring, mitigation and response
measures.
7. Planning would help in effective coordination among state and national agencies in
dealing with the drought. Components of drought plan include establishing drought
taskforce which is a team of specialists who can advise the government in taking
decision to deal with drought situation, establishing coordination mechanism among
various agencies which deal with the droughts, providing crop insurance schemes to the
farmers to cope with the drought related crop losses, and public awareness generation.
2.1.6 LANDSLIDE
What is a landslide?
The term’ landslide’ includes all varieties of mass movements of hill slopes and can be
defined as the downward and outward movement of slope forming materials composed
of rocks, soils, artificial fills or combination of all these materials along surfaces of
separation by falling, sliding and flowing, either slowly or quickly from one place to
another. Although the landslides are primarily associated with mountainous terrains,
these can also occur in areas where an activity such as surface excavations for highways,
buildings and open pit mines takes place. They often take place in conjunction with
earthquakes, floods and volcanoes. At times, prolonged rainfall causing landslide may
block the flow of river for quite some time. The formation of river blocks can cause
havoc to the settlements downstream on its bursting
Causes of Landslide
There are several causes of landslide. Some of the major causes are as follows:
1. Geological Weak material: Weakness in the composition and structure of rock or soil
may also cause landslides.
2. Erosion: Erosion of slope toe due to cutting down of vegetation, construction of roads
might increase the vulnerability of the terrain to slide down.
3. Intense rainfall: Storms that produce intense rainfall for periods as short as several
hours or have a more moderate intensity lasting several days have triggered abundant
landslides. Heavy melting of snow in the hilly terrains also results in landslide.
4. Human Excavation of slope and its toe, loading of slope/toe, draw down in reservoir,
mining, deforestation, irrigation, vibration/blast, Water leakage from services.
5. Earthquake shaking has triggered landslides in many different topographic and
geologic settings. Rock falls, soil slides and rockslides from steep slopes involving
relatively thin or shallow dis-aggregated soils or rock, or both have been the most
abundant types of landslides triggered by historical earthquakes.
6. Volcanic eruption Deposition of loose volcanic ash on hillsides commonly is followed
by accelerated erosion and frequent mud or debris flows triggered by intense rainfall.
Type of Landslides: The common types of landslides are described below.
• Falls: Abrupt movements of materials that become detached from steep slopes or
cliffs, moving by free-fall, bouncing, and rolling.
• Flows: General term including many types of mass movement, such as debris flow,
debris avalanche, lahar, and mudflow.
• Creep: Slow, steady downslope movement of soil or rock, often indicated by curved
tree trunks, bent fences or retaining walls, tilted poles or fences.
• Debris flow Rapid mass movement in which loose soils, rocks, and organic matter
combine with entrained air and water to form slurry that then flows down slope, usually
associated with steep gullies.
• Debris avalanche A variety of very rapid to extremely rapid debris flow.
Lahar Mudflow or debris flow that originates on the slope of a volcano, usually
triggered by heavy rainfall eroding volcanic deposits, sudden melting of snow and ice
due to heat from volcanic vents, or the breakout of water from glaciers, crater lakes or
lakes dammed by volcanic eruptions • Mudflow Rapidly flowing mass of wet material
that contains at least 50 per cent sand, silt, and clay-sized particles. • Lateral spreads
Often occur on very gentle slopes and result in nearly horizontal movement of earth
materials. Lateral spreads usually are caused by liquefaction, where saturated sediments
(usually sands and silts) are transformed from a solid into a liquefied state, usually
triggered by an earthquake.
• Slides Many types of mass movement are included in the general term “landslide.”
The two major types of landslides are rotational slides and translational landslides. •
Topple A block of rock that tilts or rotates forward and falls, bounces, or rolls down the
slope.
Adverse Effects: The most common elements at risk are the settlements built on the
steep slopes, built at the toe and those built at the mouth of the streams emerging from
the mountain valley. All those buildings constructed without appropriate foundation for
a given soil and in sloppy areas are also at risk. Roads, communication lines are
vulnerable.
Possible risk reduction measures:
Hazard mapping locates areas prone to slope failures. This will help to avoid building
settlements in such areas. These maps will also serve as a tool for mitigation planning.
Land use practices such as:
§ Areas covered by degraded natural vegetation in upper slopes are to be afforested with
suitable species. Existing patches of natural vegetation (forest and natural grass land) in
good condition, should be preserved
§ Any developmental activity initiated in the area should be taken up only after a
detailed study of the region has been carried out.
§ In construction of roads, irrigation canals etc. proper care is to be taken to avoid
blockage of natural drainage
§ Total avoidance of settlement in the risk zone should be made mandatory.
§ Relocate settlements and infrastructure that fall in the possible path of the landslide
Retaining Walls can be built to stop land from slipping (these walls are commonly seen
along roads in hill stations). These are constructed to prevent smaller sized and
secondary landslides that often occur along the toe portion of the larger landslides.
Surface Drainage Control Works The surface drainage control works are implemented to
control the movement of landslides accompanied by infiltration of rain water and spring
flows.
Engineered structures with strong foundations can withstand or take the ground
movement forces. Underground installations (pipes, cables, etc.) should be made
flexible to move in order to withstand forces caused by the landslide
Increasing vegetation cover is the cheapest and most effective way of arresting
landslides. This helps to bind the top layer of the soil with layers below, while preventing
excessive run-off and soil erosion. Insurance will assist individuals whose homes are
likely to be damaged by landslides or by any other natural hazards.
2.1.7 Avalanches
Avalanche can be defined as a swift flow of snow down a slope, which may have been
triggered naturally or due to human activity. An avalanche typically happens in
mountainous regions, and also brings down air and water along with snow. A strong
enough avalanche can drag down with itself ice, and large objects like rocks, trees, and
other material down the slope. While rock slides, mudslides, serac collapses and rock
avalanches are all caused by icefalls, an avalanche is different from them because it is
primarily composed of flowing snow.
Usually, avalanches are categorized according to their size and other shape-related
characteristics and rated according to the destruction they are capable of causing. Some
traits of an avalanche used to categorize it include nature of the failure, sliding surface,
type of snow involved, propagation mechanism of the failure, reason for trigger of
avalanche, direction, slope elevation and slope angle. Avalanche size,
mass, and destructive potential are rated on logarithmic magnitude scales, which
usually consist of 4 to 7 categories, which vary with the system of observation being used
and/or the region in which forecast is being done.
Classification and Terminology
There are some elements that are common to all avalanches, such as a trigger, a starting
point of origin, the path along which the avalanche goes, a point where the avalanche
stops and the debris that an avalanche collects along its way down, along with the mass
of snow. Other things common to all avalanches are the failure layer along which the
avalanche moves and the bed surface which lies at the original starting point of the
avalanche. In most avalanches, the two things — failure layer and bed surface— are the
same. Besides these, a slab avalanche also has a crown fracture at the top of the starting
point, flank fractures on the sides of the start zones, and a shallow staunch fracture at
the bottom of the start zone. Crown and flank fractures can be defined as vertical walls
in the snow which distinguish the snow falling down the slope from snow remaining on
the slope. The avalanche is morphologically classified by studying the nature of the
failure of the snowpack. For instance, a slab avalanche is triggered when some kind of
surplus load leads to a failure of a slab lying over a weak layer of snow; the failure
occurs when a fracture is formed in the slab. Similarly, loose snow, point release, and
isothermal avalanches get triggered when some type of stress generates a shear failure
in a weak interface, which may be at the base or within the snow pack. In case of failure
at the base, it is known as a full depth avalanche. When snow is lifted by the wind and
funnels into a steep drainage from the top zone of the drainage, a spin drift avalanche is
triggered.
On steep terrains, loose snow avalanches are the most common because freshly fallen
snow has low density and disintegrates easily. In this kind of avalanche, the avalanche
starts small, from a point and then gains in size as it progresses down the slope,
eventually taking on a teardrop shape, which is a complete contrast to the slab
avalanche. Slab avalanches are the most powerful and therefore most destructive—they
cause nearly 90 percent of deaths caused by avalanches. These avalanches take place
when a slab of snow forms as falling snow is deposited on a lee slope by the wind or
when a large amount of loose snow moves. The moment a failure occurs in a weak layer,
the fracture extends very rapidly over a very large area, such that a snow slab, hundreds
of meters in length and equally thick, begins to move almost immediately.
The wet snow avalanche or isothermal avalanche is triggered when a snowpack is
saturated by water. Such avalanches also spread forward after they originate from a
single point. If the water content is high, the avalanche is categorized as a slush flow and
can move down largely shallow slopes. As far as the power and speed of an avalanche is
concerned, a powder snow avalanche is known to travel with a speed upwards of 300
km/h, and be of 10,000,000 tonnes of volume. They are so powerful that they can
travel over largely flat surfaces or even uphill. This kind of avalanche is formed of a
powder cloud that is a result of an avalanche accelerating over a sudden change in slope,
for example, a cliff band, leading the snow to mix with air. This chaotic suspension of
snow powder turns into a gravity current.
Prevention
Avalanches may be prevented to a certain extent. Over time, humans have come up with
ways to mitigate
the destructive power and incidence of avalanches. There are largely two kinds of
techniques used:
1. Active techniques: Under this method, small artificial avalanches are triggered which
are obviously less harmful than big avalanches. This is done by disturbing the snow
deliberately using explosives
like bombs or shelling or even howitzer rifles.
2. Passive techniques: Under this method, basically, snow is either slowed down,
stopped or diverted
or prevented from moving in large masses that could cause damage. One of the ways to
block
snow is to build a cemented structure blocking it.
Some classifications of avalanche control structures are:
Snow retention structures like snow racks, avalanche snow bridges and snow nets.
These are all used in the upper path of likely avalanche routes.
Avalanche barriers: The key to an avalanche barrier is a strong steel wire mesh, which is
extended across the slope. The support provided by the mesh helps prevent creeping
within the snowpack. The avalanche is thus stopped at the starting point itself and
minor snow shifts remain harmless. The stress caused by the snow pressure is absorbed
into the snow nets and taken away over the swivel posts and anchor ropes into anchor
points.
Snow redistribution structures (wind baffles, snow fences)
Snow deflection structures: These are used to restrict and redirect the moving snow
within the avalanche path. The redirecting should be gradual and not sharp because if it
is sharp they might be overpowered by the avalanche.
Snow retardation structures like snow breakers are usually used in small slope portions
of the avalanche path, to promote its slowdown naturally
Snow catchment structures
Direct protection of important objects and structures, such as using snow sheds
(avalanche sheds) Avalanche dams, ditches, earth mounds, terraces, etc. may also help
in redirecting, slowing down, and engineered collection of snow. Other passive methods
are:
o Reforestation on the natural tree line because forests are the best means of retaining,
redistributing, retarding and storing snow
o Snow compaction is done mostly in ski resorts using mechanical equipment like snow
Groomers
CLIMATIC DISASTER: HEAT AND COLD WAVE
A heat wave is a prolonged period of excessively hot weather, which may be
accompanied by high humidity. There is no universal definition of a heat wave; the term
is relative to the usual weather in the area. Temperatures that people from a hotter
climate consider normal can be termed as heat wave in a cooler area if they are outside
the normal climate pattern for that area. The term is applied both to routine weather
variations and to extraordinary spells of heat which may occur only once a century.
Severe heat waves have caused catastrophic crop failures, thousands of deaths from
hyperthermia and widespread power outages due to increased use of air conditioning.
The definition recommended by the World Meteorological Organization is when
the daily maximum temperature of more than 5 consecutive days exceeds the average
maximum temperature by 5°C. A formal, peer-reviewed definition from the Glossary of
Meteorology is a period of abnormally and uncomfortably hot and usually humid
weather. To be a heat wave, such a period should last at least 1 day, but conventionally it
lasts from several days to several weeks. In 1900, A.T. Burrows more rigidly defined a
‘hot wave’ as a spell of 3 or more days on each of which the maximum shade
temperature reaches or exceeds 90°F (32°C). More realistically, the comfort criteria for
any one region are dependent upon the normal conditions of that region. In addition to
physical stress, excessive heat causes psychological stress, to a degree that affects
performance and is also associated with an increase in violent crime.
Impact of heat waves
1. Power outage: Heat waves often lead to electricity spikes due to increased air
conditioning use, which can create power outages, exacerbating the problem. During the
2006 North American heat wave, thousands of homes and businesses went without
power, especially in California. In Los Angeles, electrical transformers failed, leaving
thousands without power for as long as 5 days. The heat wave in Melbourne, Australia,
also caused major power disruptions leaving over half a million people without power as
the heat wave blew transformers and overloaded the power grid.
2. Wildfires: If a heat wave occurs during a drought, which dries out vegetation, it
can contribute to bushfires and wildfires. During the disastrous heat wave that struck
Europe in 2003, fires raged through Portugal, destroying over 3,010 square kilometres
(7,40,000 acres) of forest and 440 square kilometres (1,10,000 acres) of agricultural
land and causing an estimated €1 billion worth of damage. High-end farmlands have
irrigation systems to back up crops with.
3. Physical damage: Heat waves can and do cause roads, highways to buckle,
water lines to burst and power transformers to detonate, causing fires.
Is heat wave a result of global warming?
Some facts related to heat waves and global warming are as follows: The Earth is
heating up by 1.4°F since 1920. The ice caps are melting and the level of sea is rising.
The first 6 months of 2006 were the hottest since records were maintained in 1890. The
heat wave and the resultant extreme occurrences being witnessed in these recent years
are consistent with what is seen as caused by global warming, even though there is no
definite correlation. Until now, approximately several high-temperature records have
been broken.
However, scientists are researching to ensure if the global heat wave constitutes
part of a longer and more intense pattern of heat waves before considering it as a part of
the larger global warming picture. The movement to bring down greenhouse gas
emissions is gaining international attention. In the recent conference on climate change
in Copenhagen, the deadline was determined for adopting ‘green’ policies and saving the
planet from global warming. It was decided that if drastic cuts are not made in the
pollution levels by 2020, it would cost the planet up to 150 per year, and we would not
have virtually any chance of reducing the temperature. It was decided that geo-
engineering and radical solutions would be adopted such as covering the planet with
artificial trees or by reflecting sunlight back into space with mirrors.
Global leaders meeting in Copenhagen are using rise in temperature issue as
their target for the climate deal, which will see billions of pounds being handed down to
developing countries to slow down climate change. It is being said that a cut of 5 per
cent in global emissions is the utmost even the most ambitious campaigner is possible.
This means drastic changes in power generation, use of renewable energy like wind
farms and solar energy, nuclear power, use of biofuels and driving electric cars.
Deforestation would have to be brought down and use of fossil fuel reduced drastically.
Cold Wave
An unusual drop in the weather over a short period of time can be called a cold
wave. Like heat waves, the term cold wave is relative to the usual weather in the area. A
prolonged cold wave may be accompanied by heavy snowing. A cold wave is extremely
hazardous to livestock, and also to humans. Since the exposure to cold mandates a
greater intake of calories for animals, if there is snow, grazing animals may be unable to
reach needed food and die of hypothermia or starvation. The 2012 European cold wave
caused temperatures to fall below –35 °C and led to the deaths of 590 people.
Global Warming:
The average temperature of the planet has increased more than 1 degree Fahrenheit
since 1900 and the speed of warming has been almost threefold since 1970. This
increase in the planet’s average temperature is called global warming.
1. Consequences of global warming on weather patterns Increase in
temperatures could lead to increased droughts and wildfires, heavier rainfall and a
greater number of intense hurricanes. Warmer water in the oceans pumps more energy
into tropical storms, making them stronger and potentially more destructive. The
warning signs prevalent today are as follows: The number of intense storms has greatly
increased over the past years, in addition to ocean temperature. The Atlantic hurricane
season in 2005 was the most active in recorded history, with 27 named storms, of which
15 became hurricanes. Seven of the hurricanes strengthened into major storms, five
became intense hurricanes and four became very intense hurricanes. In August 2005,
Hurricane Katrina was the costliest and deadliest hurricanes in American history.
Warmer temperatures have increased the possibility of droughts. Increased evaporation
could increase drought conditions and increase the risk of wildfires. Expenditures
incurred in firefighting have consistently gone up by $1 billion per year. Warmer
temperatures have increased the energy of the climatic system and have increased the
possibility of heavier rainfall in some areas. The national annual precipitation has
surged between 5 and 10 per cent since the early 20th century, largely due to heavy
downpours. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, intense rain
events have increased in frequency during the last 50 years and human-induced global
warming most likely contributed to the trend. According to the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, the northeast region of the US has had its wettest summer
on record in 2006, exceeding the previous record by more than 1 inch.
2. Consequences of global warming on health Carbon dioxide in the air
aggravates asthma and allergies. More frequent and severe heat waves will result in a
greater number of heat-related deaths. The warning signs prevalent today are as follows:
In 2003, very intense heat waves killed approximately 70,000 people in Europe. In
France alone, about 15,000 people died during 2 weeks of increasing temperatures that
reached as high as 104 degrees Fahrenheit. Most areas of North America underwent a
severe heat wave in July 2006, which led to the deaths of over 140 people. In the 1995
heat wave in Chicago, 739 heat-related deaths had occurred within a week. Global
warming could lead to an increase in smog pollution in some areas and intensify pollen
allergies and asthma. It could also increase local air quality problems. Research shows
that a higher level of carbon dioxide spurts the increase in the growth of ragweed, whose
pollen leads to allergies and worsens asthma. Diesel exhaust particles can also mix with
pollen and deliver it deeper into the lungs. The rise in temperatures can increase
ground-level ozone smog production, which is a grave threat to asthmatics. The number
of mosquitoes and disease outbreaks, such as dengue and malaria increase as the
climate allows them to survive in formerly inhospitable areas. Higher outdoor
temperatures can also lead to more outbreaks of foodborne illnesses such as salmonella,
which reproduces rapidly in warm temperatures.
3. Consequences of global warming on wildlife Rising temperatures have
destroyed coral reefs and melted the habitats of polar bears and penguins. Increasing
global temperatures have disrupted ecosystems and pushed to extinction species that
have not been able to adapt. A comprehensive assessment of the extinction risk from
global warming found that more than 1 million species could be extinct by 2050 if the
current trend continues. The warning signs prevalent today are as follows:
● A recent analysis of about 2000 plant and animal species discovered movement
towards the poles at an average rate of 3.8 miles per decade.
● The latest Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change report found that
approximately 20 to 30 per cent of plant and animal species assessed are likely to
be extinct if global average temperature increases by more than 2.7 to 4.5°F
● The US Geological Survey has predicted that two-thirds of the world’s polar bear
sub-populations will be extinct by mid-century because of melting of the Arctic
ice cap. In Washington’s Olympic Mountains, the sub-alpine forest has invaded
higher elevation alpine meadows.
● The mangrove forests in Bermuda are disappearing.
● Over the past years, some Antarctic penguin populations have reduced by 33 per
cent due to decline in winter sea-ice habitat.
● The ocean has become more acidic due to carbon dioxide emissions, because of
which species with hard calcium carbonate shells are vulnerable. Scientists
predict that an increase by 3.6°F in temperature would wipe out 97 per cent of
the world’s coral reefs.
4. Consequences of global warming on glaciers and sea levels It is being
predicted that the polar regions could be devoid of ice by 2040 and the sea levels could
rise by 23 inches by 2100 if the current warming patterns continue. The rising global
temperatures will speed the melting of glaciers and ice caps and cause ice to thaw early.
The warning signs prevalent today are as follows: The northern section of the Larsen B
ice shelf in Antarctica, a section larger than the state of Rhode Island in the US,
collapsed between January and March 2002 and disintegrated at a rate that astonished
scientists. According to NASA, the polar ice cap is melting at a rate of 9 per cent per
decade. Arctic ice thickness has decreased by 40 per cent since the 1960s. Over the past
three decades, more than a million square miles of perennial sea ice, an area the size of
Norway, Denmark and Sweden combined, has disappeared.
Global warming causes
● The major cause of global warming is the emission of greenhouse gases like
carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide into the atmosphere. Power plants are
one of the major sources of carbon dioxide. These power plants produce carbon
dioxide by burning fossil fuels for the purpose of electricity generation. Burning
gasoline in vehicles contributes about 20 per cent of carbon dioxide emitted in
the atmosphere.
● Both commercial and residential buildings represent a larger source of global
warming pollution. Constructing these requires a lot of fuel to be burnt which
emits a large amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
● Methane is 20 times more effectual than carbon dioxide at trapping heat in the
atmosphere. It is obtained from rice paddies, bovine flatulence, bacteria in bogs
and fossil fuel manufacture. When fields are flooded, anaerobic bacteria build up
and the organic matter in the soil decays, releasing methane to the atmosphere.
● Cars with catalytic converters, using fertilizers in agriculture and burning organic
matter releases nitrous oxide that includes nylon and nitric acid production.
● Deforestation caused by cutting and burning of forests for the purpose of
residence and industrialization is also a cause of global warming.

2.2 MAN-MADE DISASTERS Man-made disasters are those that may

be lesser in enormity but higher in frequency. These are the risks that
are caused due to carelessness, or because of human activities which
are not able to endure the forces of nature.
2.2.1 Nuclear Disaster
Nuclear disasters can take place as a result of military action as well. This will
affect biodiversity. Back in 2006, the Lebanese coast was badly polluted by
15,000 tons of oil slicks following the bombing of an oil reserve by Israel in the
southern part of Beirut. Many rare species of birds, turtles and seals had
completely disappeared. In 1986, the first and one of the worst nuclear power
plant disasters took place at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in Ukraine. As a
result of this disaster, many deaths occurred due to radiation poisoning resulting
from the radioactive release into the atmosphere, which spread over a large
geographical area. The massive power excursion destroyed the reactor. The
fallout was said to have been four hundred times more than what was released by
the atomic bombing of Hiroshima. Some nuclear rain fell even as far away as
Ireland. The contamination affected large areas in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus.
For many years thereafter, the expansion of the nuclear power industry slowed
down considerably. Russia, Ukraine and Belarus have been bearing the expenses
of decontamination over the years. A similar tragedy took place in India, at
Bhopal when the Union Carbide pesticide plant released methyl isocyanate into
the atmosphere. Lakhs of human lives were lost. Even now, children are being
born with defects and when they grow up are suffering from various fatal diseases
and physical deformities. Even after twenty-five years, hundreds of tonnes of
toxic chemicals abandoned at the plant continue to leak and pollute the region’s
ground water, which has affected thousands of residents. Following the Bhopal
Gas Tragedy, the Disaster Management Institute was established by the MP
Government to offer training to people. The Institute also conducts research and
provides consultancy services on the prevention, mitigation and management of
disasters. The Institute organizes training sessions for working managers and
government officials in the areas of management of natural disasters. The most
challenging task of the post-Chernobyl recovery was the integrated radiological
and socio-economic rehabilitation of the affected areas. The chief objective being
rehabilitation and economic recovery and sustainable development of the
affected areas. Development and implementation of the state strategy in the field
of overcoming the Chernobyl accident consequences is done under direct
participation of the President of the Republic of Belarus. The President and his
administration strictly controlled the implementation of the state program for
overcoming the Chernobyl accident consequences in accordance with the
Chernobyl legislation. The system of control includes visits of the President to
regions contaminated by radio-nuclides and making on-site decisions on the
most urgent problems affecting the concerned population. Under the primary
countermeasures of radiation protection, it has been possible to completely
resettle the inhabitants from the most contaminated areas. The country
successfully operates the radiation control and monitoring measures. All the
affected people are covered by a system of social protection which has been
implemented successfully and medical care is being provided to those residing in
the regions contaminated by radio nuclides. The system being followed for
radiation protection of the population includes development of legislative
documents dealing with rules pertaining to radiation safety, sanitary regulations
for radiation safety, and permissible levels of radio cesium and radio strontium
concentration in foodstuff, agricultural products, water. Liming of acidic soils,
application of phosphate and potassium fertilizer to the whole contaminated
region of agricultural land, improvement of pastures and grassland for private
and state farms is being strictly followed. A number of new techniques of
agricultural production were worked out. Thanks to these measures practically all
agricultural materials and foodstuff produced on contaminated Belarusian
territories correspond to standards of radionuclide concentration. Agricultural
facilities have been re-oriented. The modified facilities ensure that there is lesser
accumulation of radionuclide’s in the resulting products. An effective system of
radiation-ecological monitoring and radiation control has also been set up with
environmental monitoring units spread across the country. Radiation-ecological
monitoring and research activity are being conducted to prevent the spread of
radio radionuclides to less contaminated territories.
2.2.2 Chemical Disaster Chemicals are used by most industries in production.
Some industries even produce chemicals. On the basis of the source of their
origin, chemicals are divided into two categories – organic and inorganic.
Organic chemicals exist in nature or are extracted from it. Inorganic chemicals
are produced in laboratories. Irrespective of their source of origin, a number of
chemicals used in industries, may be harmful to the things they are exposed to. In
some cases, the effects of chemicals on human or environment can be severe. On
the basis of the kind of damage harmful chemicals can cause, they are categorized
as reactive, corrosive, flammable and toxic. Chemical disasters consist of any
kind of spills, leaks or explosions involving harmful industrial chemicals. The
leaked chemicals react with the surroundings and in some cases causes severe
adverse effects including large number of deaths as had happened in the Bhopal
gas leak in December 1984. These disasters are harmful to all elements in the
environment – be it social, economic or natural. Sometimes, chemical accidents
may occur even after adhering to all the precautions. Chemical disasters may vary
in magnitude depending on the nature of the chemical and the vulnerability of
the surroundings. When chemicals are being stored or transported, a number of
signals and colour codes are used to enable the people dealing with them to
identify the type of chemicals and know about their adverse effects. This helps in
alerting the disaster management team about any chemicalsrelated disaster. The
colour codes used are based on the kind of effects associated with different
chemicals. These colour codes are as follows: Blue for health damage Red for
extremely flammable products Yellow for reactive chemicals White for special
notices about chemicals which can cause a combination of damages The hazards
caused by chemicals have also been divided into a number of classes on the basis
of chemicals. This categorization helps researchers take precautions to avoid
these hazards or launch rescue and recovery operations in case of chemical
disasters. This hazard class categorization is as follows: Hazard Class 1:
Explosives Hazard Class 2: Gases Hazard Class 3: Flammable liquids Hazard
Class 4: Flammable solids Hazard Class 5: Oxidizer and organic peroxide
Hazard Class 6: Toxic/poisonous and infectious substances Hazard Class 7:
Radioactive Hazard Class 8: Corrosive Hazard Class 9: Miscellaneous dangerous
goods In view of the past chemical disasters, it is essential to exercise extreme
caution while, dealing with hazardous chemicals. Source of occurrence Chemical
disasters mostly occur due to a combination of mechanical and human failures in
dealing with dangerous chemicals. Any factory, industry or workshop where
dangerous chemicals are used is prone to such accidents. The main cause of
chemical disasters is a chemical leak or spill in the environment. The leaked
chemical then reacts with the surroundings, leading to severe adverse effects for
humans and the environment. It is for this reason an industry is required to put
in place a number of precautions before it is allowed to use certain chemicals.
Also a number of legal procedures and restrictions check the exposure of these
chemicals under control to ensure that no damage results from their use. A
human error due to lack of information can also lead to a chemical disaster.
However, many times chemical disasters occur due to poor planning and
application of faulty emergency and safety procedures. One reason for this could
be a particular industry’s bid to reduce the cost involved in following foolproof
safety procedures. When an industry is not equipped to properly handle
chemicals or to take urgent steps to deal with any chemical spill or leak, it can
lead to a disaster which could threaten the industry workers as well as those in
the vicinity. Mostly, chemical disasters occur during chemicals’ transportation.
This could be the result of improper facilities provided for transporting a
chemical or lack of coordination between the sender and the receiver of the
chemical. In such cases, the chemical may be left unattended outside an
industrial campus for a long time and that can lead to its reaction with the
environment
Impact on the environment: Chemical disasters affect all elements of the
environment adversely. They could lead to death and destruction and heavy
expenditures to set right the damage caused to the elements of the environment.
In the environmental context, a grave concern is that the effects of chemical
disasters are not restricted only to the time of the occurrence of disaster. These
effects may linger on years after the occurrence. It is for this reason that these
effects have been categorized as immediate effects, short-term effects and long-
term effects to analyse their true implications. Some dangerous impacts of
chemical disasters on the environment are as follows:
1. Exposure to carcinogens: Chemical disasters like spills or leakage expose
living tissues in humans, animals or plants to carcinogens. This exposure
may not show an immediate effect, but it could be a major reason of cancer
affliction among the disaster-affected people in future. Carcinogens
damage living tissues by causing cancer. The exposure to high levels of
carcinogens (for example, asbestos or ionizing radiation) can occur at the
workplace. Occupational exposure may give rise small epidemics of
unusual cancers, for example, an increase in angiosarcoma of the liver in
1974 among American workers who cleaned vinyl chloride polymerization
vessels.
2. Fires: If the escaping chemical is flammable and is not dispersed far and
wide in the atmosphere immediately, it could lead to large fire outbreaks
which would release toxic substances in the atmosphere. The escaping
 chemical would also affect the living beings if they came in its contact,
apart from causing huge damage to infrastructure and equipment.
Fires can either be a trigger to a number of chemical explosions or they
could be the end result of the same. The fire damage could be immediate.
However, the resulting atmospheric pollution could cause illness and
environmental deterioration as a short-term effect. For example, two
research scientists were killed in an accidental fire caused due to reaction
of chemicals in a laboratory at Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) in
Trombay.
3. Toxic penetration: Following a chemical disaster, a number of toxins, e.g.,
arsenic, can penetrate soil or water bodies around industrial units which
can cause immediate, short-term and long-term effects. The immediate
effect could be the death of animals and plants. The short-term effects
would be deterioration of the water quality, making it unfit for use, or the
deterioration of soil leading to a drop in the crop yield. The long-term
effect would be outbreak of diseases or slow growth of children.
4. Radioactive fallout: It occurs when chemical reactions following a
chemical disaster lead to radioactive changes in the environment. These
reactions may lead to explosions and fires and also release carcinogens.
The radioactive fallout costs the environment dearly.
5. Corrosion: It occurs when chemicals cause deterioration of things by
contact. It can damage equipment, mechanisms and human tissues. The
effects are mostly immediate but some shortterm effects may surface
leading to disability. Nitric acid, for instance, in reaction with skin forms a
yellow burn. Sulfuric or sulphuric acid reacts with skin moisture resulting
in severe burns. Hydrofluoric acid acts relatively slow but causes painful
deep burns hours after the exposure.
6. Compensation costs: These need be incurred to compensate people for the
effects of chemical disasters. The need to be provided proper treatment
depending on the damage caused to them. Costs are also incurred to set
right the damage to the infrastructure. Besides, there is also need for the
 restoration of vegetation and crops. For instance, the victims of the Bhopal
Gas Tragedy got monetary compensations.
2.2.3 Biological Disaster A biological disaster is a kind of natural disaster that is
associated with the devastating effects, mostly caused by an enormous spread of a
certain kind of biological agent or bacterium or virus. This disaster is also characterized
by a sudden growth of the population of a certain kind of plant or animal, for example, a
locust plague. A biological disaster may also be defined as the sudden outbreak of an
epidemic or disease which travels from one living being to another. It can affect either
plants or animals and can cause deaths as well as disability on a large scale. Biological
disasters are most dangerous for humans because they take a heavy toll on human
health and development. The death rate in an economy shoots up drastically during a
biological disaster. It can wipe out huge population in a very short time. Sometimes
biological disasters prove to be more damaging economically than other natural
disasters. Therefore, it becomes crucial to monitor any development which could lead to
a biological disaster. Biological disasters are categorized as natural and man-made
depending on the agent that causes them. Natural biological disasters are those
epidemics which are caused by naturally-induced bacteria or viruses. During the
occurrence of natural biological disasters, a large number of people contract a disease
simultaneously, leading to death of many. Man-made biological disasters are those
wherein the health of living organisms deteriorates because of biological agents that
have been induced into the natural consumption cycles of living beings by human
intervention. A number of species show a bottleneck in their DNA constitution which
indicates the presence of a plague, causing the death of a large number of species
members, thus leading to the extinction of the species.
Impact on the environment The loss of human lives due to a biological disaster is a
heavy price for an economy. The rising death toll not only hampers the economic
development but also prevents the recovery from the disaster fallout which requires
active involvement of valuable human resource. The spread of an outbreak animals
leads to deterioration of the livestock in the economy along with plaguing the human
food chain. Humans may fall ill by eating the meat of infected animals. This accelerates
the spread of the disease, making the disease containment increasingly difficult. The
spread of diseases from one species to the other can lead to environmental
deterioration, causing imbalance in the ecosystem. If a species becomes endangered or
extinct during a biological disaster, it is almost impossible for the ecosystem to regain
balance prior to the disaster.
Mitigation measures The biomedical waste, generated in hospitals, contains
potentially harmful toxic and infectious pathogens. Thus, it is essential to expand and
upgrade medical facilities to prevent an outbreak turning into a biological disaster. It is
better to build vast hospital complexes having spaced out blocks for dealing with
patients of different diseases. It would help in preventing the fast spread of a disease
through infected patients. To prevent an outbreak of some suspected pathogen, the
public health authorities should carefully analyse food and water supplies before
allowing them to reach humans. It is essential for the authorities to disseminate all
relevant information about a disease outbreak to enable people behave rationally
without panicking.
2.5.5 Nuclear Hazards Radioactive substances naturally exist and keep undergoing
gradual radioactive decay, wherein unstable isotopes spontaneously give out high energy
radiations and fast moving particles, or both, at a specific rate, until a new stable isotope
is formed. These particles and rays have the ability to penetrate paper and wood but are
blocked by concrete wall, lead slabs or water. Different types of radiations may cause
different levels of damage, depending on where the source of radiation is and how
strong is its penetration power.
Control of nuclear pollution Nuclear pollution can be controlled in the following
ways: Setting up of nuclear power plants must be carried out only after carefully
studying long-term as well as short-term effects. Proper disposal of wastes from
laboratories using radioisotopes should be done.
2.2.4 BUILDING FIRE The combustion of fire always depends upon the burning
materials and its chemical characteristics. Due to the nature of combustion material, the
fire is extinguished by different types of extinguishing media. This depends upon cooling
starvation and smothering effect. Hence, the following are important to comprehend the
nature and principle of fire:
Flash point: The temperature, which under a given set of conditions a solid or liquid,
first gives off sufficient vapour for a flame to be propagated across its surface by a small
pilot flame.
Fire point: The fire point of a liquid is the temperature at which the liquid evolves
vapours in sufficient amount for a continuous generation of flame. The fire point is
usually several degrees above the flash point for a given liquid.
Ignition temperature: It is the temperature at which a substance will begin to burn or
explode or the temperature at which it has been claimed that a substance will ignite
when heated, without naked light or flame applied to it. Some of the examples of the
ignition temperatures are as follows:
Ignition temperature of yellow phosphorous is 33oC; thus, the heat of the hand is
enough to inflame the substance.
Classification of fire Various materials and inflammable substances can
cause fires. They can be solids, liquids and gaseous. In addition, fire is also caused by
intense energy such as electricity. To understand the nature of fire better, it is necessary
to know the classification of fire. Fires are classified in the following main four
categories or classes for the purpose of its extinguishing:
Category A: The fires in ordinary solid combustible material such as wood, paper,
fabrics where most effective method of extinguishing is by cooling with water
Category B: Fire in flammable liquids, such as oil, organic solvents, petroleum, liquids,
paints, varnishes. This type of fire is extinguished by smothering mainly.
Category C: Fires involving gaseous substances such as cooking gas, acetylene, methane,
butane.
Category D: Fires involving combustible metals, such as magnesium, titanium, sodium,
potassium, etc., where the burning metals is reactive to water and which require special
extinguishing agents and techniques
Category E (Electrical fire): As per the latest study, this type of fire does not constitute a
particular class or category. This type of fire can be a fire of category A, B or C. The
normal procedure of extinguishing this kind of fire is by cutting off the electricity and
using an extinguishing method appropriate to the burning material, which are non-
conductors of electricity and non-damaging to the equipment such as vaporizing liquids.
Dry powders and carbon dioxide, water should in no case be used on electric fires.